ecology study

7/29/2019 Ecology Study

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[FORM 6 ECOLOGICAL STUDY] 2012

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Introduction

Biology is a science that its principles and methods are the same as those

of any science. In fact , a basic tenet of modern biology is that living things obey

the same law of physics and chemistry that govern non living matter.

Knowledges in biology is acquired through the application of the science

matter. In order to master the knowledge, a precious opportunity has been given

to us; the ecology study is tailored to enhance our outstanding of theory that we

have learnt in the classroom.

So, we had carried out Experiment 20 (Practical No.33) which is an

ecological study of a terrestrial or aquatic area in group.

Group leader : Ong Wan Jun

Group members : Tan Hui Shan

Boon Yih Hui

How See Choon

Ong Yan Sheng

Habitat : Low Grass Land

Location : Taman Kerjasama, Bukit Beruang.

Section : a) Soil Analysis

b) Determination of The Types of Soil Organisms

c) Determination of The Density of Plant Species In Habitat.


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Acknowledgement

First of all, we all are happy that we were able to finish the task at the time.

First, when we were given with this task, heavy it seems a big responsible to us.

It seems to be a hard task for us. But thank god we were lucky enough that wegot support and cooperation from our friends.

.

Besides that, we would like to thank our Biology teacher, Mr. Chiew Wei

Han. He guided us on how do these researches. He cleared all our doubt and

also always keeps on reminding us to finish our task as soon as possible every

time he comes into our class. His mind pushes us to work continuously until the

last page. Moreover, he also motivated us without reluctant to boost our

confidence. Next is our friend. They helped us a lot. We discussed things

together, shared ideas, give comment and criticize each other. This helps us a lot

to improve and to bring out the best of us in accomplishing thus task. Finally, to

them they give hands, we like to take this opportunity to wish thank you.

Thank you.


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ObjectiveThe important of the knowledge obtained from ecological studies include the

following:

(a) Ecological studies enable us to understand the functions and roles of an

ecosystem. This is based on the fact that the plant and animal complex in a

community is the sum total of the interrelationships between organisms and

their physical environment.

(b) It enables us to understand the concept of natural population control.

(c) With the development of improved sampling methods, the study of natural

population of organisms can be carried out more accurately

(d) It enables the management of chemical control on animal pest such as

insect to be carried out more effectively.

(e) The studies enable us to understand the life system of a species. This way,

primary mortality factor in a natural population is known. This will further

enable us to develop control measures that affect the balance of the natural

development.

(f) With knowledge of the effects of physical environment factors on the

development and physiology of individual organism, the upper and lower

mortality limits can be determined.

(g) Through the study of genetic change in a species, the process of

evolution can be understood to a greater dept.


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Plan of Study Area


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Section A : Soil Analysis

1.1 Soil Sampling Technique

1.2 Determination Of The Texture of Soil

1.3 Determination of water content of soil

1.4 Determination Of Organic Matter Content

1.5 Determination of Air Content of Soil

1.6 Determination of the Soil pH


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Mechanical analysis to determine the Texture of Soil

Sample

Soil texture is a soil property used to describe the relative proportion of

different grain sizes of mineral particles in a soil. Particles are groupedaccording to their size into what are called soil separates. These separates

are typically named clay, silt, and sand. Soil texture classification is based

on the fractions of soil separates present in a soil. The soil texture triangle is

a diagram often used to figure out soil texture. It is also important to note

that soil texture changes slowly with time.

Soil analysis is a process whereby the different soil particles are

mechanically separated into 4 different basic types of particles of different

sizes. This analysis can determine the ratio or percentage of each type of

particle in the soil sample. Soil texture can influence various aspects and

properties of the soil analyzed such as :

1. Drainage

2. Capillarity

3. Aeration

4. Adsorption of water

5. Condition of soil of water


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Soil SamplingTechniques

Soil augur / corer

The soil can be laid in a length of plastic guttering in order to examine the soilprofile.

Spade

Spades can be used to dig soil samples if the natural layers of the soils are not

of particular importance in the analysis.

Excavator

The metal cylinder and piston are needed.


