eco feminism critique - hss 2014

8/9/2019 Eco Feminism Critique - HSS 2014

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Ecofeminism


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1NCInsert Link

A masculine world-view causes poverty, environmentaldegradation, wars, and extinction ontological s!ift is key JytteN!anenge - Development Consultant studies development policies in Africa;February 20 "# ; “Ecofeminism: o!ards "nte#ratin# $e Concerns of %omen& 'oor'eople and (ature "nto Development)

C$apter 2 ar#ued t$at t$e modern& mec$anistic& scienti*c !orld-vie! to a lar#ee+tend is responsible for t$e four crises, "ts over-re!ard of uantitative activitiesmeans t$at t$e uality of life for society and nature is deterioratin#, C$apter . and/ discussed t$at science - especially t$e discipline of economics and its tec$nolo#y&to#et$er !it$ t$e scienti*c pro#ram of $ird %orld development - consistently aredominatin# and e+ploitin# !omen& t$ers and nature, $e root cause relates to t$efact t$at only masculine or yan# forces are included in t$e scienti*c vie! of reality,Feminine or yin forces are oppositely e+cluded, $is dualised patriarc$al ideolo#ymust lo#ically manifest in domination of !omen& t$ers and nature, 1cience&economics& tec$nolo#y& politics and social or#ani ation conse uently only include$alf of reality, $e ot$er $alf is considered of little value and as a resource fore+ploitation, 3ence not only !omen& t$ers and nature& but also all ot$er feminineor yin issues are considered as bein# subordinate, $is imbalance $as meant t$att$ere is an e+a##erated focus on masculine $uman c$aracteristics& li4e rationality&individualism& competition& e#oism& #reed and pro*t-ma+imi ation, At t$e sametime t$e feminine $uman c$aracteristics of emotion& community& cooperation andconservation $ave been overloo4ed, $is $as lead to unet$ical $uman be$aviourand dominant relations$ip amon# many people& speci*cally bet!een men and!omen& adults and c$ildren& !$ite and coloured people& modern and traditionalpeople& ric$ and poor people, $e priority on masculine traits $as also resulted in analmost complete lac4 of relations$ip bet!een $uman bein#s and nature, De*ciencyof balance bet!een yan# and yin $as moreover meant t$at feminine e+periencesincludin# indi#enous 4no!led#e cannot o5cially be included in t$e currentmasculine 4no!led#e system, $e product is a distorted 4no!led#e system, 1incet$is 4no!led#e system is t$e foundation of modern political& economic and socialor#anisation& it $as resulted in absence of care and concern for creation andmaintenance of sustainable social and natural inter-relations, $e e+clusion offeminine attributes $as conse uently created dis$armony& !$ic$ $as culminated int$e crises of !ar and violence& poverty and ine uality& environmental destructionand $uman repression, $e main su6erers from t$ese crises are !omen& t$ers andnature, .7. 1ince t$ese crises continuously are intensifyin#& and e+tinction of t$e$uman race $as become an issue of public concern& it is increasin#ly important toc$an#e t$e masculine perception of reality, $is dissertation su##ests t$at t$esolution must be a replacement of t$e e+clusive& masculine !orld-vie! by aninclusive ontolo#y& !$ic$ $as a dynamic tension bet!een masculine and feminineelements, "n c$apter 8 1muts9 $olism& t$e #eneral systems t$eory and t$e C$inese "


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C$in# yin yan#< sc$emes !ere su##ested as possible alternatives, $ey present as$ift from a reductionist to a $olistic perception of reality& $ence all t$ree models!ould lo#ically include t$e perception of !omen& t$ers and nature, 1uc$ atransformation !ould re uire a re-de*nition of t$e current basic scienti*c conceptsli4e its de*nition of a person; its uantitative 4no!led#e #eneration; its perception

of $uman communities& and essentially its militaristic manner of enforcin# peace, $e aim of t$is c$apter is& in a limited !ay& to try and su##est !$at s$ould beincluded in t$ese ne!& $olistic concepts,

Alternative is an Eco-$eminist pedagogy% &uc! perspectivec!allenges t!e dominant and !egemonic masculinep!ilosop!ies t!at underlie t!e a'rmative(s met!odology=incoln )oude and Connie *ullis & 'rofessor at 1out$!estern colle#e& professorof communications at t$e >niversity of >ta$& “Ecofeminist 'eda#o#y: An E+ploratory

Case)& Et$ics ? t$e Environment& @olume & (umber 2& 7B++ & pp, 7 8-7 Article


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complicit and implicated !it$in a politics of separatism and practices of domination,Deep personal and political c$an#e re uires more t$an an interruption of $e#emonicpo!er and rituals of resistance, "t also entails reco#ni in# one9s o!n involvement!it$in t$ese systems of oppression and *ndin# alternative practices t$at $elppeople to live transformations, "f time is not ta4en to understand t$e $istorical

comple+ity& particular developments& and speci*c manifestations of domination& t$eKa!s of t$ose oppressive discourses and lo#ics !ill be in$erited in practice& anddiscursive moral a#ents !ill remain trapped !it$in t$ose $e#emonic #rips, o s$areone possible strate#y of $o! an ecofeminist peda#o#y can brin# political interestsinto t$e classroom and contribute to resistance and transformation& t$is sectionarticulates *ve parts of a teac$in# p$ilosop$y, $e *rst part e+plains $o!ecofeminists participate !it$in culture and nature, $e second part situates andconte+tuali es teac$ers and students in and t$rou#$ an eco-cultural politics ofidentity, $e t$ird part embraces t$e analytic tools of lin#uistic reKe+ivity& and t$efourt$ part e+plains $o! lin#uistic reKe+ivity is used !it$ a dialo#ic process toenable resistance and transformation, $e *ft$ part brin#s t$ese tools andprocesses to#et$er !it$ a di6erential and tactical sub ectivity for en#a#in# !it$in apolitici ed classroom,


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Links


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Algae *iofuels!e a exploits algae to reproduce energy t!e same way

patriarc!y views t!e feminine as a source of reproduction Julia.ometsc! - masters de#ree in #ender studies !ritin# about t$e

commerciali ation of al#ae biofuels in "ndia 20 1/ “"ndiaLs a#rofuel policies from afeminist-environmentalist perspective) "n: , 'ott$ast and 1, eisc$ eds, “Climatec$an#e and sustainable development)

%omen& bein# responsible for reproductive !or4& often are more severely a6ectedby environmental pollution t$an men, Also& t$ey feel more responsible for t$eirnatural environment and are more active in ecolo#ical movements, Mesponsibilityfor an ecolo#ically viable be$avior is $anded over to t$em& resultin# in an even$i#$er burden 1c$ult & 7BB8ttara4$and are clearly situated !it$in amainstream economic frame, $e #oal to create a mar4et for a#rofuel in "ndia may

be not be reac$ed !it$in t$e ne+t decade& but t$e motivation is uite visible,"ndependence from t$e !orld mar4et for crude oil and income opportunities for t$erural population are part of a t$in4in# t$at focuses on a mainstream understandin#of productivity and pro*t, Ecolo#ical and social #oals are named& but are only add-ons to a strate#y t$at promotes t$e needs of a#rocompanies rat$er t$an t$e needsand realities of t$e sub ects of t$e a#rofuel policies, $is leads to t$e observationt$at: Cultivatin# Jatrop$a is a $i#$ economic ris4 for small farmers& as a lot ofcapital is needed until pro*t can be e+pected, Also& t$ey become less Ke+ible and


