Education andTechnology Series

_ Volume 1 FII Number 1 n 1996

Research onEducation and Technology (1980 - 1996)Abstracts of Publications by the World Bank

byMichael Potashnik

Maria GonzalesWilliam Mayville

A publication of the World Bank Human Development DepartmentEducation Group - Education and Technology Team

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Research on Education and Technology(1980 - 1996)

Abstracts of Publications by the World Bank

This document provides abstracts of all major publications by school equivalency and teacher education programs in Brazil,the World Bank on the role of informatics and telecommunications Mauritius, Malawi, Kenya, Korea, and Israel. The results of thesetechnology in education and human development.' These publica- studies generally confirm that distance teaching for out of schooltions were produced during the period 1980 to 1996 by World Bank students and adults offered considerable savings over more ortho-staff and consultants. As these abstracts illustrate, the World Bank dox alternatives. However, the savings were only achievable in thosehas made important contributions to our knowledge and understand- programs that could maintain high enrollments and low teachering of informatics and telecommunications technology in educa- fixed costs. The studies also show that the most successful projectstion in developing countries. This has taken the form of both em- are those using a simple media such as correspondence and radio.pirical research in case studies of country experience using tech- The studies also suggest that distance education can solve prob-nology and the development of methodological approaches to is- lems of quantity and quality in education and serve as a valuablesues such as the cost analysis of implementing technologies. Bank tool in an educational crisis.research has assisted education officials and researchers in devel- Murphy and Zhiri (1992) edited a collection of seminar pa-oping new perspectives on the issues and options for using tech- pers on the relative effectiveness and costs of distance education innology to overcome the major challenges facing educational infra- secondary-education and teacher training in Africa. Some princi-structure and modernization in client countries. pal conclusions of the seminar were that study-center systems in

These abstracts were prepared by the staff of a newly estab- most countries were generally more successful that independentlished Education and Technology Team in the Human Develop- study programs for secondary-education, that distance educationment Department's Education Group. The role of the new Ed Tech for preparing teachers proved very effective and costs less thanteam is to provide leadership within and outside the World Bank conventional programs, and that despite some positive experienceson educaticin and technology issues in developing countries. To of using distance education in Africa to solve a variety of educa-this end, the Ed Tech team has established a research agenda for tional problems, policymakers, education practitioners, and par-FY97 to generate new knowledge and understanding about how ents have viewed distance education as a second-rate, second bestinformatics and telecommunications technologies can help address alternative. The seminar produced a series of practical recommen-the key issues of quality, access, and effective management in edu- dations to support and extend quality distance education in Sub-cation. The Ed Tech team is also establishing an Education and Saharan Africa.Technology Learning Network within the Bank and externally with In Education Technology: Sustainable andEffective Use, (1991)key institutions around the world to exchange knowledge and in- Marlaine Lockheed, John Middleton, and Greta S. Nettleton broughtformnation about education and technology issues in client coun- together a series of excellent articles that synthesize 20 years oftries. experience in the use of technology in different educational set-

tings encompassing general to higher education. Most of the ar-Abstracts of Publications ticles focus on experience in the use of technologies for distance

education, especially radio, although attention is given to the lim-The abstracts cover four main types of research: a) case studies ited applications of computers and other technologies in the class-

of distance education projects in Africa, Asia and Latin America, room. A main finding is that despite evidence of effectiveness and(b) information technology and economic development, (c) analy- successful applications, educational technologies are not widelyses of technology and its role in higher education, and (d) studies adopted by developing countries due to a lack of understanding asof computers and computer networks in schools. to the "right" conditions for their sustained and effective use. The

Case Studies of Distance Education Projects. Hilary Perraton, compendium offers practical advice on the right set of conditionsDavid Hawkridge, Dean Jamison, Francois Orivel, Paud Murphy for cost-effective and sustained use of various technologies.and other authors in the 1980s and early 1990s produced importantcase studies on distance education in developing countries. In Al- I These abstracts are also being made available to public officials and researchersternative Routes to Formal Education (1982), Perraton and other on-line through out the world on the Internet via the World Bank's Human Devel-distance teaching specialists examine the costs and effectiveness of opment Department's Home Page: http://hco/html/hcovp/edu/contents.html.