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Soils Analysis Techniques

Aspects of the soil that need to be analysed:

1. Texture of the soil2. Water content of the soil

3. Organic matter content

4. Air content of soil

5. Soil pH

Soil Texture

Texture, the characteristics of a soil (depends on the relative proportions

of different-sized particles like sand, silt, and clay) in it. Soil texture can be

assessed manually, by examination of a sample with a hand lens and feel.

Mechanical analysis soil is separated into its constituent particle fractions in

order to find the ratio of sand to slit and clay. Triangle chart of soil textural

classes is then used to determine the texture of the soil. In this way, soil can be

designated as clay, loam or sandy soil.


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1.1 Soil Sampling Technique

Apparatus :

Metal cylinder and piston (to dig out soil)

Procedure :

(a) The metal can is pressed into the soil until the metal can is at the same

level with the surface of the ground.

(b) Using the piston, remove the soil sample from the cylinder

(c) The soil is then put inside the plastic bag.

Discussion :

We faced some difficulties in pressing the can into the earth to obtain the

soil sample. This is because the earth was very compact, dry and hard. In

addition to that, there are many tiny stone and roots in the soil which further

complicates our task. To overcome this problem, we had decided to choose a

slightly damper area to obtain our soil sample.


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1.2 Determination Of The Texture of Soil

Introduction

Soil texture is a soil property used to describe the relative proportion of

different grain sizes of mineral particles in a soil. Particles are grouped according

to their size into what are called soil separates. These separates are typically

named clay, silt, and sand. Soil texture classification is based on the fractions of

soil separates present in a soil. It is also important to note that soil texture

changes slowly with time.

Soil properties related to texture

1. Porosity an index of the relative pore volume in the soil2. Infiltration The downward entry of water into the immediate surface of soil

3. Erodibility Generally, large particles are less erodible, exceptions being clay

4. Available water holding capacity The capacity of soil to retain water

5. Soil formation fine sand to coarse sand ratio for example

6. Permeability The quality of the soil that enables water to move downward

through the profile


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Apparatus :

500 cm measuring cylinder

100cm soil sample

300 cm water

Procedure:

(a) Add the soil sample to the measuring cylinder and cover with water

(b) Shakes the contents vigorously

(c) Allow the mixture to settle out according to density and surface area of

the particles for 48 hours

(d) Measure the volume of the various fractions of the soil

Results:

Calculate the percentage of silk, sand, and clay components of the soil sample.

Sand =

= 72.65 %

Clay =

= 3.91 %

Silt =

= 23.43 %

Discussion :

From the results obtained, the soil sample contains sand (both coarse

and fine), silt and clay which were mechanically separated. The sand is

located on the bottom of the measuring cylinder, silt located immediately

above the sand and clay forms the uppermost layer in the measuring

cylinder. Sand particles settle first as they are relatively heavier than silt and


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clay particles. Silt particles settle second to the sand particles as they are

relatively lighter than the sand particles but heavier than the clay particles.

The clay part ic les sett les last as they are of the least in weight.

Ways to improve accuracy of results:

The mixture of water and soil sample must be allowed to settle for a

longer period of time, for example, a week. This allows the soil particles to

settle completely and accentuate distinctions among types of particles.

Conclusion :

The percentage of clay, silt, and sand component in the soil sample are 3.91%,

23.43%, and 72.65% respectively. From the soil texture triangular chart, the soil

sample we had examined is silt loam.


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Determination of Soil Sample Content :


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Triangular Diagram of Soil Textural Classes :


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1.3 Determination of water content of soil

Introduction

The state of water in soil is described in terms of the amount of water and

the energy associated with the forces which hold the water in the soil. The

amount of water is defined by water content and the energy state of the water is

the water potential. Plant growth, soil temperature, chemical transport, and

ground water recharge are all dependent on the state of water in the soil. While

there is a unique relationship between water content and water potential for a

particular soil, these physical properties describe the state of the water in soil in

distinctly different manners.