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more dependent on companies F"A(& 200 : ttara4$and acts as a bro4er bet!een N'=-familiesand a private company& t$us fosterin# t$eir dependence, $e economic structure oft$e common lands of >ttara4$and is inevitably altered& to!ards a lar#e-scale

cultivation of a sin#le plant only pro*table in a mar4et conte+t, Formerly commonland is !it$dra!n from t$e former users and turned into private land, Food securityis t$ou#$t about only in terms of RproductiveP land use& uestions of biodiversity andtraditional 4no!led#e remain unans!ered, Mesources suc$ as land and female<

re


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3evelopment3evelopment policies are reduced to economic pro ts w!ic!!arms women, t!e poor, and nature JytteN!anenge - Development Consultant studies development policies in Africa;

February 20 "# ; “Ecofeminism: o!ards "nte#ratin# $e Concerns of %omen& 'oor'eople and (ature "nto Development)

any aut$ors E4ins 7BB2& 1$iva 7B B& urner 7BB < *nd t$at rat$er t$an alleviatin#poverty& development brou#$t about t$is impoveris$ment due to its economicfocus, $e idea !as t$at development s$ould increase national economic #ro!t$&!$ic$ !as assumed necessary to alleviate poverty, $e procedure is to direct lands&soils and !aters to!ards production of commercial crops and industrial food for t$emar4et, 3o!ever& it is overloo4ed t$at t$e same natural resources are providin# alar#e number of traditional people !it$ a decent subsistence liveli$ood, %it$outnatural resources& t$ese people become poor, 'oor people also do not bene*t from

t$e economic #ro!t$ t$eir natural resources are producin#, $e reason is t$ateconomic bene*ts are distributed unevenly in society, $e already ric$ #et almostall of it& !$ile poor people e+perience virtually no improvement in t$eir livin#conditions, oreover& ric$ people do not invest t$eir !ealt$ into activities t$atbene*t poor people, "nstead& t$ey spend t$eir money on producin# lu+ury #oods fort$e elite& or t$ey import %estern consumer #oods to improve t$eir o!n lifestyle, "nt$is !ay& development is bene*tin# 1out$ern elites and (ort$ern industries& rat$ert$an poor people in t$e 1out$, Anot$er serious ne#ative side e6ect from economicdevelopment is destruction of t$e natural environment, "n t$e economic processnatural resources are overused& !aters and soils are e+$austed and to+i*ed& forestsare cut-do!n and t$e air is polluted, $us& development is treatin# nature as anincome-#eneratin# resource to be e+ploited for its commercial value, 1uc$ activity$as serious& ne#ative side e6ects for traditional and poor people, "t is especially$ard for !omen !$o produce /0- 0T of all food in t$e 1out$, %$en nature isde#raded& !omen are forced to #ro! t$eir crops on increasin#ly mar#inali ed land, $e outcome is less food for 1out$ern people and unintended increase of naturaldestruction, Destruction of t$e natural environment also $as serious #lobal e6ects&!$ic$ manifests as climate c$an#e, "ncreased temperatures& $i#$er sea levels&more drou#$ts and Koods !ill $ave disastrous results for people and nature in t$e1out$, 3o!ever& in spite of t$e obvious vicious circle economic developmentpromotes& t$e 1out$ern #overnments continue to focus on economic pro*t, $ismeans t$at peoples9 ri#$t to decide is overloo4ed, $ey are instead e+pected tocontain t$eir losses, $us& t$e pro#ramme of development $as c$eated 1out$ernpeople out of t$e democracy t$ey !ere promised after liberatin# t$emselves fromcolonial domination, "nstead& a ne! dominative relations$ip is created bet!eenpeople in t$e 1out$ and t$eir #overnments, $is $as t$e tendency to produce socialunrest& crime& violence& $uman ri#$ts abuses& even !ar, 1uc$ social disruption !illonly escalate t$e crises of poverty and misery for !omen& c$ildren and poor people&!$ile furt$er destroy t$e natural environment, From t$e above it follo!s t$atdevelopment devastates !$olesome and sustainable lifestyles of !omen and


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traditional people in t$e 1out$, "t creates scarcity of natural resources and e+cludesan increasin# number of adult and c$ildren from t$eir entitlement to food, $isleads to malnutrition& sic4ness& poverty& misery and deat$, Conclusivelydevelopment $as become a t$reat to t$e survival of t$e #reat ma ority in t$e 1out$,Mat$er t$at bein# a strate#y for poverty alleviation& brin#in# about a #ood life&

development is creatin# comple+ crises of ine uality and poverty& violence and !ar&environmental destruction and abuse of $uman ri#$ts, $ose !orst $it bydevelopment9s destruction are !omen& c$ildren& traditional people& poor people andnature,

4estern ideas of development ot!eri2e women and nature,exploiting t!em for pro t%N!anenge ("# , A, Candidate in Development 1tudies& >niversity of 1out$ Africa& under Dr,1, ', reurnic$t, $ttp: uir,unisa,ac, a bitstream $andle 70.00 . 0 dissertation,pdfHse uenceU7<

Ecofeminism perceives an interconnection bet!een t$e domination of !omen andpoor people& and t$e domination of nature, $is domination is founded on modern&%estern& patriarc$al& dualised structures& !$ic$ subordinate all considered as It$eot$erI compared to t$e superior masculine arc$etype, 3ence& all feminine is seenas inferior and may t$erefore be e+ploited, $is is presently manifested in t$e neo-liberal economic development ideal, "ts #lobal penetration #enerates $u#eeconomic pro*ts & !$ic$ are reaped by (ort$ern and 1out$ern elites & !$ile itsdevastatin# crises of poverty& violence&environmental destruction &and $umanri#$ts abuses ma4es life increasin#ly unmana#eable for 1out$ern !omen & poorpeople and nature, Feminism and ecolo#y $ave t$erefore come to#et$er aimin# atliberatin# !omen& poor people and nature, $ey !ant to c$an#e t$e dualised&reductionist perception of reality into a $olistic cosmolo#y, Ecofeminism

conse uently aims to inte#rate t$e concerns of !omen& poor people and natureinto development,

5ro6ects of 7development( !ave !istorically ruined natural!a0itats and marginali2ed t!e poor%N!anenge ("# , A, Candidate in Development 1tudies& >niversity of 1out$ Africa& under Dr,1, ', reurnic$t, $ttp: uir,unisa,ac, a bitstream $andle 70.00 . 0 dissertation,pdfHse uenceU7<

Development activities in t$e 1out$ are t$eoretically meant to improve t$e !ell-bein# of $uman bein#s, o be consistent& t$is must necessarily include topreservin# t$e $ealt$ of t$e natural environment from !$ic$ many traditionalpeople live, 3o!ever& far too often develop pro ects are focused on Imoderni in#I

people9s lives and as a conse uence development are causin# bot$ $uman miseryand environmental destruction, Ni# dams $ave lon# been t$e presti#e symbol ofindustrialisation and development, $e dams are meant to increase economic#ro!t$ by supplyin# ener#y to industrial production and !ater to commercial cas$crop farmin#, 3o!ever& bi# dams #ive numerous problems, "t $as already beenmentioned t$at bi# construction !or4s cause displacement of indi#enous peopleand increase une ual distribution of !ealt$& !$ic$ leads to poverty and $umanmisery, 3o!ever& t$ey also $ave $u#e ne#ative impacts on nature, $e Ecolo#ist

a#a ine $as called t$ese bi# !ater pro ects for Imassive ecolo#ical destructionsI,