2 Education and Technology Series, Vol. 1, No. 1

Information Technology and Economic Development. used properly in a institutional environment favorable to innovate,Naggy K. Hanna has played a lead role in the analysis of informa- have the potential to close the current gap learning and researchtion technology in economic development. In four World Bank gap between universities in developed compared to developingDiscussion Papers, published in the 1990s, Hanna provides a com- countries.prehensive examination of information technology and develop- Computers and Computer Networks in Schools. The role ofment from different perspectives. None of these publications is computers in primary and secondary schools in developing coun-particularly concerned with education or human development how- tries has been the focus of two articles by Michael Potashnik. Inever, Hanna's examination of the broader topic of information and Computers in School, Chile's Educational Network, Potashnik pre-economic development provides a context within which to under- sents a case study on an innovative pilot computer network projectstand the important the role of technology in education and human in Chile, funded under two World Bank education loans. The project,development. In his first publication The Information Technology known as "Enlaces" had successfully linked some 180 primary andRevolution and Economic Development, (1991) Hanna wrote about secondary schools in a model pilot project that offers useful les-the transformations in the industrialized economies resulting from sons for the effectiveness and sustainability of technology projects.the information technology revolution and the challenges posed The challenges of expanding the project on national basis are alsofor the developing countries in overcoming the "information gap". discussed. The paper includes a cost analysis of the project pre-He also argued for new policies and strategies to alleviate "infor- pared following a methodological approach used by Potashnik andmation poverty" in many areas, including education. In education, Adkins in Cost Analysis of Information Technology Projects inhe called for reorienting the prevailing pedagogy to encourage and Education: Experiences from Developing Countries (1995). Theteach students to manage information as part of the learning pro- aim ofthe latter study is to assist education policy makers and plan-cess. In a second publication Information Technology in WorldBank ners in analyzing the costs of programs to introduce and maintainLending: Increasing the Development Impact (1993), Hanna called information technologies in schools. The paper draws on actualattention to the dramatic growth in lending for informatics devel- project data from several Latin American countries to illustrate theopment in World Bank projects and proposed measures for enhanc- methodology. Strategies for reducing costs and increasing projectsing institution-wide management and learning to improve the Bank's benefits are provided in the conclusion of the paper.performance the benefits derived by client countries. In a 1994 pub-lication Exploiting Information Technologyfor Development, Hanna Towards a New Knowledge Agendaset out to develop a national strategy for information technologydevelopment and diffusion, using India as a case study. In The Dif- An increasing number of countries are seeking advice and fi-fusion ofInformation Technology, (1995), Hanna turned his atten- nancing from the Bank for informatics and telecommunicationstion to analyzing the policies and strategies for information tech- components of education projects. This trend can be expected tonology diffusion in the major industrialized countries and recom- increase rapidly over the next five to ten years. Recent Bank policymended lessons for the developing countries. statements have acknowledged the importance of educational tech-

Education Technology in Higher Education. The role of in- nology and encouraged countries to experiment with cost-effectiveteractive technology in higher education has been the focus of re- solutions. The World Bank will need to enhance its capacity tocent studies by B Boh, Michael Crawford, Tom Eisemon, and provide sound and up-to-date advice to countries on the introduc-Lauritz Holm-Nielsen. B Boh in two publications Interactive Edu- tion and deployment of informatics and telecommunications incational Technology In Higher Education (1994) and Scientific In- education. To this end, HDD's Education and Technology Team isformation and Literature: Production, Acquisition, Availability, launching a new agenda for research and dissemination on the fol-Access to and Use of Scientific and Technological Information for lowing topics: service delivery models for computer applicationsResearch in Industrialized and Developing Countries, examines a in schools; system approaches to project design; evaluation of learn-wide range of information and telecommunications technologies ing outcomes from computer-assisted instruction and interactiveand their use in higher education teaching, research, and database distance learning; building effective institutional support mecha-management. In his 1994 study, Boh summarizes research show- nisms for planning and management of technology programs; edu-ing improved effectiveness, higher quality, increased enrollments, cational software solutions drawing on developments in cognitiveand cost-effectiveness of technologies when used appropriately. psychology; cost analyses of technologies used in education andHowever, he also calls attention to obstacles in implementing in- training; searching for lower cost-effective technologies for use interactive technologies when there are inadequate technical, admin- schools; building effective teaching and learning networks amongistrative, financial, and political environments. Boh suggests ways teachers and students; and use of educational technologies for train-to surmount these obstacles and a positive vision for the future of ing out-of-school youth and adult learners.universities in developing countries. Crawford, Eisemon and Holm-Nielsen in Interactive Technology and Electronic Networks in Michael Potashnik,Higher Education and Research: Issues and Innovations (1995), Head, Education and Technology Teamlike Boh, argue that multi-media and network technologies when Human Development Department - Education Group

