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8/12/2019 Ed Psy 1 Behaviorism 130310173221 Phpapp01

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OUTLINE

DEFINITION

THE ORIGIN OF BEHAVIORISMLEADERS OF BEHAVIORISM


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DEFINITIONBehaviorism is: A school of

psychology that confines itself tothe study of observable andquantifiable aspects of behavior

and excludes subjectivephenomena, such as emotions ormotives.


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The Origins of Behaviorism

Behaviorism traces its roots to theearly part of the 20th century, a time

when many psychologists andresearchers like Ivan Pavlov and JohnB. Watson began to develop a

framework which emphasizedobservable processes (environmentalstimuli and behavioral responses).


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LEADERS of BEHAVIORISM

IVAN PAVLOVE. L. Thorndike

Burrhus Frederic "B. F." Skinner


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IVAN PAVLOV


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Born Sept 14, 1849Died Feb 27, 1936

born in Ryazan, Russiaphysiologist, psychologist, and

physician

awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiologyor Medicine in 1904 for research on thedigestive system


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E.L. Thorndike

1874 - 1949


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E.L. ThorndikeFirst scientific theory of learning- Theory ofConnectionism

Comprehensive analogy of human learning- Threevolume work, Educational Psychology ( 1913a,1913b, 1914 )

Initial work with animal learning in laboratorysetting- cat in box experiment


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He placed a cat in the puzzle box, which was encourage toescape to reach a scrap of fish placed outside. Thorndike

would put a cat into the box and time how long it took toescape. The cats experimented with different ways to escapethe puzzle box and reach the fish.

Eventually they would stumble upon the lever which opened thecage. When it had escaped it was put in again, and once more

the time it took to escape was noted. In successive trials thecats would learn that pressing the lever would have favorableconsequences and they would adopt this behavior, becomingincreasingly quick at pressing the lever (see Fig 1).

Edward Thorndike put forward a Law of effect whichstated that any behavior that is followed by pleasantconsequences is likely to be repeated, and any behaviorfollowed by unpleasant consequences is likely to be

stopped.


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What happened ?

Schunk (2000)


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The Cat Learned !!!

Behavior Change = Learning


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Thorndikes Theory of Connectionism

Law of Effect

If Situation + Response is followed by a positiveconsequence then the connection between theSituation +Response is strengthened.

If Situation + Response is followed by a negativeconsequence then the connection between theSituation + Response is weakened.


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The Cat Learned !!!

Behavior Change = Learning


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Thorndikes Theory of Connectionism

Law of Effect

If Situation + Response is followed by a positiveconsequence then the connection between theSituation +Response is strengthened.

If Situation + Response is followed by a negativeconsequence then the connection between theSituation + Response is weakened.


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Burrhus Frederic "B. F." Skinner


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Born March 20, 1904

Died August 18, 1990

Born in Susquehanna, PennsylvaniaAn American psychologist, behaviorist, author,

inventor, and social philosopher


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what is learning Once you have learned how to drive a car, you dont

have to learn all over again. Thus, learning can be

defined as a relatively permanent influence onbehavior, knowledge, and thinking skills thatcomes about through experience. Not everything

we know is learned. We inherit some capacities

they are inborn, or innate, not learned.


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For example, we dont have to be taught to swallow, to

flinch at loud noises, or to blink when an object comestoo close to our eyes.

The scope of learning is broad (Domjan, 2010; Klein,2009). It involves academic behaviors andnonacademic behaviors. It occurs in schools andeverywhere else that children experience their world.


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For the behaviorist, behavior is everything that we do,both verbal and nonverbal, that can be directly seen orheard: a child creating a poster, a teacher explainingsomething to a child, one student picking on anotherstudent, and so on.


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Mental processes are defined by psychologists as thethoughts, feelings, and motives that each of usexperiences but that cannot be observed by others.Although we cannot directly see thoughts, feelings,

and motives, they are no less real. Mental processesinclude children thinking about ways to create the bestposter, a teacher feeling good about childrens efforts,and childrens inner motivation to control their

behavior.