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$e ma#a ine recommends t$at decision ma4ers stop all lar#e-scale !aterdevelopment sc$emes, "n spite of t$is sound advice& C$ina is presently buildin# t$e!orld9s tallest and bi##est dam, "t !ill ne#atively a6ect t$e lives of 2 million peopleand a $u#e natural area, E4ins 7BB2: - B; NNC (e!s ctober 200/


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Enviro CollapseNatural disaster r!etoric fuels a drive to con8uer naturet!roug! masculine forcesCynt$ia *elmont -'$D professor at (ort$land Colle#e& 20 "# “Ecofeminism and

t$e (atural Disaster 3eroine&) %omen9s 1tudies& @olume 8/& "ssue .Ni#-bud#et natural disaster *lms $ave s!amped American t$eaters in recent years:t$e Jurassic 'ar4 series of t$e mid-7BB0s be#an a !ave of disaster movies !$ic$$as continued !it$ bloc4busters suc$ as $e Day After omorro! 200 < and'oseidon 200/nited 1tates as a !orld po!er& and especially t$e environment and t$e role of$umans in it, 7 $ese *lms appeal to our !orst fears about t$e unpredictability ofnatural p$enomena& t$e conse uences of capitalist #reed& and t$e rami*cations ofour strivin# for control over every aspect of nature& from space to t$e #ene,1peci*cally& t$ey reKect t$e #ro!in# unease pla#uin# t$e culture: t$at !e are$eadin# to!ard t$e doom of civili ation& and t$e Eart$& if !e continue on our currente+ploitative pat$, f particular interest from an ecofeminist ecolo#ical feminist<perspective is t$e representation of #ender and nature in t$ese *lms& !$ere& asmale prota#onists battle to!ard victory over 7 Jurassic 'ar4 at V77


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)artmanNarratives of t!e middle passage are told from masculineperspectives and exclude t!e violence done to t!e female 0ody1aidiya )artman specialist in African American literature and $istory and a

professor at Columbia >niversity; 20 "9 ; “@enus in !o Acts);$ttp: !!!,ima#ineic,nl sites default *les *les 3artmanT20@enusT20inT20 !oT20Acts,pdf

1candal and e+cess inundate t$e arc$ive: t$e ra! numbers of t$e mortality account&t$e strate#ic evasion and indirection of t$e captainLs lo#& t$e Korid and sentimentalletters dispatc$ed from slave ports by $omesic4 merc$ants& t$e incantatory storiesof s$oc4in# violence penned by abolitionists& t$e fascinated eye!itness reports ofmercenary soldiers ea#er to divul#e “!$at decency forbids Yt$emZ to disclose&) andt$e rituals of torture& t$e beatin#s& $an#in#s& and amputations ens$rined as la!, $e libidinal investment in violence is every!$ere apparent in t$e documents&

statements and institutions t$at decide our 4no!led#e of t$e past, %$at $as beensaid and !$at can be said about @enus ta4e for #rantedt$e tra5c bet!een fact&fantasy& desire& and violence, Con*rmations of t$is abound, =et us be#in !it$ JamesNarbot& t$e captain of t$e Albion Fri#ate& !$o attested to t$e coincidence of t$epleasures a6orded in t$e space of deat$, "t !as di5cult to e+ercise se+ual restrainton t$e slave s$ip& Narbot confessed& because t$e “youn# spri#$tly maidens& full of ollity and #ood $umor& a6orded an abundance of recreation,)7B Falconbrid#eseconds t$is& amplifyin# t$e slippa#e bet!een victims and s!eet$earts& acts oflove and brutal e+cesses: “ n board some s$ips& t$e common sailors are allo!ed to$ave intercourse !it$ suc$ of t$e blac4 !omen !$ose consent t$ey can procure,And some of t$em $ave been 4no!n to ta4e t$e inconstancy of t$eir paramours somuc$ to $eart& as to leap overboard and dro!n t$emselves,) nly lauda$ E uianodepicts t$e $abitual violence of t$e slave s$ip !it$out recourse to t$e lan#ua#e ofromance: “"t !as almost a common practice !it$ our cler4s and ot$er !$ites& tocommit violent depredations on t$e c$astity of t$e female slaves, , , , " $ave 4no!nour mates to commit t$ese acts most s$amefully& to t$e dis#race& not of C$ristiansonly& but of men, " $ave even 4no!n t$em YtoZ #ratify t$eir brutal passion !it$females not ten years old; and t$ese abominations some of t$em practiced to suc$scandalous e+cess& t$at one of our captains disc$ar#ed t$e mate and ot$ers on t$ataccount) emp$asis added


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:aka! 4!aling:aka! 4!aling is rooted in oppression of women and t!e non-!uman, only t!e alt can access cultural identity

reta ;aard O '$,D in =iterature of Environmental Justice& an ecofeminist !riter&

sc$olar& activist& and documentary *lmma4er; “ ools for a Cross-Cultural FeministEt$ics: E+plorin# Et$ical Conte+ts and Contents in t$e a4a$ %$ale 3unt); 20 "1

3istorically& !$ale $untin# !as not a universal practice in a4a$ tribal society;rat$er& it !as limited to individuals of a speci*c class& #ender& and et$nicity,Accordin# to reports of et$nolo#ists and early European e+plorers& as !ell as laterant$ropolo#ical studies& traditional a4a$ society !as divided into t$ree classes:slaves& commoners& and c$iefs Colson 7B.8& 7.& 202X8; 1!an 7 .


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identities often see t$e reassertion of nationalism and national or tribal identities asa vital strate#y in t$e stru##le for self-determination, "n $er study of interna-tionalpolitics and t$e le#acies of colonialism& Cynt$ia Enloe *nds t$at Ina-tionalismtypically $as sprun# from masculini ed memory, masculini ed $u-miliation andmasculini ed $opeI 7B B&


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:apping4e view t!e oceans t!roug! a lens of masculinity, t!e a sattempt at mapping t!e unknowa0le furt!ers t!e sense of!uman domination

Debora$


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only ever partial trut$s about oceans: t$e ocean in itself is al!ays more t$an !e cansay,


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:arine 5rotected Areas5rotected areas furt!er !uman=nature 0inaries and leads tomore destructionDebora$


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Nuclear 5owerNuclear power endanger nature and society fait! in t!isdestructive tec!nology causes serial policy failure JytteN!anenge O a Danis$ e+patriate& $as completed t$ree de#rees and $as

contributed $eavily to international development t$eory& focusin# speci*cally onpoverty alleviation; February 20 "# ; “Ecofeminism: o!ards "nte#ratin# t$eConcerns of %omen& 'oor 'eople& and (ature into Development)