Soil water is held in the pore spaces between particles of soil. Within the

soil system, the storage of water is influenced by several different forces. Soil

water can be further subdivided into three categories:

(a) Hygroscopic water - found as a microscopic film of water surrounding soil

particles

(b) Capillary water - held by cohesive forces between the films of hygroscopic

water

(c) Gravity water - water moved through the soil by the force of gravity


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Apparatus:

Aluminium foil pie dish

Balance

Oven

Desiccator

Tongs

Thermometer

Material :

80g soil

Procedure:

(a)Weigh an aluminium foil pie dish while still empty. Record the mass (a).

(b)Add the broken up soil sample to the pie dish and weigh.Record the

mass (b).

(c)Place the pie dish containing the soil sample in the oven at c fo a

further 24 hours

(d)Remove the sample from the oven and cool in a desiccators.

(e)Weigh the sample when cool and record the mass.

f etun the sample to the oven at c fo futhe hous.

(g)Repeat stages (d) and (e) until consistent weighing are recorded

(constant mass).Record the mass (c).

(e)Calculate the percentages water content as follows:

(f) Retain the soil sample in the desicator for experiment 4.


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Results:

Formulae:

Weight (g)

Aluminium pie dish (a) 35.5

Aluminium pie dish + soil sample (b) 32

Aluminium pie dish + soil sample after heating 31

Constant weight after heating second and third time (c) 31

Calculation :

Discussion :

Soil sample must be heated in an oven to evaporate the water inside the

soil sample. The temperature should be fixed at about 105 above the water

boiling stage in order to make sure all the water is removed from the soil

including hygroscopic water. The soil sample must be cooled down in desiccators

before weighting it. This is to prevent the water vapour in the air condensed and

get into the soil sample. Furthermore, the hot aluminium foil pie dish would

damage the balance if it is not cooled down first.

Conclusion :

The soil water-holding capacity is 29.03%. The soil is not waterlogged and thus it

is suitable for plant.


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Determination of water content of soil


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1.4 Determination Of Organic Matter Content

Introduction

Organic matter in soil consists of plant and animal material that is in the

process of decomposing. Soil organic matter is the organic matter component of

soil. It can be divided into three general pools: living biomass of microorganisms,

fresh and partially decomposed residues, and humus. Soil organic matter is

frequently said to consist of humic substances and non-humic substances. Non-

living components in soil are a heterogeneous mixture composed largely of

products resulting from microbial and chemical transformations of organic debris.

Humus is the well-decomposed organic matter and highly stable organic material

which feeds the soil population of micro-organisms and other creatures, thusmaintaining high and healthy levels of soil life.

Humification of dead plant material causes complex organic compounds to

break down into simpler forms which are then made available to growing plants

for uptake through their root systems. During the humification process, microbes

secrete sticky gums; these contribute to the crumb structure of the soil by holding

particles together, allowing greater aeration of the soil. Toxic substances such as

heavy metals, as well as excess nutrients, can be chelated (that is, bound to the

complex organic molecules of humus) and prevented from entering the wider

ecosystem

Humus has a characteristic blackor dark brown colour, which is dueto an abundance of organiccarbon.


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Apparatus:

Desiccators and Lid

Tripod

Bunsen Burner

Asbestos mat

Fireclay Triangle Tongs

Material:

Dried soil sample

Procedures:

(a) Heat the crucible and lid strongly in the Bunsen burner Flame to remove

all traces of moisture. Place in the desiccators to cool. Weigh and record

the mass (a).

(b) Add the dried soil sample (kept from the previous experiment) from the

desiccators and weigh. Record the mass (b)

(c) Heat the soil sample in the crucible, covered with the lid to red-heat for 1

hour to burn off all the organic matter. Allow to cool for 10 minutes and

remove to the desiccators.

(d) Weight the crucible and sample when cool.

(e) Repeat (c) and (d) until constant mass is recorded.

(f) Calculate the percentages of organic content as follow:

(g) Repeat the experiment on soil sample taken from the different areas to

demonstrate variation of organic content.