Research on Education and Technology (1980-1996) 3

ABSTRACTS

PUBLICATIONS ON EDUCATION AND TECHNOLOGYBY THE WORLD BANK

1. Lockheed M., Middleton J., Nettleton G. (eds), (1991). Edu- cess has been in the improvement of textbook distribution. Incational Technology: Sustainable and Effective Use. PHREE distance education, the use oftechnology is essential, and tech-Background Series, Doc. No. PHREE/91/32. Washington DC: nologies used successfully have been diverse, ranging fromThe 'orld Bank, Education and Employment Division, Popu- books to television. Use of technology in vocational traininglation and Human Resources Department. 354 pages. only recently has been attempted in developing countries, so it

is still too early to predict educational outcomes.This compendium synthesizes more than 20 years of experi-mentation and use of educational technology into an analyti- Finally, the authors believe that the right conditions for cost-cal framework for assessing its cost-effectiveness and effective and sustainable use of educational technologies aresustainability. It examines key ingredients that allow a new straightforward: there must be a fit between the objective soughttechnology to catch on and cause teachers, students, and ad- and the pedagogical capacity and cost-effectiveness of the tech-ministrators to adopt the innovation as useful - or even indis- nology chosen. Barriers to implementation must be identified,pensable - in everyday school activities. It also reviews what and the effective strategy for implementing change must behas been learned from accumulated experience with educa- developed. The challenge for planners is to synchronize all thetional technology by surveying major areas where technology appropriate conditions and inputs.is used, including: Educational Technology: Towards Appro-priate and Sustainable Use, by M. Lockheed and J. Middleton. 2. Boh, B. (1994). Interactive Educational Technology inEducational Technology andthe Improvement of General Edu- Higher Education. ESP Discussion Paper Series, Doc. No.cation in Developing Countries, by S. Anzalone. Uses and Costs 46. Washington DC: The World Bank, Education and Socialof Educational Technology for Distance Education in Devel- Policy Department, Human Resources Development and Op-oping Countries: A Review of the Recent Literature, by G. erations Policy. 76 pages.Nettleton. Uses and Costs of Educational Technology for Vo-cational Training: Current Research in Canada and the United This paper discusses the status of interactive technologies inStates with Implications for Developing Countries, by higher education programs and provides recommendations forA.Stahmer, A. Mehler, I. Bryan and M. Richmond. their use in both on-campus and distance learning courses. Two

main types of educational technologies are reviewed: (i) com-A conceptual framework then is developed for understanding puter-mediated instructional technologies that are individual,how theoretical approaches to educational technology have free-standing units, of which multimedia technology is the fast-been applied as reflected in the following case studies: Pilot est growing; and (ii) technologies based on telecommunica-Projects on Educational Technology: The Philippines Case, tion networks. These provide asynchronous communicationby J. 'Middleton. Computer Applications in Vocational Train- (e.g., electronic mail, computer bulletin boards) or synchro-ing in Norway, by A. Taupe. A Comparison of Open Universi- nous, real-time instruction (audioconferencing, audiographics,ties in Thailand and Indonesia, by D. Wilson. And interactive one-way television with audio-return, and interac-Sustainability in Four Interactive Radio Projects: Bolivia, tive two-way and multipoint television). Possible uses of theseHonduras, Lesotho, Papua-New Guinea, by T. Tilson. technologies are illustrated and include those which improve

the effectiveness of education, increase efficiency throughApplications generally have focused on schools at the primary lower-cost alternatives to conventional instruction, extend ac-level. These applications are less demand- than policy-driven cess to geographically, economically, or socially isolated learn-by government planners. Distance education has grown rap- ers, as well as technologies that produce graduates with height-idly but tends to serve only those students who matriculate at ened capacity to adapt to technological change and innova-the secondary level. tion.