C$ernobyl made clear t$at t$ere is no peaceful use of nuclear ener#y, Atomicener#y is a !ar tec$nolo#y, "ts met$odolo#y is based on destruction of life, $usmodern science and its tec$nolo#y is !arfare a#ainst nature and society, 1uc$ 4indof dan#erous ener#y is not pro#ress, "t 4ills all natural - air& !ater& and food, $eruin of C$ernobyl !ill contaminate t$e surroundin# area for many years to come, "tcaused deat$& diseases and despair for many people, 'eople must t$erefore notleave t$e uestion of tec$nolo#y c$oice to t$e Ie+pertsI in politics& science and

business, 'eople must instead demand an immediate end to nuclear po!er plantsand all ot$er tec$nolo#ies t$at destroy nature and society, "t is t$ose people !$oc$oose suc$ tec$nolo#ies !$o eventually !ill return $umanity to t$e stone a#e& nott$ose !$o protest a#ainst t$em, 3enderson *nds 7B : 87 < t$at suc$ actions anddecision-ma4in#s only s$o! t$at politicians are t$e products of a system& !$ic$creates leaders !$o are $elpless& incompetent or corrupt, 3enderson 7B : 87 ;

ies and 1$iva 7BB8: B.-B/


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!ind& most European countries !ere contaminated& #ivin# a#ricultural costs of 2.0million >1D in %estern ermany alone, $e former 1oviet o5cially put t$e costs oft$e disaster at 7 billion >1D, Estimates of eventual cancer deat$ ran#e from a fe!t$ousands& accordin# to nuclear industry sources& !$ile 'rofessor ofman at t$e>niversity of California assumes it !ill be more t$an a million, E4ins et al, 7BB2:

2 1A, $at means 2&.00pounds for every !oman& man and c$ild in t$at country, "n 7B B manufacturin#facilities in >1 released over 7 billion pounds of to+ic c$emicals directly into air&!ater& land or under#round !ells, $e list of contaminated sites ac4no!led#ed byt$e >1 environmental protection a#ency continues to #ro!, Cleanin# up t$e prioritysites in t$e >1 could cost up to 700 billion >1D, E4ins et al, 7BB2: 7 ; (e!man7BB : 1D, $ree dumps nearby are also lea4in# into t$e (ia#ara Miver& t$e source of drin4in#!ater for / million people, E4ins et al, 7BB2: 2


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5ostmodernism5ostmodernist feminism promotes masculine tec!nosciencew!ile ignoring t!e current struggles for femininity and natureAriel &alle! O '$D =a!& Et$ics and 'ublic A6airs& sociolo#ist !rites on social

ecolo#y and ecofeminism; 20 "+ ; “ $e dystopia of tec$noscience: An ecofeministcriti ue of postmodern reason)

Get in t$e *nal analysis& even t$ese postmodern feminists confess to bein# seducedby t$e masculinist fascination !it$ space adventure& and so t$e reader is left!onderin# about t$e aut$enticity of Cosmodolp$ins, $e aut$ors are $i#$lysuccessful in s$o!in# up t$e P#od-tric4L of tec$noscience as it eyeballs t$e blueplanet far belo!, Get& alon# !it$ t$eir mentor 3ara!ay& t$ey un!ittin#ly perpetuatet$e dissociated Pvie! from no!$ereL t$rou#$ t$eir poststructuralist re ection offeminist standpoint epistemolo#y Y/ Z, 'er$aps t$e problem stems from t$e factt$at t$eir discipline of cultural studies is desi#ned to destabilise t$e !orld of ideas O

rat$er t$an O to release lon# su6erin# material bodies from oppressive politicalstructures, 3o!ever& brilliant NryldLs and =y44eLs deconstruction of t$e si#nifyin#realm may be O and it is an enc$antin# study O it o6ers no e+istential #round forpractical resistance by !omen, oreover& t$eir dismissal of t$e utopian moment perse& ends up containin# bot$ political t$ou#$t and action inside t$e closed circle ofdiscourse analysis, As 27st century tec$noscience arms t$e colonisin# reac$ of%estern modernisation& some may !onder at t$e complacent& even carelesssop$istication of 3ara!ayLs ostensibly PpostL modern cybor# p$ilosop$y, As s$eadmits: P"Lm tryin# to say bot$& and neit$er& nor ,,,L Y/.Z, Nut $er comple+ Popen*eldsL& criss-crossin# PplaysL& Ppartial trut$sL and Foucauldian dispersals of po!er&invo4e a oyful paradi#m rat$er t$an a critical one, "ts disen#a#ement from t$ee+ploitive $ierarc$y of $umanity over nature and seemin# contempt for t$ecapitalist patriarc$al resourcin# of t$ose !$o labour !it$ in nature& is elitist O if onlyby default, $e #immic4y forays into tec$noscience as Pmaterialised semiosisLalmost reduce sociolo#ical analysis to Pa $etero#eneous collection of bumperstic4ersL,7/ $e !ritin# le#itimates more t$an it displaces t$e Pinformatics ofdominationL, Nut in t$e real !orld: 3ara!ayLs carbon $un#ry $i#$ tec$ u##ernautcollides !it$ #rassroots e6orts to build alternative social futures t$at !ill be #loballyfair, =i4e!ise& t$e t$rill of random replication and en#ineered $ybridity s$attersecosystem inte#rity, $e occasional nod to ecofeminist politics in 3ara!ayLspostmodern feminism is not a convincin# one& because $er tec$nop$ilic dreams are$i#$ly masculinist and dystopian in t$e e+treme,


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.esource 4ars!e a views resources as items ready for exploitation t!is

re>ects dominant relation wit!in patriarc!y(icole 3etra2 O'$,D& 'ro6esor of 'olitical 1cience speciali in# in international

relations and environmental politics; 20 "+ ; “Environmental 1ecurity and ender:(ecessary 1$ifts in an Evolvin# Debate& 1ecurity 1tudies); 7 :2& 8.2-8.7

$e ecolo#ical security approac$ is t$e fart$est removed from traditional securitystudies& as can be seen in able 7, $e sc$olars !$o use t$is frame!or4 areinterested in t$e security of t$e environment& includin# $uman bein#s& t$at ist$reatened lar#ely by $uman activities, "n t$is respect& many ecofeminists !ill bepleased !it$ t$e ac4no!led#ement of a close relations$ip bet!een $uman andnon$uman nature and t$e re ection of t$e idea t$at $umans are usti*ably dominantover nature, From an ecolo#ical security vie!point& items li4e !ater& fertile soils&and fossil fuels are seen as parts of t$e total environment rat$er t$an resources

available for $uman consumption, $is re ection of t$e idea of e+ploitation ofresources mirrors ecofeminists re ection of t$e dominatin# relations$ip t$atpatriarc$al structures in society set up bet!een $umans and nature, 3o!ever& t$efact t$at ecolo#ical security does not address t$e di6erential impacts ofenvironmental de#radation for men and !omen !ill be a concern t$at needs to beaddressed,

!e alt is pre-re8uisite to fully understanding t!e impact ofscarcity(icole 3etra2 O'$,D& 'ro6esor of 'olitical 1cience speciali in# in internationalrelations and environmental politics; 20 "+ ; “Environmental 1ecurity and ender:(ecessary 1$ifts in an Evolvin# Debate& 1ecurity 1tudies); 7 :2& 8..-8.

