educational research: qualitative research methods

7/30/2019 Educational Research: Qualitative Research Methods

1/119

Educational Research:Qualitative Research Methods

EDU 8603

Educational Research

Richard M. Jacobs, OSA, Ph.D.


2/119

Qualitative research...

Commonly called interpretive

research

its methods rely heavily on thick

verbal descriptions of a particularsocial context being studied


3/119

Is useful for describing or answeringquestions about particular, localizedoccurrences or contexts and theperspectives of a participant grouptoward events, beliefs, or practices

a helpful process for exploring acomplex research area about whichlittle is known


4/119

Illuminates the invisibility of

everyday life

by making the familiar strange, more

examined, and better understood


5/119

Qualitative methods...

historical research

ethnography

case study

ethology

ethnomethodology

grounded theory

phenomenology

symbolic interaction

action research


6/119

historical research

studies available data to study,understand, and interpret past events


7/119

ethnography

studies cultural patterns andperspectives of participants in theirnatural settings


8/119

case study

examines the characteristics of aparticular entity, phenomenon, orperson


9/119

ethology

compares the origins, characteristics,and culture of different societies


10/119

ethnomethodology

studies how people make sense oftheir everyday activities in order tobehave in socially accepted ways


11/119

grounded theory

investigates how inductively-derivedtheory about phenomenon is groundedin the data of a particular setting


12/119

phenomenology

considers how the experience ofparticular participants exhibits aunique perspective


13/119

symbolic interaction

investigates how people constructmeaning and shared perspectives byinteracting with others


14/119

action research

teacher-initiated, school-basedresearch used to improve thepractitioners practice by doing or

changing something


15/119

Generally speaking, qualitativeresearchers.

spend a great deal of time in the

settings being studied (fieldwork)

rely on themselves as the main

instrument of data collection(subjectivity; intersubjectivity)

analyze data using interpretative lenses


16/119

employ expressive language and voicein descriptions and explanations

seek depth of perspective through

ongoing analysis (i.e., waves of data)

judged in terms of believability,trustworthiness, coherence, and the

logic underlying researchers

interpretations


17/119

The general characteristics of

qualitative research...

Data are descriptive Emphasizes a holistic approach(processes and outcomes)

Data sources are real-world situations

Data analysis is inductive Describes the meaning(s) of researchfinding(s) from the perspective of theresearch participants


18/119

Uses inductive reasoning

involves developing generalizationsfrom a limited number of specificobservations or experiences

highly dependent on the number and

representativeness of the specificobservations used to make thegeneralization


19/119

Issues in qualitative research...

b. contacting potential research

participants

a. gaining entry

c. selecting participants

d. enhancing validity and reducingbias

e. leaving the field


20/119

a. gaining entry...

may require considerable negotiationand compromise with a gatekeeper

access is very much dependent uponthe researchers personal characteristics

and how others perceive the researcher

trust is earned, not given


21/119

b. contacting participants...

dealing with gatekeeper(s)

gaining access

issues of building trust andensuring confidentiality andanonymity


22/119

c. selecting participants...

requires identifying participantswho can provide information aboutthe particular topic and settingbeing studied

the goal is to get the deepestpossible understanding of thesetting being studied


23/119

is fraught with difficulties in

identifying and selecting anappropriate number of participantswho can provide useful informationabout the particular topic and settingbeing studied

utilizes purposive sampling


24/119

types of purposive sampling

maximum variation

homogeneous

critical case

theory-based(dis)confirming case

snowball (chain)


25/119

extreme (deviant) case

typical case

intensity

politically important case

random purposeful


26/119

stratified purposeful

criterion

opportunistic

combination (mixed)

convenience


27/119

two general guidelines: the number of

participants is sufficient when

the extent to which the selectedparticipants represent the range ofpotential participants in the setting

the point at which the datagathered begins to be redundant(data saturation)


28/119

The threats to validity in qualitative

studies...

observer bias

observer effects

invalid information resulting from the

perspective the researcher brings tothe study and imposes upon it

the impact of the observersparticipation on the setting or theparticipants being studied


29/119

extend the time for observing thesetting

include more participants to makethe study more representative

focus upon building participant trustin order to access more detailed andhonest data

d. strategies to enhance validity and

to reduce bias...