With regard to sustainability, education policy-makers still Potential problems and obstacles to implementation are alsoquestion whether technology can make a large-scale contribu- identified, including those that stem from inadequate techno-tion to imnproving educational effectiveness. The greatest suc- logical, educational, economic, administrative, and cultural

4 Education and Technology Series, Vol. 1, No. I

environments. Finally, suggestions and recommendations are individuals/institutions, (viii) provide pre-service training andgiven for successful implementation and long-term continuous in-service education in S&T, (ix) assure transfer ofsustainability of interactive technological systems at universi- "know-how," and (x) remove rigid bureaucratic proceduresties and colleges in industrial and developing countries. Among that keep S&T applications from taking place.them: (i) to improve the technological environment, technicalsupport and expertise should be available, maintenance and 4. Crawford, M., Eisemon T., Holm-Nielsen, L. (1995). Interac-upgrading provided and hardware and software user-friendly; tive Technology and Electronic Networks in Higher Edu-(ii) to improve the educational environment, planning and cation and Research: Issues and Innovations. HCO Work-implementation of technology should begin with a clear edu- ing Papers. Doc. No.HCOWP 62. Washington DC: Worldcational goal, cooperation among all parties involved, and fac- Bank, Human Capital Development and Operations Policy. 20ulty and staff trained in the early stages of the technology- pages.based innovations, with selection of technology depending onthe discipline to be taught, the degree of interactivity required, Interactive technology facilitates ways of processing and shar-and the learner audience characteristics; (iii) to improve the ing information. The expanded potential of the new machineseconomic environment, stable financing is needed with a care- allows them to gather and present information in several me-ful attention given to cost-effectiveness. dia at speeds that keep pace with normal learning attention

spans. They have the potential to increase educational effec-3. Boh, B. (1994). Scientific Information and Literature: Pro- tiveness and efficiency by offering students on-demand access

duction, Acquisition, Availability, Access to and Use of Sci- to numerous services and overcoming geographic and otherentific and Technological Information for Research in In- barriers to using educational resources.dustrialized and Developing Countries. ESP Discussion Pa-per Series, Doc. No. 43. Washington DC: The World Bank, Interactive educational applications are considered a logicalEducation and Social Policy Department, Human Resources outgrowth of advances in three key areas: (i) processing andDevelopment and Operations Policy. 56 pages. storage capacity; (ii) the ability to maintain and transmit with

clarity the data signals among the components of individualThe paper discusses the proliferation of scientific and techno- machines and network nodes; and (iii) the compatibility oflogical publications and computerized data bases, and result- systems from different manufacturers. These conditions areing challenges and opportunities for individual scientists, re- increasingly commonplace in advanced industrial countries thatsearchers, scientific communities, and nations. Trends in the have sophisticated technological infrastructures and qualifiedliterature are reviewed from sources such as scientific jour- technicians. Universities and researchers were the first to in-nals, books and patents, and computer-supported data bases corporate interactive technology and electronic networks intoaccessible either on-line, via CD-ROM, or by personal com- their workplace by devising ways for computers to assist learn-puters. ing, classroom management, and information sharing. Success-

ful use in education is characterized by significant attention toStrategies are proposed for the acquisition of scientific and curriculum design early in the innovation process.technological information, with methodologies delineated forits transfer into research and education. Innovators usually possess a high degree of expertise in their

respective fields and are motivated by a desire for increasedThe information and communication differences between in- prestige. Institutional structures that reward time spent in tech-dustrial and developing countries are identified, and the main nological pursuits with peer recognition or professional ad-obstacles hindering the exchange, transfer, and use of scien- vancement aid the development of interactive applications.tific and technological (S&T ) information discussed. In light Successful projects provide ample assistance to end-users inof problems identified, recommendations are given for prior- traditional or easy-to-use formats, such as telephone "help-ity actions and programs to develop/improve the acquisition lines" or help-desks manned by technicians. Success dependsand use of scientific literature, data bases, and information ser- on the familiarity and comfort of students and administratorsvices, as well as to promote the transfer of this knowledge into with the technology employed.research, education, and development. The following actionsare prescribed: (i) define information needs, (ii) establish reli- The use of sophisticated technology is thus conditioned byable technical environments, (iii) assure stable funding, (iv) considerations unrelated to the potential of the hardware andimprove the coordination of activities among local/ national/ software. These considerations often mean that the most basicbilateral/ multilateral institutions, (v) include local scientists services of high-performance computers receive the greatestand information specialists, (vi) provide training and related use, especially in the initial phases.assistance, (vii) organize S&T information networks among