ConKict stemmin# from environmental c$an#e must be e+amined in a #ender-focused environmental security perspective& !it$ speci*c attention paid toconte+tual and $istoric factors t$at contribute to violence and t$e impacts t$atviolence $as for members of t$e population in uestion, Mat$er t$an assume t$atscarcity is an unproblematic notion& it must be e+amined in order to determine $o!assessments of scarcity and plenty are arrived at and for t$e bene*t of !$om,'o!er dynamics must be assessed if one is to fully understand t$e potential forconKict as !ell as all of t$e implications involved, Additionally& scarcity must not be

t$ou#$t of only in terms of a lac4 of access to a resource for $uman consumption, $e needs of t$e environment to function productively must also be ta4en intoaccount in order to determine scarcity in a #iven case, $is reKects $o! $umansand non$uman nature are ine+tricably lin4ed and $o! t$e insecurity of one $asimplications for t$e insecurity of t$e ot$er, A detailed e+amination of scarcity !illalso brin# to li#$t t$e dominant relations$ip $umans claim to $ave over nature&!$ic$ $as lin4s to ot$er dominant relation s$ips in societyX(ort$ 1out$& elite non-elite& and most importantly for t$is analysis& men !omen, $is can provo4e


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uestions about t$e normalcy of t$ese relations$ips and $opefully invite alternativeunderstandin#s of t$e relations$ips,


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&cienceNarratives of science and progress res!ape t!e world aso06ects for exploitationCarolyn :erc!ant O '$D in 3istory of 1cience& professor of Environmental

3istory& '$ilosop$y and Et$ics at >C Ner4ley; 20 "? ; “ $e 1cienti*c Mevolution and $e Deat$ of (ature)

Get t$e notion of a “1cienti*c Mevolution) in t$e si+teent$ and seventeent$centuries is part of a lar#er mainstream narrative of %estern culture t$at $aspropelled science& tec$- nolo#y& and capitalismLs e6orts to “master) nature O anarrative into !$ic$ most %estern- ers $ave unconsciously been sociali ed and!it$in !$ic$ !e ourselves $ave become actors in a storyline of up!ard pro#ress,Demotin# t$e “1cienti*c Mevolution) to t$e mere nomer of “early modern science)obscures t$e po!er of t$e dominant narratives of colonialism and imperialism t$at$ave $elped to s$ape %estern culture since t$e seventeent$ century at t$e e+pense

of nature& !omen& minorities& and indi#enous peoples, $is move $ides t$e politicalpo!er of scienti*c narratives in rema4in# t$e eart$ and its natural resources asob ects for $uman use,7


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&tate!e state perpetuates a world of androcentrism patriarc!al

capitalism Jasmin&ydee ? 1$aron *eder & 1ydee - is a researc$ assistant !it$ t$e 1cience&

ec$nolo#y and 1ociety pro#ram at t$e >niversity of %ollon#on# and a doctoralcandidate in t$e 1c$ool of 1ocial 1ciences& edia and Communication at t$e>niversity of %ollon#on# and Neder - is a professor in t$e Faculty of Arts at t$e>niversity of %ollon#on#& “Ecofeminism and lobalisation: A Critical Appraisal)&DE CMACG ? (A >ME: $e "nternational Journal of "(C=>1"@E DE CMACG vol, &no,2& July 20"1 < access $ere:$ttp: !!!,democracynature,or# vol beder\sydee\#lobalisation,$tm

Central to #lobalisation is t$e c$an#in# role of t$e nation state, Accordin# to#lobalisation t$eorists& t$e nation state as !e 4no! it !ill s$rin4 in si e and po!eruntil t$e state apparatus only e+ists to control t$e Prump functionsL suc$ as t$e

police and ta+es etc, $e state& as t$e primary mode of social or#anisation !ill besuperseded by t$e mar4et, $e freedom of trade& information and cultural Ko!s !illcreate a “#lobal villa#e) in !$ic$ individuals are #lobal citi ens rat$er t$annationals, r so t$ere story #oes,,, As many t$eorists $ave noted& it is important tountan#le t$e r$etoric concernin# #lobalisation from t$e real c$an#es t$at areoccurrin# internationally, Alt$ou#$& multinationals are becomin# increasin#lypo!erful and t$e role of t$e nation state is c$an#in# !e must remember t$at#lobalisation is a contested concept, For ecofeminism t$e c$an#in# role of t$enation state $as a variety of si#ni*cances, Firstly& and per$aps most importantly ist$at t$e state is ar#ued to intrinsically be an institution of patriarc$al capitalism, $at is t$at $istorically t$e state !as created as an institution in aid of t$e mar4etand capital as an institution of control, PY Z$e economy cannot directly control!omenLs se+uality& fertility and !or4 capacity; to do t$is& t$e state& !it$ its familypolicy& is necessary,LY7/Z $e P$ouse!i* ationL of !omen& or t$e split bet!eenproduction and reproduction& !as a re uirement of capitalism and t$e state $elpedcreate t$is condition, As a diverse array of feminists $ave discussed& !omen !ererele#ated to t$e private sp$ere and t$erefore denied e ual access to participate inPcivil societyL,Y7 Z $e continuin# importance of public private dic$otomy is$i#$li#$ted in t$e battles of t$e su6ra#ette movement and t$e limitations of liberalfeminism,Y7 Z "n t$e 1out$ t$e 1tate as a mode of social or#anisation $as an evens$orter $istory t$an in t$e (ort$, @andana 1$iva e+plores t$e c$an#in# concepts of1tate in "ndia as an e+ample of t$e impacts of 1tatism& capitalism and #lobalisationon subsistence communities in t$e 1out$, 1$iva states t$at t$e concept of9mot$erland9 - rooted in t$e soil as an ima#e of sacred life and creation& t$efeminine - !as t$e traditional or#anisin# metap$or in "ndia, "t !as replaced by9 ot$er "ndia9 as a focus of resistance in t$e *#$t a#ainst colonisation by Nritain int$e 7B 09s, $e subse uent drive for 9development9 replaced t$e ima#e of mot$eror feminine stren#t$ !it$ t$e state itself as a patriarc$al leader,Y7BZ Get t$e role oft$e state itself is c$an#in#, 1$iva claims t$at at t$e economic level& in "ndia& 9t$estate $as been totally sub u#ated to t$e superstate run by t$e transnational


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corporations (C9s< and t$e Nretton %oods institutions - %orld Nan4& "nternationalonetary Fund " F< and t$e eneral A#reement on ari6s and rade A


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4ar!e a (s war t!reats create a self-ful lling prop!ecy and

marginali2e nature and minorities t!e alt is key to overcome JytteN!anenge - Development Consultant studies development policies in Africa;