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As is shown in the experiment in the picture above,Pavlov presented a neutral stimulus (bell) just beforean unconditioned stimulus (food). The neutral

stimulus became a conditioned stimulus by beingpaired with the unconditioned stimulus.Subsequently, the conditioned stimulus (bell) by itselfwas able to elicit the dogs salivation.


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behavioral approach to learning (classical and

operant conditions)

The behavioral approach emphasizes the importance ofchildren making connections between experiences andbehavior. It includes two views:

classical conditioning

and

operant conditioning.


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Classical conditioning is a type of learning in which an

organism learns to connect, or associate, stimuli sothat a neutral stimulus (such as the sight of a person)becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus (suchas food) and acquires the capacity to elicit a similar

response. Classical conditioning was the brainchild ofIvan Pavlov (1927).


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In classical conditioning, there are two types of stimuliand two types of responses:

unconditioned stimulus (UCS),

unconditioned response (UCR)

conditioned stimulus (CS)

conditioned response (CR).

(click here to see the figure above)


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Classical conditioning can be involved in bothpositiveand negativeexperiences of children in the classroom.Among the things in the childs schooling that producepleasure because they have become classically

conditioned are a favorite song and feelings that theclassroom is a safe and fun place to be. For example, asong could be neutral for the child until he joins inwith other classmates to sing it with accompanying

positive feelings.


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Other examples:

exam anxiety

criticism fear

Some childrens health problems also might involve

classical conditioning (Chance, 2009). Certainphysical complaintsasthma, headaches, and highblood pressuremight be partly due to classicalconditioning. So, often, teachers heavy criticism, are

conditioned stimuli for physiological responses likeheadaches, muscle tension, or stress.


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Generalization, Discrimination, and

Extinction

In studying a dogs responses to various stimuli, Pavlov

rang a bell before giving meat powder to the dog. Bybeing paired with the UCS (meat), the bell became aCS and elicited the dogs salivation. After a time,Pavlov found that the dog also responded to other

sounds, such as a whistle. The more bell-like the noise,the stronger was the dogs response.


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A student is criticized for poor performance on a biologytest. When the student begins to prepare for achemistry test, she also becomes very nervous because

these two subjects are closely related in the sciences.This isgeneralization.


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Discriminationin classical conditioning occurs whenthe organism responds to certain stimuli but notothers. To produce discrimination, Pavlov gave food tothe dog only after ringing the bell, not after any othersounds. Subsequently, the dog responded only to thebell. In the case of the student taking tests in differentclasses, he/she doesnt become nearly as nervous abouttaking an English test or a history test because they are

very differentsubject areas.


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Extinctionin classical conditioning involves theweakening of the conditioned response (CR) in theabsence of the unconditioned stimulus (UCS). In one

session, Pavlov rang the bell repeatedly but did notgive the dog any food. Eventually the dog stoppedsalivating at the sound of the bell. Similarly, if astudent who gets nervous while taking tests begins to

do much better on tests, his anxiety will fade.


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Reinforcement and Punishment

A reinforcement(reward)is a consequence that

increases the probability that a behavior will occur. Incontrast, punishmentis a consequence that decreasesthe probability a behavior will occur.


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For example, you might tell one of your students,Congratulations. Im really proud of the story that youwrote.

If the student works harder and writes an even betterstory the next time, your positive comments are said to

reinforce, or reward, the students writing behavior. Ifyou frown at a student for talking in class and thestudents talking decreases, your frown is said topunish the students talking.


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To reinforce behavior means to strengthen the

behavior (Domjan, 2010). Two forms ofreinforcement are positive reinforcement andnegative reinforcement. In positivereinforcement, the frequency of a response

increases because it is followed by a rewardingstimulus, as in the example in which theteachers positive comments increased the

students writing behavior. Similarly,complimenting parents on being at a parent-teacher conference might encourage them tocome back again.