Research on Education and Technology (1980-1996) 5

Strategies for successful deployment should considerpedagogy 53. Washington DC. World Bank, Human Resources Devel-and the various factors that influence use when considering opment and Operations Policy. 17 pages.the technical capabilities of interactive modes using comput-ers. Knowledge and information are increasingly becomingthe key

factors of production and exchange, and this has major impli-5. Courrier, K. (ed.) (1981). The Educational Use of Mass Me- cations for developing countries and for such international

dia. Staff Working Paper, Doc. No. 491. Washington DC : development institutions as the World Bank. TechnologicalWorld Bank. Education Department, Central Projects Staff. 125 innovations are so numerous and radical that they are deeplypages. affecting competition, social organizations, institutions, mate-

rials and even life itself. Driving this rapid change are dra-This volume is composed of an introduction and seven chap- matic improvements in information and telecommunicationters, all of which pertain to the educational use of mass media technology, aided by advances in the tools of scientific inquiryin Less-Developed Countries (LDCs). Each chapter focuses and in the codification of knowledge. The most immediate con-on one of the salient issues that LDC educators and decision- sequence of these developments is to increase the speed of pro-makers inevitably encounter when they think about using mass duction and product development. This in turn is leading to amedia to further a country's education and development. Is- revolution in business practices. Time and speed are now moresues include: (i) the potential use of audiovisual media; (ii) the central to competitive success, providing an advantage to pro-choice between network and local broadcasting or some com- ducers with the best links to the markets and the greatest flex-bination; (iii) the use of educational media for curricular im- ibility. In addition, the continuing rapid decline in the costs ofproveiment; (iv) the impact of radio on education and develop- transporting information and goods due to advances in tele-ment; (v) the choice of language(s) for instruction and radio's communications and the use of information technology haverole in language teaching; (vi) the possible expansion of edu- led to the growing irrelevance of the boundaries of geographycational TV in the 1980s; and (vii) the appropriateness of each and even of time, unifying national economies in a fast-mov-media. for use in LDCs. The original contributions were re- ing highly interdependent world economy. This paper explorevised and abridged. whether the quickly changing, highly technical global economy

presents a threat or an opportunity to developing countries. ItThe chapters are: Jenkins, J. Do Audiovisual Media possess discusses how developing countries acquire technology andUnique Teaching Capabilities? Futagami, S.; Feliciano, G.; how they can make effective use of technological innovations.Hancock, A. Nationwide Networking or Local Broadcasting. It concludes with an overview of what role the World BankSakarnoto, T. Ccn Mass Media be Effective in Curriculum has in supporting its clients in their attempts to create and nur-Improvement? Perraton, H. How can Radio be Usefully ap- ture a climate conducive to acquiring and developing technol-plied to Education and Development? Lambert, W., Sidoti, N. ogy.Choosing Instructional Languages for Educational RadioBroadcasts in Less-Developed Countries. Horley,A. What does 7. Hanna, N. (1991). The Information Technology RevolutionEducational Television Offer us Now?. Tifflin, J. Selecting Ap- and Economic Development. World Bank Discussion Papers,propriate Media. The original contributions were revised and Doc. No. 120. Washington DC: World Bank, Information,abridged. Technology and Facilities Department. 57 pages.

Conclusions are that: (i) local broadcasting can contribute Information is a major development resource, along with hu-greatly to a country's sense of nationhood, and broadcasting man, natural, and financial resources. Therefore, developmentfacilities may well be within the economic reach of most LDCs; agencies must understand the role of information and infor-(ii) audiovisual media enable countries with a teacher shortage mation technologies (informatics) in developing countries toto reach greater numbers of students, train teachers, introduce respond to a rapidly-evolving global environment. The ongo-new curricula immediately, and bring high-quality education ing information explosion in industrialized economies contraststo marginal communities that often are the last to benefit from sharply with the information "poverty" of developing coun-the expansion of conventional education; (iii) a project is more tries. This poverty takes many forms, including poor informa-likely to succeed when the planning initiative is local, a sur- tion support for macroeconomic and sectorial policy formula-plus of qualified applicants exists, and distance learning insti- tion and implementation, limited access to information for ru-tutions are autonomous and linked to national and international ral populations, and isolation of researchers and professionalsnetworks. from international research findings.