"n spite of t$e $u#e amounts spent and t$e enormous implications t$e militarymac$ine $as on $uman lives and environmental $ealt$& !eapons do not$in# to#enerate security and peace, $e number of !ars in t$e !orld $as not decreasedalt$ou#$ t$e arms $ave increased, From 7B . to 7B B& 72 !ars too4 place 4illin#22 million people, 3ence& reality s$o!s t$at arms proliferation and !ars do notproduce peace and security t$ey only #enerate more !ars, "n spite of t$is fact'enta#on& still ar#ue t$at more and better !eapons !ill ma4e >1A safer, o ustifyt$e military build-up most national leaders claim t$at t$ey ac uire !eapons for

defence purpose only, 3o!ever& in reality t$ey purc$ase arms t$at can attac4, Fore+ample& >1A9s military do not build defence !eapons, "nstead& t$ey $ave aIdefenceI policy of *rst stri4e strate#ies, %it$ increasin#ly dan#erous and let$al!eapons also t$e destruction e+pands $ence intensifyin# t$e li4eli$ood of a #lobal$olocaust, Conclusively& military e+penditures do not prevent !ars t$ey aret$erefore not usti*ed, Capra 7B 2: 2; E4ins 7BB2: .- & 7./


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consumer oriented& economic #ro!t$ model to a conserver society, From t$is& itfollo!s t$at real security depends on non-military concerns li4e economic !ell-bein#& social ustice& material su5ciency and ecolo#ical stability, oreover& !e needto tal4 to#et$er, Di6erences bet!een people and #roups must be discussed so t$ateac$ understands t$e ot$er, %it$ compromises and a#reements on common aims&

peaceful solutions to disa#reements can be found, E4ins 7BB2: . -.B& 7./; Mo!e7BB : 28 ; rainer 7BB : .B0-.B7


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Impact


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Laundry ListAndrocentrism creates an et!ic of domination w!ic! leads towars, poverty, and environmental destruction JytteN!anenge O a Danis$ e+patriate& $as completed t$ree de#rees and $as

contributed $eavily to international development t$eory& focusin# speci*cally onpoverty alleviation; February 20 "# ; “Ecofeminism: o!ards "nte#ratin# t$eConcerns of %omen& 'oor 'eople& and (ature into Development)

$e androcentric premises also $ave political conse uences, $ey protect t$eideolo#ical basis of e+ploitative relations$ips, ilitarism& colonialism& racism&se+ism& capitalism and ot$er pat$olo#ical 9isms9 of modernity #et le#itimacy fromt$e assumption t$at po!er relations and $ierarc$y are inevitably a part of $umansociety& due to man9s in$erent nature, Necause !$en man4ind by nature isautonomous& competitive and violent i,e, masculine< t$en coercion and $ierarc$icalstructures are necessary to mana#e conKicts and maintain social order, "n t$is !ay,

t$e cooperative relations$ips suc$ as t$ose found amon# some !omen and tribalcultures& are by a dualised de*nition unrealistic and >topian, Nir4eland 7BB.: .B


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seen as bein# correct& because t$ey are based on scienti*c facts made by scienti*ce+perts, ne result is t$at t$e state& !it$out consultin# t$e public& en#a#es in apat$olo#ical pursuit of economic #ro!t$, overnments support t$e capitalistideolo#y& !$ic$ bene*ts t$e elite only& !$ile it is destroyin# nature and increasin#poverty for !omen and lo!er classes, $e priority on capitalism also determines

ot$er social policies, $ere are conse uently no considerations for a possibleconKict bet!een t$e amis of t$e #overnment for social control and economice5ciency and t$e !elfare needs of various social #roups, %it$out $avin# analternative to t$e e+istin# order& people become dis-empo!ered, >ltimately& t$ereaction is public apat$y& !$ic$ le#itimates aut$orative #overnments, $us& socialscience is an ideolo#y& !$ic$ is a5rmin# t$e prevailin# social& political andeconomic order, Meit es 7BB8: 8/-8B& 7- 2


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ediatore 7BB


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sees environmental problems as Irooted in t$e rise of capitalist patriarc$y and t$eideolo#y t$at t$e Eart$ and nature can be e+ploited for $uman pro#ressI 708


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.oot Cause ;eneric5atriarc!y allows for environmental degradation andmilitari2ation4arren D Cady +@ Y'rofessors of '$ilosop$y at acalester Colle#e ? 3amline

>niversity [aren and Duane& “3ypatia)& 1prin#& 7BB , 'ro uestZ $e notion of patriarc$y as a socially dysfunctional system enables feministp$ilosop$ers to s$o! !$y conceptual connections are so important and $o!conceptual connections are lin4ed to t$e variety of ot$er sorts of !oman-nature-peace connections, "n addition& t$e claim t$at patriarc$y is a dysfunctional socialsystem locates !$at ecofeminists see as various IdysfunctionalitiesI of patriarc$y-t$e empirical invisibility of !$at !omen do& se+ist-!arist-naturist lan#ua#e& violenceto!ard !omen& ot$er cultures& and nature-in a $istorical& socioeconomic& cultural&and political conte+t, 70< o say t$at patriarc$y is a dysfunctional system is to sayt$at t$e fundamental beliefs& values& attitudes and assumptions conceptualframe!or4< of patriarc$y #ive rise to impaired t$in4in#& be$aviors& and institutions!$ic$ are un$ealt$y for $umans& especially !omen& and t$e planet, $e follo!in#dia#ram represents t$e features of patriarc$y as a dysfunctional social system:'atriarc$y& as an >p-Do!n system of po!er-over relations$ips of domination of!omen by men& is conceptually #rounded in a faulty patriarc$al belief and valuesystem& a


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dysfunctional be$aviors of nations and ultimately to international unmana#eability,uc$ of t$e current Iunmana#eabilityI of contemporary life in patriarc$al societies&d


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messa#e to anot$er #roup of men& t$e universal se+ual victimi ation of !omenclearly communicates to all !omen a messa#e of dominance and o!ners$ip over!omen, As C$arlotte Nunc$ e+plains& I $e p$ysical territory of Yt$eZ politicalstru##le Yover female subordinationZ is !omen9s bodies,I 2

5atriarc!y is t!e root cause of warCAM = ', C).I& & teac$es in t$e %omenLs 1pirituality pro#ram at C""1 andt$rou#$ Ariadne "nstitute o6ers life-transformin# oddess 'il#rima#es to Crete&

arc$ & 201 & “'atriarc$y As An "nte#ral 1ystem of ale Dominance Created att$e "ntersection of t$e Control of %omen& 'rivate 'roperty& and %ar& 'art 8)&Feminism and Meli#ion& $ttp: feminismandreli#ion,com 2078 08 0 patriarc$y-as-an-inte#ral-system-of-male-dominance-created-at-t$e-intersection-of-t$e-control-of-!omen-private-property-and-!ar-part-8