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Results:

Weight (g)

Crucible + lid (a) 20.0

Crucible + lid + soil sample 35.5

Crucible + lid + dried soil sample 32.0

Crucible + lid + burnt soil sample 31.0

Calculation :

Discussion :

Crucible must be heated first to remove all the moisture. If this is not done,

the results if the experiment will be affected. Mass of soil sample id determined

by two factors, that is the lost of water from soil sample or the removal of organic

matter. To obtain more precise results, the soil sample must be totally dried and

there is no water inside it. Other than that, soil sample must be cooled down in

desiccators before weighting to avoid the condensation of water vapour which

will mix with the soil sample. If this happens, it will affect the result. Lid which

covered the crucible had to be opened once in a while to release the gases

which are being produced during the oxidation process. The process if heating,

cooling and weighting had to be repeated several times until a constant mass is

obtained. This step is a need in order to determine that all the organic matter is

completely oxidized.

Conclusion :

The percentage of the soil sample organic matter content is 8.33%.


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Determination of Organic Matter Content


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1.5 Determination of Air Content of Soil

In between the spaces of particulars, there is air content in it. These air

spaces are important for the aerobic respiration by plant roots, soil non-

vertebrates and soil microorganisms. This shows that the aor in the soil is vital

component soil fauna and flora. If the soil air is displayed by water, plant roots

are deprived of oxygen. As a result, plants may die.

The composition of soil air is very much similar to the atmospheres. The

volume of air in soil largely depends on the shape and size of the soil particles.

This is proven when the volume of soil air in clay is much lesser than the volume

of soil air in sand.


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Apparatus :

Milk can of volume about 430cm

500cm beaker

Metal seeker

Material :

Water

Procedure :

(a) The volume of a milk can is determined. Small holes are then

perforated onto the base.

(b) A sample of undisturbed soil is then filled into the milk can by pushing

it firmly into the ground until it reaches its base.

(c) The soil is than transferred into a 1 liter measuring cylinder.

(d) 500cm of water is added and then the soil is shaken or stirred evenly

to release all the trapped air content.

(e) The volume of water and soil sample after shaking evenly is recorded.

(f) Repeat the experiment of soil samples from different areas.

Result :

Volume (cm )

Soil sample that is used 430

Water that is added to the soil sample 500

Water + soil sample after shaking vigorously 830


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1.6 Determination of the Soil pH

Introduction

The pH of soil or more precisely the pH of the soil solution is very

important because soil solution carries nutrients in it such as Nitrogen (N),

Potassium (K), and Phosphorus (P) that plants need in specific amounts to grow,

thrive and fight off diseases. Many crops, vegetables, flowers and shrubs, trees,

weeds and fruit are pH dependent and rely on the soil solution to obtain nutrients.

The pH value of a soil is influenced by the kinds of parent materials from

which the soil was formed. Human distractions like pollution can alter the pH of

soil. Application of fertilizers containing ammonium or urea speeds up the rate atwhich acidity develops. The decomposition of organic matter also adds to soil

acidity.

If the soil solution is too acidic plants cannot utilize the nutrients they need.

In acidic soils, plants are more likely to take up toxic metals and some plants

eventually die of toxicity. Knowing whether the soil pH is acidic or basic is

important because if the soil is too acidic the applied pesticides, herbicides, and

fungicides will not be absorbed and they will end up in garden water and rain

water runoff, where they eventually become pollutants in our streams, rivers,

lakes, and ground water.


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Apparatus :

Long test tube

Test tube rack

Spatula

10 pipette

Material:

Universal Indicator

Procedure:

(a) Add about 1 cm3 of the soil to the test tube and 1 cm3 of barium sulphate

which ensure flocculation of colloidal clay.

(b) Add 10 cm3 of distilled water and 5 cm3 of BDH universal indicator

solution. Seal the test tube with the bung. Shake vigorously and allow

contents to settle for 5 minutes.

(c) Compare the colour of the liquid in the test tube with the colour on the

BDH reference colour chart and read off the corresponding pH.

(d) Repeat the experiment on soil samples from different areas.

Results:

Test Observation Results

Universal indicator Dark green (pH 10) Alkaline soil

Discussion :

The pH of the soil is important to provide suitable medium for the growth of plants.

Barium sulphate is added to the soil sample in the test-tube to ensure flocculation

of colloidal clay in the soil.