6. Dahlnan, C. (1995). Technology, Development and the Role Informatics applications offer new ways to capitalize on theof the World Bank. World Bank Working Papers, Doc. No. managerial and institutional resources of developing countries,

6 Education and Technology Series, Vol. 1, No. I

with the most widespread benefits likely to accrue from apply- the information and communication needs of India's economying them in priority sectors. Governments increasingly recog- and the constraints to a dynamic domestic market for informa-nize their role as information providers and users, facilitators tion and software services. The competitiveness of the country'sof information technology diffusion, and providers of infor- hardware and software industries is assessed. Translating themation and communication infrastructures, as well as their role potential of informational technology into effective demandin setting informatics policies. During the 1990s the impact of and successful application requires concerted action by bothinformation technology is felt increasingly. The author sug- public and private sectors to develop policies, institutions, in-gests that countries at all levels of development must keep pace vestments, and capacities. The study outlines the rationale forwith the information revolution and cannot afford to fall be- a coherent, long-term strategy for information technology tai-hind. lored to enhance India's competitiveness and exports. The main

elements are: (i) measures to mobilize demand in the private8. Hanna, N., Boyson, S. (1993). Information Technology in sector and target strategic applications for public sector mod-

World Bank Lending: Increasing the Developmental Im- ernization; (ii) programs to strengthen software industry capa-pact World Bank Discussion Papers, Doc. No. 206. Washing- bilities and export networks; and (iii) policy and infrastructuralton DC: World Bank, Information, Technology and Facilities measures to strengthen both supply and demand and lay theDepartment. 104 pages. foundation for sustained development.

The Bank has emerged as a major institutional investor in in- Various options are proposed in support of each element of theformation technology applications in developing countries, as strategy. The respective roles of government and the privateinformation technology transforms industries, services, and sector are explored. The argument is put forward that nationaljobs. Currently, almost 90 percent of Bank lending operations information technology strategies could provide a coherentcontain information systems components. This study exam- framework to exploit synergies and develop collaborative ac-ines the increasing trend in Bank lending for information tech- tions, and that governments can play key roles as catalysts,nology applications. It was prepared in response to a need to regulators, investors, users, and strategists.evaluate formally the effectiveness of technology lending andmeasure its impact. The study uses qualitative and quantitative 10. Hanna, N., Guy, K., Arnold, E. (1995). The Diffusion of In-data, and should be viewed as exploratory research or as a formation Technology. Bank Discussion Papers, Doc. No.progress report since the field is developing continuously. 281. Washington DC: World Bank. Information, Technology

and Facilities Department. 207 pages.The study found dramatic returns on investment in inforrna-tion technology applications, most notably in large automa- This study reports on the experience of Canada, Germany, Ire-tion projects. However, the Bank has not been proactive in this land, the Netherlands, Sweden, the United Kingdom, the Unitedarea. As a result, information systems components are spread States, and Japan in designing, implementing, and adaptingover many projects; are often improvised, narrowly drawn, and information technology diffusion programs over the last de-isolated from one another; and few staff know of the Bank's cade. The study examines the determinants of effective infor-involvement in information technology applications. The study mation technology diffusion and analyzes the national infor-recommends solutions to both the reactive nature of the Bank's mation technology policy portfolios to draw lessons and trends.lending policy and methods of measuring the impact of infor- In particular, industrial countries have shifted their emphasismation technology. since the late 1980s towards diffusion and aiding small and

medium scale enterprises to adopt already-available informa-9. Hanna, N. (1994). Exploiting Information Technology for tion guidelines for designing information technology diffusion

Development. Bank Discussion Papers, Doc. No. 246. Wash- programs for maximum impact.ington DC: World Bank, Information, Technology and Facili-ties Department. 121 pages. Programs should consider technology life-cycles, the business

needs of potential users, technological sophistication, and cur-This paper proposes a framework for developing a national rent exposure to international best practices. The study con-strategy for information technology development and diffu- cludes by suggesting roles for governments, the private sector,sion in support of economy-wide competitiveness. Focus is on and aid agencies to accelerate the benefits of information tech-India, a developing economy with substantial promise to be- nology diffusion for development.come a global player in software services. It is also a countrywhere timely information is scarce and transaction costs high, 11. Hawkridge, D. (1987). General Operational Review of Dis-thus providing a developmental context for demonstrating the tance Education. EDT Discussion Paper No. 68. Washingtonstrategic impact of this technology. The study first analyzes DC: World Bank. Education and Training Department, Op-

Research on Education and Technology (1980-1996) 7

erations Policy Staff. 15 pages. The World Bank has increased greatly its involvement in thearea of science and technology (S&T) over the past 10 years.