$e model of patriarc$y " $ave proposed ar#ues t$at t$e control of female se+ualityis fundamental to t$e patriarc$al system, $is e+plains !$y t$ere is so muc$controversy about t$e “simple matter) of access to birt$ control and abortion in t$e>1 today, "t also e+plains !$y so muc$ vicious an#er is directed at sin#le mot$ersby politicians and commentators, Any !oman !$o dares to control $er o!nse+uality is uestionin# t$e foundations of t$e patriarc$al system, %omenLs ri#$t tocontrol our bodies and our se+uality alone is not enou#$ to end t$e system of maledomination, Nut t$e ri#$t of !omen to control our se+uality O and yes to $ave se+!$enever and !it$ !$omever !e please O is t$e be#innin# of t$e end of t$epatriarc$al system, "ssues concernin# se+uality are sometimes dismissed as “soft)or as only part of t$e “culture !ars,) $e de*nition of patriarc$y as an inte#ralsystem s$o!s t$at se+ual matters are “inte#rally) related to t$e “$ard) “social) and“economic) issues t$at are sometimes vie!ed as more real or important t$ancultural issues, $e model of patriarc$y as an inte#ral system enables us to see t$atin order to end male domination !e must also end !arOand violence& rape&con uest& e+ploitation& and slavery !$ic$ are sanctioned as part of !ar, "n societies!$ere t$e violent be$aviors of !arriors are celebrated and in !$ic$ soldiers !$o$ave been trained in t$e met$ods of violence come $ome& it is unli4ely t$at anyonecan succeed in eradicatin# rape and violence a#ainst !omen, "n t$e >1 military t$erape of !omen soldiers by ot$er soldiers is common& and t$e military is coverin# itup, $is needs to stop and t$e men !$o rape in t$e military must be punis$ed,3o!ever& t$e fact t$at rape $as been permitted as t$e spoils of !ar from t$einception of !ar up to t$e present day is rarely considered as one of t$e reasons fort$e rape of !omen in t$e military, Can ustice for raped !omen be ac$ieved in aninstitution t$at $as al!ays permitted and sometimes encoura#ed rapeH And even ifrape can be stopped !it$in t$e military& !ill soldiers still continue to rape t$e!omen of t$e “t$e enemy) and brin# learned violent be$aviors !it$ t$em !$ent$ey come $omeH Do !e $ave to end !ar to end violence a#ainst !omenH "f !e!is$ to end patriarc$y& !e must also address t$e une ual distribution of !ealt$in$erent in t$e notion of “private) property& muc$ of it t$e “spoils) of !ar& !$ic$ ledto t$e concept of patriarc$al in$eritance& !$ic$ in turn re uired t$e control offemale se+uality, "t is important t$at t$e model of communal land o!ners$ip inprepatriarc$al societies and t$e principle of s$arin# !ealt$ t$rou#$ #ift-#ivin#


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systems become more !idely 4no!n, [no!led#e is po!er, [no!led#e of morecommunal alternatives e+poses t$e in ustices in systems of unrestrainedaccumulation of private property in t$e $ands of po!erful individuals, %$ile !e maynot be able to return to a system of communal land o!ners$ip any time soon& !ecan support universal $ealt$ care& pro#ressive ta+ systems t$at redistribute

accumulated !ealt$& and social safety nets for t$e poor and t$e vulnerable, %$en!e reco#ni e t$at t$e desire to pass property on to $eirs is one of t$e roots of t$epatriarc$al system& !e mi#$t also become more sympat$etic to serious reform oft$e in$eritance system, "f individuals !ere only allo!ed to leave a set amount toeac$ c$ild and none to family-controlled c$arities& t$ere !ould be less incentive toaccumulate lar#e amounts of !ealt$ in t$e *rst place, =et us not 4id ourselves& t$e“ri#$t) of individuals most of t$em male< to accumulate vast !ealt$ and to pass iton to $eirs is at t$e root of t$e ri#$t-!in# insistence t$at ta+es on t$e ric$ not beraised and ta+ loop$oles not be closed, "f !e be#in to see t$e in ustices involved inac uirin# people and property as t$e spoils of !ar& !e mi#$t also become moresympat$etic to t$e idea of payin# reparations to indi#enous peoples and to people!$ose ancestors !ere enslaved, $is is not a matter of punis$in# some for sinscommitted by ot$ers, Are t$ose !$ose ancestors lived in poverty in t$e tenementsof (e! Gor4 and rose from t$ere to t$e middle class any less t$e bene*ciaries of t$ein ustices on !$ic$ t$e American system !as built t$an t$ose !$ose ancestors $eldslaves or too4 land from t$e "ndiansH %e could fund reparations !it$ t$e money t$at!ealt$y individuals !ould no lon#er be allo!ed to pass on to t$eir $eirs, %e mi#$teven be#in to vie! t$ese measuresOand ot$ers li4e t$emOas neit$er un ust nor evenas e+traordinary& but simply as !$at is re uired to repair t$e in ustices in$erent int$e patriarc$al system of private property,


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.oot Cause .ace:en !ave used a met!od of masculinity to control D militari2ewomen(s 0odies, allowing t!em to rape t!e eart!3workin, B Andrea& “" %ant a !enty-Four-3our ruce Durin# %$ic$ $ere "s (o

Mape) 'eace!or4 82,8./ Jun Jul 200.


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in t$is country& as if t$at is somet$in# separate from t$e issues of feminism or t$emen9s movement, $ere is a cartoon " sa! t$at brou#$t it all to#et$er nicely, "t !asa bi# picture of Monald Mea#an as a co!boy !it$ a bi# $at and a #un, And it said: IA#un in every $olster; a pre#nant !oman in every $ome, a4e America a mana#ain,I $ose are t$e politics of t$e Mi#$t, if you are afraid of t$e ascendancy of

fascism in t$is country - and you !ould be very foolis$ not to be ri#$t no! - t$enyou !ad 0etter understand t!at t!e root issue !ere !as to do wit! malesupremacy and t!e control of womenG sexual access to womenG women asreproductive slavesG private owners!ip of women% $at is t$e pro#ram of t$eMi#$t, $at is t$e morality t$ey tal4 about, $at is !$at t$ey mean, $at is !$att$ey !ant, And t$e only opposition to t$em t$at matters is an opposition to meno!nin# !omen, %$at9s involved in doin# somet$in# about all of t$isH $e men9smovement seems to stay stuc4 on t!o points, $e *rst is t$at men don9t really feelvery #ood about t$emselves, 3o! could youH $e second is t$at men come to meor to ot$er feminists and say: I%$at you9re sayin# about men isn9t true, "t isn9t trueof me, " don9t feel t$at !ay, "9m opposed to all of t$is,I And " say: don9t tell me, ellt$e porno#rap$ers, ell t$e pimps, ell t$e !arma4ers, ell t$e rape apolo#ists andt$e rape celebrationists and t$e pro-rape ideolo#ues, ell t$e novelists !$o t$in4t$at rape is !onderful, ell =arry Flynt, ell 3u#$ 3efner, $ere9s no point in tellin#me, "9m only a !oman, $ere9s not$in# " can do about it, $ese men presume tospea4 for you, $ey are in t$e public arena sayin# t$at t$ey represent you, "f t$eydon9t& t$en you $ad better let t$em 4no!, 1ay it to your friends !$o are doin# it,And t$ere are streets out t$ere on !$ic$ you can say t$ese t$in#s loud and clear& soas to a6ect t$e actual institutions t$at maintain t$ese abuses, Gou don9t li4eporno#rap$yH " !is$ " could believe it9s true, " !ill believe it !$en " see you on t$estreets, " !ill believe it !$en " see an or#ani ed political opposition, " !ill believe it!$en pimps #o out of business because t$ere are no more male consumers,

:asculinity naturali2ed and domesticated slaves it lead tot!e exploitation of t!e 0lack woman and t!e Eart!Mita arie Lester - '$D in p$ilosop$y; June 7B +# ; “Ecofeminism in a 'ostmodern=andscape: $e Nody of od& aia& and t$e Cybor#&)