30/119

identify biases and preferences,seek them out by asking others

work with another researcher andcompare field notes and impressionsfrom independent observations

after observations are completed,offer participants an opportunity tovalidate accuracy of the verbatims


31/119

journalize ones own reflections,

concerns, and uncertainties during

the study and refer to them whenexamining the data

carefully examine unusual or

contradictory results forexplanations (outliers)


32/119

utilize a variety of data sources toconfirm one another to corroborate

participant information(triangulation)


33/119

e. leaving the field

The question is when and how toexit

the bonds formed with studyparticipants complicate leavingthe setting

time constraintswhen the amount of accessible

data is sufficient


34/119

The basic steps of qualitative

research...

2. Intensive participation in a fieldsetting

3. Collect detailed data from fieldactivities

1.Write a tentative research proposal

4.Synthesize and interpret the meaningsof the field data

5.Write the research report


35/119

1. The qualitative research proposal...

identifies setting or context of study

specifies the kinds of data to becollected

defines area of study

describes methods to be used

provides the researchers rationalefor undertaking the study

identifies the studys potential

contribution(s)


36/119

2. Intensive participation in a field

setting...

approach to participation: overt orcovert

participation: as a participant

(participant observer) or

nonparticipant

requires experiencing the situationfrom the perspective of both anobserver and a participant


37/119

3. Collecting and analyzing data...

multiple data sources are normative

primary tools include observations

and interviews but can also includepersonal and official documents,photographs, recordings, drawings,emails, and informal conversations


38/119

the researcher records descriptive

as well as reflective notes aboutwhat one has seen, heard,experienced, and thought about aduring an observation session


39/119

regarding field notes

put aside assumptions,experience context first

see phenomena through

participants perspectivewrite up notes immediately

following an observation


40/119

detail is critical: include date,

site, time, and topic on every setof field notes; leave wide marginsfor writing impressions; use onlyone side of a page of paper; draw

diagram of site (if necessary)

list key words first, then outline

ones observations


41/119

keep the descriptive and reflective

sections separateuse memos to record hunches,

questions, and insights after each

observationnumber the lines or paragraphs

for easy access


42/119

regarding interviews

the purpose is to explore and to

probe the interviewees responsesin order to gather in-depth data

the interviewer inquires into the

interviewees attitudes, interests,feelings, concerns, and values asthese relate to the context being

studied


43/119

meaning is jointly constructed

between the interviewer and the

interviewee; meaning is not just aconstruction on the part of theinterviewee


44/119

be alert for openings in responses

to probe more deeply, starting

with mundane questions andgradually easing into moresensitive and more complex

questions


45/119

interview data collection

techniques include taking notes

during the interview, writing notesafter the interview, or taperecording and transcribing the

interview (the transcript is averbatim)


46/119

Interview dos and donts...

Do follow up on what is not clear andprobe more deeply into what isrevealed

Do listen more and talk less

Dont use leading questions; do use

open-ended questions (probes) Dont interrupt; do wait


47/119

Do ask for concrete details

Do keep interviewee(s) focused

Do tolerate silence and space betweeninterviewees responses; do allow the

interviewee time to think

Dont be judgmental about or react to

an interviewees opinions, views, or

beliefs


48/119

Dont engage in debate with an

interviewee

Do record everything the intervieweesays and note impressions ofinterviewees nonverbal behavior

4 S th i d i t t ti f th


49/119

4. Synthesis and interpretation of the

meanings of field data...

a formidable task because data arethick and deep as well as voluminous

and unorganized (field notes) involves a systematic and iterative

process of searching, categorizing,

and integrating data (managingdata) understanding emerges as data are

integrated


50/119

Analyzing field data

data pieces

data categories

data patterns

f i i f d


51/119

four-step iterative process of data

management...

a. reading and memoing to becomefamiliar with data and to identify

main themes

b. examining data to develop detaileddescriptions of the setting,

participants, and activities


52/119

c. classifying the data, includingcategorization, coding, andgrouping into thematic units

d. interpreting and synthesizing theorganized data into general

conclusions or understandings


53/119

Involves working with field notes

deconstructing data into pieces

reconstructing the data piecesinto categories

identifying patterns for

understanding, synthesis, andinterpretation

C i i i bl f li i d


54/119

Criteria suitable for qualitative data

analysis...