This study reviews Bank investments between FY63 and FY85 This paper reviews and evaluates the Bank's S&T activities,in 32 distance education projects. Distance education is an particularly in the areas of higher education, industry and tech-educational delivery mode that uses a variety of media and a nology, and energy and infrastructure. Focus is on regionalfeedback system to provide education to those unable to at- differences in lending for goals and objectives, common projecttend traditional schools. Lessons learned indicate that invest- components, and criteria for sector and project evaluation. Thements in distance education are most effective when there is main conclusions suggest the need to increase the links be-agreement between the Bank and the Borrower on the educa- tween teaching, research and industry, the crucial role of ac-tional objectives of the distance education component. Dis- cess to infornation, the urgent need to increase incentives fortance education has been used to advantage when it is: (i) both institutions and individuals involved in science and tech-sharply focused on improving the quality of teaching avail- nology fields, and the importance of initiating formal dialogueable; (ii) used to teach nonformal "equivalency" education to within the World Bank concerning science and technology is-students otherwise without teachers or classrooms; and (iii) sues and priorities.used to meet social demands and urgent needs for formation ofhuman capital. 14. Perraton, H. (1982). Alternative Routes to Formal Educa-

tion: Distance Teaching for School Equivalency. Washing-12. Murphy, P., Zhiri, A. (eds.) (1992). Distance Education in ton DC: A World Bank Research Publication. 329 pages.

Anglophone Africa: Experience with Secondary Educationand Teacher Training. EDI Policy Case Series, Analytical This book focuses on experience with distance teaching forCase Studies. Doc. No. 9. Washington DC: World Bank, Eco- formal education, its use to provide "equivalency" to formalnomic Development Institute. 147 pages. school courses for individuals who, because of age, work com-

mitments, lack of school places, or geographical location, areThis book consists of papers presented at a seminar for senior unable to attend regular schools. The first part of the book ispolicy-makers held in Zimbabwe between May 7 and 11, 1990. on the scope of distance teaching and summarizes the chaptersThe seminar focused on distance education as an alternative to that follow. The book then concentrates on case studies of in-traditional secondary education and current practices in teacher school equivalency programs at the secondary level, includingtraining in Africa. World trends in distance education at the two projects in Brazil, the Malawi Correspondence College,secondary level are reviewed including current use of and ef- and the Mauritius College of the Air. Next, case studies of out-fectiveness of distance education systems in Africa, and op- of-school equivalency programs are provided, includingtions for improving distance education systems. The greatest projects from Korea, Kenya and Israel, which offer courses ineducational challenge facing African countries is how to de- the context of secondary, university, and teacher training edu-sign a system or a learning package that both meets individual cation. The final section reviews cost-effectiveness in the casecountiy's priorities and maximizes learning in a cost-effective studies and attempts to draw lessons useful for educationalway using the resources available. In this regard, distance edu- planners. The volume includes three appendices: a descriptioncation could make an important contribution in many African of the methods of cost analysis used, a summary of informa-countries combining radio and correspondence techniques. tion on alternative media for distance teaching, and an evalua-Unfortunately many Africans regard nonformal venues of sec- tion of a unique, privately-operated distance teaching systemondary schooling as a second rate education, especially dis- in Brazil.tance education, which is geared to provide a second chance tothose who dropped out or who were forced out of school for 15. Perraton, H. (1986). Distance Education: An Economic andeconomic reasons. Educational Assessment of its Potential for Africa. Educa-

tion and Training Series Discussion Paper. Doc. No. EDT43.Distance education in Africa should be closely aligned to na- Washington DC: World Bank, Education and Training Depart-tional educational policies, and whenever possible integrated ment. Operations Policy Staff. 38 pages.into the national system of education so that it gains more le-gitimacy as an acceptable alternative. Distance education encompasses correspondence courses, open

universities, and education in-school and out-of-school based13. Muskin, 1. (1992). World Bank Lending for Science and on broadcasting by radio or television. It is defined as an edu-