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Conversely, in negative reinforcement, the frequencyof a response increases because it is followed by theremoval of an aversive (unpleasant) stimulus. For

example, a father nags at his son to do his homework.He keeps nagging. Finally, the son gets tired of hearingthe nagging and does his homework. The sonsresponse (doing his homework) removed the

unpleasant stimulus (nagging).


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The processes ofgeneralization, discriminationandextinctionalso are important dimensions of operantconditioning (Chance, 2009).


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SOME BASIC DIFFERENCES

Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning

First described by Ivan Pavlov, aRussian physiologist

Involves placing a neutral signalbefore a reflex

Focuses on involuntary, automaticbehaviors

First described by B. F. Skinner, anAmerican psychologist

Involves applying reinforcement orpunishment after a behavior

Focuses on strengthening orweakening voluntary behaviors


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Activity


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Applied Behavior Analysis in Education

What is applied behavior analysis?

Increasing Desirable Behaviors.

Decreasing Desirable Behaviors.

Evaluating Operant Conditioning and Applied Behavior Analysis.


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What is Applied Behavior Analysis?

Applied behavior analysis involves applying the the

operant conditioning to change human behavior.

When it comes to education, two uses of applied

behavior analysis are essential:

increasing desirable behaviors

decreasing undesirable behviors.


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A Increasing desirable behavior.

There are six operant conditioning strategies that canbe exploited to increase a childs desirable behaviors:

1- choose effective reinforcers.

2-make reinforcers contingent and timely.

3- select the best schedule of reinforcement.

4-consider contracting.

5- use negative reinforcement negatively.

6- use prompts and shaping.


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1- choose effective reinforcers.

Not all reinforcers are the same for every child.

Teachers should individualize the use of particular reinforcers.

Teachers should know more about the childs past life

( reinforcement history).

Teachers might ask the child about what they like best.

To avoid boredom, teachers should consider novel reinforcers.

Natural reinforecers ( praise and priviledges) are generally

recommened over material rewards ( candy, money etc)


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2-Make reinforcers contingent and timely.

For a reinforcer to be effective, the teacher must give it only

after the child performs a particularbehaviour. For example,

teachers may use if then statement.

Reinforcers are more effective when they are given in a

timely way, as soon as possible the child performs the target

behaviour.

( if the teacher gives the reinforcer before the child

performs the behavior, she/he might have trouble

making the contingency connection)


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3- select the best schedule of reinforcement.

There are four main schedules of reinforcements:

a - On a fixed-ratio schedule: A behaviour is reinforced after a set number of

answers/responses. ( e.g.after every three answers)

bOn a variable-ratio schedule:

A behavior is reinforced after an average number oftimes, but on an unpredictable basis. ( e.g. After

every fifth response, then it might be after fouth,

third etc)

Interval schedules are determined by theamount of time elapsed since the last behavior

was reinforced.


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c- On a fixed-interval schedule:

After a fixed amount of time the first appropriateresponse is reinforced. ( e.g. two minutes after the

child comes up with a right answer)

d- variable-interval schedule:

A response is reinforced after a variable amount oftime elapsed. ( e.g. after four minutes, then after six

minutes, two minutes etc)

NB. By and large, the use of these schedule

reinforcements is so beneficial to students in that itproduces greater persistence and greater resistence

to extinction than continous reinforcement does.


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consider contracting.

In contracting, reinforcement contingencies are put in

writing. If problems arise, the teacher can refer the childrento the contract they agreed to. Classroom contracts have ifthen statement.

use negative reinforcement effectively.

In negative reinforcement, the frequency of the responseincreases because the response removes an avertive (unpleasant) stimulus. (e.g. a teacher who says James, youhave to stay in your seat and finish writing your story before

you join the other students in making a poster is using NR.The condition of being left in his seat while the others aredoing (sth) enjoyable will be removed if James finishes thestory he should have completed earlier.)