a. credibility or plausibility

b. transferability

c. including a methods section


55/119

credibility or plausibility

to demonstrate that the study wasconducted in such a manner as toensure that the subject wasaccurately identified and described


56/119

transferability

to demonstrate that the results ofthe study are generalizable toothers in the original researchcontext or to contexts beyond the

original study


57/119

including a methods section

to provide an in-depth descriptionof the processes and methodsused in the study

St t i f l i lit ti


58/119

Strategies for analyzing qualitative

data...

a. constant comparison method

b. negative case and discrepant datamethods

c. analytic induction


59/119

constant comparison method

compares new evidence to priorevidence to identify similaritiesand differences betweenobservations


60/119

negative case and discrepant datamethods

the search for contradictory,

variant, or disconfirming datawithin the body of data collectedthat provides an alternativeperspective on an emergingcategory or pattern


61/119

analytic induction

a process concerned withdeveloping and testing a theory inorder to generalize a studys

findings


62/119

5. Writing the research report...

provide a setting where the datawere collected

identify characters who provideinformation

describe the social action in which

the characters are engaged offers an interpretation of what

the social action means to thecharacters


63/119

offers an interpretation of what the

social action means to the characters follow all APA Publication Manual

guidelines


64/119

Mini-Quiz

True and false

Qualitative research methods arerooted in the disciplines ofsociology, anthropology, and historyrather than in mathematics.

True


65/119

True and false

The central focus of qualitativeresearch is to provide understandingof a social setting or activity fromthe perspective of the researchparticipants

True


66/119

True and false

Empathic neutrality requires aresearcher to include ones personalexperience and empathic insight aspart of the relevant data

True


67/119

True and false

An interviewer constructs themeaning of the content of aninterview

False


68/119

True and false

One of the first issues in qualitativeresearch is to gain entry to a site

True


69/119

True and false

One indicator that an adequatenumber of participants has beenselected is the extent to which theselected participants represent the

range of potential participants in thesetting

True


70/119

True and false

Purposive sampling strategies areespecially useful in qualitativeresearch

True


71/119

True and false

A qualitative researcher should bewary of potential participants whoare extremely eager to be included inthe study

True


72/119

True and false

A covert participant observerparticipates as well as collects dataduring an observation session

True


73/119

True and false

Each observation session has itsunique focus and interactions but isguided by a protocol or list of issuesthat frame the observation

True


74/119

True and false

In qualitative research, data analysisbegins as the researcher initiatesdata management

False


75/119

True and false

An interviewer will almost alwaysmeet face-to-face with an intervieweewhile some observers will not.

True


76/119

True and false

Transcripts are the field notes of aninterview session

True


77/119

True and false

Data analysis and interpretation arebased on induction as the qualitativeresearcher discovers patternsemerging from the data and makes

sense of themTrue


78/119

True and false

There are no predefined variables tofocus qualitative analysis of the data

True


79/119

True and false

Credibility or plausibilitydemonstrates that the study wasconducted in such a manner that thesubject was accurately identified and

describedTrue


80/119

True and false

The process of analyzing qualitativeresearch data follows a sequentialfour-step process

False


81/119

True and false

The ability of the researcher toinduce or construct meaning fromthe data greatly influences theduration and quality of the data

analysisTrue


82/119

True and false

Implicitly or explicitly, a researcherinterprets data whenever theresearcher uses a conceptual basisor understanding to cluster a variety

of data pieces into a category

True


83/119

Fill in the blank

Studying real-world situations as theyunfold naturally; nonmanipulative,unobtrusive, and noncontrolling; opento whatever emerges due to a lack of

predetermined constraints onoutcomes

naturalistic inquiry


84/119

Fill in the blank

Immersion in the details and specificsof the data to discover importantcategories, dimensions, andinterrelationships; begins by exploring

genuinely open questions rather thantesting theoretically derivedhypotheses

inductive analysis


85/119

Fill in the blank

The entire phenomenon is understoodas a complex system more than thesum of its parts; the focus is uponcomplex interdependencies not

meaningfully reduced to a few discretevariables and linear, cause-effectrelationships

holistic perspective


86/119

Fill in the blank

A detailed, thick description; inquiryin depth; direct quotations capturingpeoples personal perspectives andexperiences