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Precaution :

The test tube containing the soil solution must be shaken vigorously and the

contents are allowed to settle for 5 minutes to ensure the complete flocculation of

colloidal clay in the soil.

Conclusion :

The soil is alkaline with pH 10.0.


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Section B : Types of Soil Organism

2.1 Tullgren Funnel

2.2 Baerman Funnel

2.3 Food Chain and Energy Pyramid

2.4 Food Web of Study Area


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2.1 Determination Of The Types Of Soil Organism By

Tullgren Funnel

Soil organisms are part of soil population. The types of soil organisms commonly

found include Nematoda, Annelida, Myriapoda, Insecta, Mollusca and Amoeba.

The Tullgren funnel is a device used to separate insects and mites from leaf mold

and similar materials to study the types of organisms presented. A soil or leaf

litter sample is placed in the removable upper part of the funnel. Heat and light

from the lamp creates a temperature gradient of approximately 14C in the soil

sample. This stimulates the downward movement of soil arthropods, and similar

organisms, through the gauze to a the collecting tube attached to the base of the

funnel. The position of the lamp is adjustable to enable the temperature of the

soil to be raised gradually.

Objective:

To extract soil organism by Tullgren Funnel

Apparatus:

Tullgren Funnel

100W bulb

Retort stand

Beaker

Hand lens

Microscope

Glass slide

Material:

4% Formalin solution


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Procedure:

(a) The apparatus of Tullgren funnel is prepared as being shown on the

next page.

(b) Big lumps of soil is split and placed on the sieve.

(c) The light bulb of 100W is placed on top of the Tullgren funnel and the

apparatus is left standing for 24 hours.

(d) Soil organisms that fall into the formalin solution will be examined later.

Precautions:

(a) The surface areas in the funnel must be smooth to avoid condensation which

will trap the fine organisms before they reach the base of the funnel.

(b) The power of the bulb must be between 100 150 (watt). A large amount of

heat supplied may kill the organisms in the soil.

Results:

The soil organisms which are found are as follow.

Conclusion:

The Tullgren Funnel can extract soil organisms, such earthworm, termite, ants

and so on.

Name Phylum Class

Earth worm Annelid Oligochaeta

Termite Arthropoda Insecta

Ant Arthropoda Insecta


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Tullgren Funnel


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Organisms found in Tullgren Funnel


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2.2 Determination Of The Types Of Soil Organism By

Baerman Funnel

Introduction

Baermann funnel is a device used to extract nematodes from a soil

sample or plant material. A muslin bag containing the sample is submerged in

water in a funnel sealed at the lower end by a rubber tube and clip. Being heavier

than water, the nematodes pass through the muslin and sink to the bottom. This

device relies on the phenomenon of the migration of the nematodes downward

from soil or feces to water of warmer temperature. After permitting sufficient time

to permit migration, the warm water is drained off, centrifuged, and examined

microscopically for the presence of the nematodes.

Objective:

To extract soil organisms and aquatic organisms by Baerman Funnel.

Apparatus:

Bearman Funnel

100 W bulb

Retort stand

Beaker

Metal reflector

Muslin bag

Hand lens

Microscope

Glass slide


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Material:

4% Formalin solution

Procedure:

(a) The apparatus of Baerman funnel is prepared as being shown on the

next page.

(b) Big lumps of soil is split and placed into the muslin bag.

(c) The light bulb is on and the apparatus is left for 24 hours.

(d) 1 to 2 cm water from the base of the Baerman funnel is released into

the formalin solution by opening the clip of the apparatus.

(e) A drop of the solution is then placed on the slaid of the microscope.

(f) The organisms under the microscope will be determinded.

Precaution:

The metal reflector must be placed under the light bulb to reflect the heat from

being lost into the atmosphere.

Results:

Name Phylum Class

Mite Arthropoda Arachnida

Round worm Nematode

Conclusion:

Bearman Funnel can extract soil organisms, mite, round worms and so on.