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Use prompts and shaping.

prompts: is an added stimulus or cue that is given just

before a response that increases the likelihood that the

response will occur.

shaping:when teachers use prompts and fail to get the

desired response performed, shapingis required. It means

that teaching new behaviors by reinforcing successive

approximations to a specified target behavior.


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B- Decreasing undesirable behaviors.

When teachers want to decrease childrens

undesirable behaviors (such as teasing, hogging aclass discussion, or smarting off to the teacheretc), they are recommended to use the followingsteps in order:

1 use differential reinforcement.

2 terminate reinforcement ( extinction)

3 remove desirable stimuli.

4 present aversive stimuli ( punishment)


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use differential reinforcement.

The teacher reinforces behavior that is more desired and

different than what the child is doing. ( e.g. the teachermight reinforce a child for doing learning activities rather

tan playing computer games).

terminate reinforcement ( extinction) Simply means withdrawing positive reinforcement from a

childs inappropriate behavior. (e.g. attention to theinappropriate behavior by yelling, criticising, threateningetc)

remove desirable stimuli. The third option, if the twoprevious options havent worked, is to remove desirablestiluli from the student: to do this, there are two strategies:


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Time-out: take students away from positive

reinforcement.

Response cost: take a positive reinforcer away from a

student, as when the student loses certain privileges. ( e.g.teachers may take away 10 minutes of recess time or the

privilege of being a class monitor.)

( )


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Present aversive stimuli ( punishment)

Most people associate the presentation of aversive stimuli with punishment

( teachers yelling at a student or when a parent spanks a child) An aversive stimuli is punishment only if it decreases the undesirable

behavior.

Reprimands are more effective when they given immediately after

unwanted behavior and when they are short and to the point.

It is highly recommended to take the student aside and reprimand him in

private.

NB. Numerous problems are associated with using aversive

stimuli: it instills fear, rage, avoidance + students might be out

of control + anxietyetc.

i i i i


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Evaluating Operant Conditioning andApplied Behavior Analysis.

Used effectively, behavioral techniques can help youmanage your classroom.

Critics of operant conditioning and applied behavioranalysis argue that the whole approach stresses externalcontrol of students behaviors + Instead, it should helpstudents learn to control their own behaviors and becomeinternally motivated + it is not the reward or punishmentthat changes behavior, but, rather, the belief that certain

actions will be rewarded or punished + ethical problemsmight emerge if operant conditioning is usedinappropriately + while applying behavior analysis,teachers might focus too much on student conduct and notenough on academic learning.


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BEHAVIORISM VS MENTALISM

Behaviourismclaims that environment is responsible for learning. the Behaviorist theory works according to the Habit Formation process. the learner is presented with stimuli on which he makes a specific

response to each, and every time the learner is presented with thisstimulus he responds with the same response until it becomes a habit.

The Mentalist theory came as a reaction to the Behaviourist theory. Itopposed the claim that the environment is responsible for learning byproving that the mind is responsible for it. Chomskysaid that thehuman being is endowed since birth with a biological device called theLanguage Acquisition Devise and it develops like any organ.

When applied to teaching ,Mentalismmeans that the learner shoulduse his cognitive abilities in order to learn. This enhances critical

thinking and goes hand in hand with the Constructivist theory provingthat the learner builds knowledge through time relying on his cognitivestrategies.

nowadays both theories ( mentalist and constructivist) are widely used


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Activity

I need two volunteers to waitoutside the class for a while,

please .


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Volunteer 1:

Please, use positive reinforcement(applause) in order to get them to

perform a chosen task. What do you

suggest him/her to do?


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Volunteer 2:

use negative reinforcement(booing) in order to get them to

perform the chosen task. What doyou suggest him/her to do?


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Discussion:

1. Which form of reinforcement was the most effective?

2. What were some of the reactions the volunteers had?

3. For the volunteers: how did this activity make you

feel?


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Thank You

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