Technology: General Operational Review. PHREE Back- cational process in which a significant proportion of teachingground Paper Series. Doc. No. PHREE/92/51 R. Washington is conducted by someone removed in space and/or time fromDC: WVorld Bank, Economic and Development Division, Popu- the learner. Within Africa, it has been used for teacher train-lation and Human Resources Department. 108 pages. ing, and for primary, secondary, and tertiary education. Many

8 Education and Technology Series, Vol. 1, No. I

African countries have offered in-service training to teachers tion draws some lessons from the Chilean experience that couldusing correspondence courses. In primary education, the most be helpful to other countries in defining the role of the Internetimportant application of distance-teaching techniques has been and its linkage to classroom-based education in the cominginteractive radio, where radio is used for direct classroom teach- years.ing. At both secondary and tertiary levels, "equivalence"courses were developed offering an alternative route to formal 18. Zijp, W.(1994). Improving the Transfer and Use of Agri-qualifications for students outside school or college. Cost data cultural Information. A Guide to Information Technology.are presented on all these applications, showing a reduction in World Bank Discussion Paper, Doc. No. 247. Washington DC:costs at all levels. It is argued that the potential of distance World Bank. Agriculture and Natural Resources Department.education to increase access to education and reduce costs jus- 105 pages.tifies further investment alongside other strategies for educa-tion development in Africa. Investment in Information Technology (IT) generally has been

in urban areas of industrial countries, despite the potential for16. Potashnik, M., Adkins, D. (1996). Cost Analysis of Informa- cost-effective applications of IT in rural areas in developing

tion Technology Projects in Education: Experiences from countries. The benefits of IT in agriculture are summarized:Developing Countries. Washington DC: World Bank, Latin reduced costs, increased storage, ease of use, speed, and ac-America Country Department III, Human Resources Division. cess. Limitations include the need for complementary inputs,31 pages. organizational change, improved information management,

skills development, local involvement, policy changes, andThis study is meant to assist education policymakers and plan- removing social barriers. Examples are given of how IT canners in analyzing the cost of programs to introduce and main- be used to make rural development better, cheaper and fastertain information technologies in schools. The study has three for beneficiaries, borrowers, and Bank staff. A number ofmain sections. The first section discusses instructional uses and simple, practical suggestions are given for achieving incremen-inputs of information technology programs in the primary and tal benefits from IT applications. More comprehensive changessecondary schools of several Latin American and Caribbean are proposed to achieve the full potential of IT, including acountries including Belize, Chile, Costa Rica, Jamaica, and cross-suctorial approach to rural development, a more realisticMexico. In the second, the methodology used to calculate costs model of technology transfer, and support for empowering theand assess the financial feasibility of proposed investments in poor. The paper concludes with a number of next steps, in-information technology is reviewed. This section also provides cluding the need to increase awareness of and skills in IT anddata on the costs of selected information technology programs increasing targeted investments.in Latin America. In the final section recommendations focuson how to reduce the costs and increase the benefits of pro- Ten annexes focus on various information technologies, thatposed information technology programs. provide task managers with notions of what technology is avail-

able, its cost, advantages and disadvantages, and requirements17. Potashnik, M. (1996) Chile's Learning Network. In press. to make it work.

Washington DC: World Bank, Latin America Country Depart-ment III, Human Resources Division. 29 .pages.

This study examines the Enlaces project and the role of Chile'slearning network in the framework of the country's overalleducational reform agenda for primary and secondary educa-tion. The study examines issues related to the design and imple-mentation of networks drawing on the Chilean experience.These include: How should the objectives of learning networksbe defined? What are effective strategies for their implemen-tation? What type of training and technical assistance is re-quired? What kind of monitoring and evaluation studies mightbe undertaken to assess the progress and impact of the net-work? What are the investments and recurrent costs of a net-work, and Are such networks affordable at the size and scalecontemplated? The study also reviews the many challengesfacing Enlaces in the years ahead as it moves from a pilot ex-perimental project to a national program. The concluding sec-