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Baerman Funnel


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Organisms found in Baerman Funnel


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2.3 Food Chain and Energy Pyramid

Food chain in study area :

Grass Grasshopper Bird Snake

Energy Pyramid in Study Area:

Snake

Bird

Grasshopper

Grass


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2.4 Food Web of Study Area


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Section C : Density of Plant Species in

Study Area

3.1 Quadrat Sampling

3.2 Transect Sampling


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3.1 Quadrate Sampling

Quadrates refer to a community patch especially of plants, which has a

specified standard sizes, bound by the four sides of a square or a circle. Thesimplest type of record is a list and the number of individual species bound by the

quadrate. In this technique, number of quadrate taken systematically or at

random must distribute all over a specific area so that composition of a

community can be determined quantitatively.

The quadrate size depends on the sizes and density of the plants that

need to be sampled. The quadrates must be large enough so that effective

number can be obtained and small enough so that the individual organism can

be separate. For efficient quadrate sampling, suitable quadrate shape is very

important. For low plants communities, circular quadrates can be used. Other

than that, square quadrates which are made from metal or stakes on the ground

surrounded by string also can be used. By using quadrate sampling technique

density, relative density, coverage, relative coverage, relative density, coverage,

relative courage, frequency and relative frequency of plant species can be

determine.

Density refers to the number of individuals of a species per unit area (or

volume )of a specific area (habitat).Density can be calculated as follows:

Density=

Relative Density refers to the percentage of density of the species compared to

the total density of all species living in the same area. Relative density can be

calculated as follow:

Relative Density =


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Coverage refers to ratio of land area occupied by the vertical projection into air

space for each individual species. It is normally stated in percentage units and

calculated as follow :

Coverage =

Relative Coverage refers to the coverage by the species when compared to the

total coverage of the entire quadrate by all species. Relative coverage can be

calculated as follow :

Relative Coverage =

Frequency which refers to the degree of dispersion of each species in a specific

area I stated in percentage units and can be calculated as follow :

Frequency =

Relative Frequency which refers to the frequency value of the species

compared to the total frequency value of all species, is stated in percentage units

and calculated as follow:

Relative Frequency =

The data obtained from quadrates sampling the must be recorded in suitable

tables to facilitate our study and analysis.


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Shape Of Quadrate

Quadrate is not natural sampling units, the size and shape of quadrate

must always decide. The resulting index of dispersion and the spatial pattern

obtained depends on quadrate size and shape.

Chosen the shape of quadrate is important from the aspects of:

(a) convenience in laying down the frame of quadrate

(b) convenience in setting up the plots.

(c) effectiveness of sampling.

Quadrate strictly means a four-sided figure but in practice mean any

sampling unit, whether square, rectangular, circular, hexagonal, oval, or even

irregular in outline some of the common shapes of quadrate are:

(a) Square quadrate:

The frame are made from metal (iron or aluminium), strips of wood, or rigid

plastic which are tied, glued, welded or bolted together in a square. Shape

or it can simply be stakes and surrounded by a string on the ground. (This

is used within habitats such as scrub areas or woodlands, where it is not

possible to physically lay quadrate frames down because tree trunksand

shrubs get in the way.) For aquatic macrophytes a wood or plastic frame

will float and also can be used for emergent vegetation on the water

surface or sample of floating.

(b) Circular quadrate:

This quadrate is used for the place where have low plant community. It is

a wooden pole and place in the centre. By using-radius string.(From

measuring tape) of various length a circular quadrate of different size can

be set up quickly and easily.


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(c) Rectangular quadrate:

This quadrate can enables a ore effective and also can accurate analysis

of the composition at a community if compared to the usage of same

number of square quadrates which are having the same size as the

rectangular quadrate.

(d) Point quadrate:

The uses of a point frame are to obtain the point samples for estimate

cover and it is a device. Set up the frame over the vegetation and lowered

down the needles through the plant canopy. A hit is ecoded with the

species name every time when the point of the needle touches the plant.

Before the needles eventually touch the round surface, it can touch

several plants. Point sampling method is a method that only can give an

accurate estimate of absolute cover of each species in multi-stratose

vegetation and hence an estimate of total leaf area species. All other

method gives relative percentage cover. It is however, a very time

consuming method.