qualitative data


87/119

Fill in the blank

Attention to process; assumeschange is constant and ongoingwhether the focus is upon anindividual or an entire culture

dynamic systems


88/119

Fill in the blank

The first level of qualitative inquiryrequires the researcher to be trueto, respectful of, and to capture theessential details of the individual

context being studied

unique case orientation


89/119

Fill in the blank

To place findings in a social, historical,and temporal context; dubious aboutthe possibility or meaningfulness ofgeneralizations across time and space

context sensitivity


90/119

Fill in the blank

The researchers passion isunderstanding the world in all itscomplexity, not proving something,not advocating, not advancing

personal agendas, but understandingempathic neutrality


91/119

Fill in the blank

The researcher resides in the studycontext but disguises his or heridentity from the other participants

covert participation


92/119

Fill in the blank

The researchers openness toadapting ones research asunderstanding deepens and/orsituations change; the willingness to

pursue new paths of discovery asthey emerge

design flexibility


93/119

Fill in the blank

The point at which the researcherbegins to hear similar thoughts,perspectives, and responses frommore or all of the participants

data saturation


94/119

Fill in the blank

Providing information to a participantabout the nature and purpose of thestudy

informed consent


95/119

Fill in the blank

The process of qualitative datacollection

fieldwork


96/119

Fill in the blank

The observers record about whathas been seen, heard, experienced,and thought about during anobservation session

field notes


97/119

Fill in the blank

Evolving data analysis involves aform of thinking on paper throughwhich the researcher describes onesmental explorations of ideas, themes,

hunches, and reflections about theresearch topic

memo writing


98/119

Fill in the blankAn extensive, descriptive, and lucid

report of the researchersobservations, partially influenced bywhat the researcher sees but mainlyby the detail and language theresearcher uses in constructing thereport

thick description


99/119

Fill in the blank

An purposeful interaction, usuallybetween two people, focused uponone person attempting to accessinformation from another person

interview


100/119

Fill in the blank

The word-for-word transcript of aninterview session

verbatim


101/119

Fill in the blank

Unusual or contradictory resultsfrom an observation or interview

outlier


102/119

Fill in the blank

The point at which the data gatheredbecomes redundant

data saturation


103/119

Fill in the blank

Creating and organizing qualitativedata collected during the study

data management


104/119

Fill in the blank

The process of recording theresearchers initial thoughts andearly impressions of the data

memoing


105/119

Fill in the blank

The process where the qualitativeresearcher provides an accuratedepiction of the settings and eventsthat took place in it which yields an

understanding of the context inwhich the study took place

description


106/119

Fill in the blank

The process of breaking down thedata into smaller units, determiningthe import of the units, andorganizing the units together again

in an interpreted formclassifying


107/119

Fill in the blankA qualitative method for classifying

data where the researcher beginswith a preliminary hypothesis andcontinuously refines it until thereare no examples of the revisedhypothesis not being upheld

analytic induction


108/119

Fill in the blankA form of cross-validation that

seeks regularities in the data bycomparing different participants,settings, and methods to identifyrecurring results

triangulation


109/119

Analogies

content : methodas

characteristics of a single person or

phenomenon : _______________

case study


110/119

Analogies

content : methodas

a groups cultural patterns and

perspectives : _______________

ethnography


111/119

Analogies

content : method

as

the link between a groups everydayactivities and its social structure :

_______________

ethnomethodology


112/119

Analogies

content : method

as

the link between participantsperspectives and social science

theory : _______________

grounded theory


113/119

Analogies

content : method

as

the meanings and perspectivesgained by interactions :

_______________

symbolic interactionism


114/119

Analogies

content : method

as

How participants experience a varietyof things : _______________

phenomenology


115/119

Analogies

content : method

as

A change in student learning :_______________

action research


116/119

Analogies

quantitative : qualitative

as

population : _______________

setting


117/119

Analogies

quantitative : qualitative

as

generalizability : _______________

transferability

Thi d l h f d


118/119

This module has focused on...

which describe or answer questions

about particular, localizedoccurrences or contexts and the

perspectives of a participant grouptoward events, beliefs, or practices

qualitative research methods

Th t d l ill f


119/119

The next module will focus on...

...teacher-initiated, school-basedresearch used to improve thepractitioners practice by doing or

changing something

action research

educational research: qualitative research methods

Documents