Systemic Sampling Random Sampling


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Apparatus:

Quadrat measuring

Procedure

1. A quadrate is made using four pieces of PVC pipe and four elbow joints to

connect them.

2. Then, a thread on the quadrate for 0.1 m is tide.

3. A location is randomly chosen to place the quadrate within the area.

4. The overall species of plants in every quadrate is calculated and written in an

appropriate table to estimate the density of plants species.

5. The number of quadrate in which a species occur is calculated to determine

the frequency of the plants species.

6. The percentage of relative density and relative coverage is also calculated.

Result:

Students name :Ong Wan Jun

Tan Hui Shan

Boon Yih Hui

How See Choon

Ong Yan Sheng

Date : 28 October 2011

Habitat : Low grassland

Location : Bukit Beruang

Quadrate size : 1


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Type of plants : A

B

C

D

E

F

G

H

I

J


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Measurement of frequency of species in quadrate sampling

Species Frequency of species in quadrate Total of species

in 10 quadrate

Frequency

%

Relative

frequency %1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

A / 1 10 3.6B / / / 3 30 10.6

C / / / / / / / 7 70 25.0

D / / / / / 5 50 17.9

E / / 2 20 7.1

F / 1 10 3.6

G / / 2 20 7.1

H / 1 10 3.6

I / 1 10 3.6

J / / / / / 5 50 17.9

Total 28 280 100

Measurement of the density of each species in quadrate sampling

Species No. of individual of species in quadrate Total of

species in 10

quadrate

Density

% of

relative

frequency

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

A 23 23 5.5

B 18 32 17 67 16.0

C 1 9 21 15 19 18 1 84 20.1

D 11 6 23 9 2 51 0.1

E 1 3 4 1.0

F 5 5 1.2

G 2 7 9 2.2

H 30 30 7.2

I 7 7 1.7

J 40 35 31 12 20 138 33.0

Total


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Species Frequency of species in quadrate Total of species

in 10 quadrate

Frequency

%

Relative

frequency %1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

A /

B / /

C / /

D /

E

F

G

H

I

J

Total

SAMPLING TECHNIQUE USING LINE TRANSECT

Apparatus: Rope (15.30 meters)

Procedure:

1) A base line along the border of the area under investigation isdetermined.

2) A series of points along this base line is chosen either randomly or

systematically. These points are used as the starting points for the

transects to run across the area being investigated.


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Page

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3) Only the plants which touch the line as seen vertically above or below

the transect line are recorded.

4) 10 lines are placed randomly in the area to provide enough samples to

investigate the community.

Results:

Students name: ong wan jun

Date:

Calculate the frequency of a species using the follow formula:

Frequency = total number of intervals where the species are found x 100%

Total number of intervals of transect


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CONFIDENTIAL REPORT

Our project was carried out successful due to the cooperation and dedication

shown by all the group members. Based on the unity of our group members we

were able to complete this project within the time given.


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Throughout the experiment, we have learned the techniques of planning,

preparing and processing a project. We have gained useful experience after

doing the project.

Attendance

Date & Time

7 november

REFERRANCE


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Abdul Aziz Bidin, Paku-pakis di Sekeliling Kita, Dewan Bahasa dan

Pustaka,

1997.

Foo Yuen Kooi, STPM Biology Volume 2, page 338-343 Penerbitan Pelangi

Sdn.Bhd., 2004.

Lee Soon Ching, Liew Shee Leong, Choong Ngok Mang, Success in Biology

for

STPM Volume2, page 346-355, Penerbit Fajar Bakti Sdn. Bhd., 2004.

Lim How Kee, Kursus Amali Biologi Pra- Universiti Buku 2, page 185-

199,

Longman, 1998.

M.W.F. Tweedie, J.L. Harrison, Malayan Animal Life, Longman, 1977.

http://www.ext.nodale.edu/extpubs/ageng/irrigate/eb66w.htm

http://www.soils.wisc.edu/courses/ss325/soilscience325/.htm

http://www.groups.ucanr.org/danranlab/soil%5Fanalysis.htm

http://www.envsci.rutgers.edu/~gimenez/soilswater01.htm

http://www.gsfc.nasa.gov/globe.htm

ecology study

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