Ecot$eolo#y and ot$er liberation t$eolo#ies su##est t$at t$e #lobal environmentalcrisis is deeply rooted in t$e institutions of fear and oppression of anyt$in# oranyone perceived as Inatural&) non-!$ite and or female, any !$ite feministsc$olars& suc$ as Carolyn erc$ant& Andree Collard& ary Daly& and Mosemary

Muet$er& e+plore t$e relations$ip of !omen to nature as it !as constructed inancient classical societies and t$e European scienti*c revolution, Ecofeminism& as amovement& $as paid a #reat deal of attention to t$e connection bet!een $etero-patriarc$al #ender $ierarc$ies and ecolo#ical destruction, =ess attention& $o!ever&$as been paid to t$e role racism and classism $ave played in t$e destruction ofnature& as !ell as t$e role racism $as played in s$apin# !$ite feminism9sunderstandin# of t$e relations$ip bet!een !omen and nature, Nlac4ness and!$iteness are symbolic cate#ories s$aped $istorically by #ender, For e+ample&


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!$iteness and !$ite femininity are $istorically constructed& and must be understoodas suc$& to develop a t$eolo#ical et$ic !$ic$ advocates feminism& anti-racism& andecolo#ical concerns !it$out reifyin# essentialist ontolo#ies, Mace and #ender arecate#ories by !$ic$ to analy e social& political& t$eolo#ical& and et$ical dynamics,Discussions of race& in t$is instance& is a discussion not of #enetic c$aracteristics

but of $istorical& constructed cate#ories, "n a culture !$ere t$e t$er is oftenburdened !it$ a racial cate#ory al!ays in relation to t$e dominant cate#ory


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t$ey belon#ed to a realm outside of redeemed civili ation, "n t$is conte+t&!ilderness !as considered unredeemed and uncultivated eart$; !ilderness !asIemptyI and available for possession, Colonists rationali ed t$e dispossession of(ative Americans from t$e land t$rou#$ t$e lan#ua#e of labor and discipline, DavidMoedi#er !rites t$at settler ideolo#y $eld t$at improvident& se+ually abandoned

9la y "ndians9 !ere failin# to 9$usband9 or 9subdue9 t$e resources od $ad providedand& t$us& s$ould forfeit t$ose resources,8` "t !as only t$rou#$ t$e labor of animalsand $umans t$at eart$ !as turned into desirable land; accordin# to Jo$n =oc4e in$is 1econd reatise of Civil overnment& only labor turned land into valued property&and only !$ite men !ere properly Iproperty o!ners,I8. >nli4e t$e ima#e of t$eAfrican American slave& male or female& t$e myt$ical ima#e of t$e (ative American&male or female& !as of independence& a symbol of American freedom, DavidMoedi#er posits t$at it !as t$is myt$ical independence& as !ell as t$e disappearin#of (ative populations& !$ic$ prevented !$ite !or4in# class men in t$e nineteent$century from spea4in# of bein# a I!a#e "ndian,I "nstead& t$ey adopted t$e term&I!a#e slave,I8/ A !$ite !or4in# class man could not complain of $avin# to I!or4li4e an "ndianI but could and !ould complain of $avin# to I!or4 li4e a slave,INlac4ness !as almost completely lin4ed to servitude, $e use of t$e !ord IslaveryIas a t$reat& in contrast to freedom& too4 on special meanin# in America& !it$ itsactual $istory of Nlac4 slavery, Class !as also a mediatin# factor for !omen&nort$ern and sout$ern, For e+ample& poor non-slave-$oldin# !$ites in t$e sout$ernupcountry and on t$e frin#es of sout$ern society and economy !ere loo4ed do!nupon& even by some slaves,8 o be poor !as even more s$ameful for !$ite !omenbecause it violated norms of !$ite femininity; t$at is& poor !$ite !omen !ere notseen as IladiesI innocent& dependent& and !ort$y of male protection, ` =i4e t$e#ro!in# numbers of !omen in t$e e+pandin# industrial !or4 force of t$e (ort$&poor sout$ern !omen $ad a role in t$e family economy& not because of a myt$ ofdomesticity& but because li4e slave !omen& t$eir labor #ave t$em some security!it$in t$e family and community, "n t$is !ay& !or4in# so-called InativeI An#lo<!omen in t$e (ort$ may $ave en oyed a more positive ima#e t$an !or4in# poor!$ite !omen in t$e 1out$,8 $e latter9s p$ysical pro+imity to and compassion !it$bot$ t$e ima#e of !$ite !oman$ood and t$e ima#e of t$e de#raded blac4 !omanslave !as a double ne#ative, Also& in t$e (ort$& accordin# to C$ristine 1tansell&alternatives to bour#eois ideals of femininity emer#ed in !or4in# class No!ery!omen of pre-Civil %ar (e! Gor4,8B in t$e 1out$& !$ite-de*ned femininity& becauseit !as more fully based on property& class& and slave $oldin#& e+cluded pooreryeoman and upcountry 'iedmont !omen !$o !ere responsible for t$e $ouse!or4&food processin# and storin#& clot$ ma4in#& and ot$er domestic tas4s of t$eirfamilies, $e yeoman class !as more li4ely t$an t$e plantation class to be anti-slavery as !ell as critical of t$e conscription and ta+es enforced by t$e Confederate#overnment durin# t$e Civil %ar< but t$is !as not necessarily for moral reasons, $e yeoman class !as ambivalent about t$e moral status of slavery, =i4eabolitionists& t$ey !ere concerned more about t$e bonda#e of blac4s as atouc$stone by !$ic$ de#radation could be measured in a society pri in# itself onindependence and democracy, $e e+perience of !omen in t$is $istorical period!as comple+ and multi-layered bot$ in its a5rmations and in its limitations, %$iteplanter !omen !ere to represent civili ation and cultivate t$e civili ation of ot$ers


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in t$e social order& particularly t$eir c$ildren, Get !$ite !omen also !ere seen asembodied& closer to nature& and more susceptible to evil t$an men, %$ite !omen!ere $ierarc$ically placed belo! !$ite men of t$eir class& but above natives andabove blac4 men and !omen& !it$ !$om t$ey most li4ely dealt !it$ on a daily basisin t$e domestic sp$ere, As [atie Cannon su##ests& !$ite !omen !it$in slave-

$oldin# $ouse$olds most li4ely vented t$eir o!n frustration at bein# considered t$eproperty of !$ite men of t$eir class in violent& vindictive be$avior to!ards blac4!omen, 0 "n t$e 1out$& most !$ites interacted !it$ blac4s only !it$in t$e con*nesof t$e institution of slavery, And& li4e (atives& blac4s !ere associated !it$ natureand animals, Nut instead of bein# associated !it$ !ild animals& as (atives !ere&slaves !ere more li4ely associated !it$ !or4 animals and beasts of burden, 7 =i4eanimals& or even !orse t$an animals& slaves !ere !or4ed constantly& re#ardless of!eat$er and personal safety& coerced into laborin# to turn eart$ into property t$ey!ere not allo!ed to o!n, African American !omen in particular& as su##ested byDelores %illiams& !ere e+ploited not only for t$eir labor of production& but for t$eirreproduction as !ell, $ese !omen !ere not seen as $uman mot$ers but asIbreeders, I 2 Nreedin# slaves !as less e+pensive for !$ite o!ners t$an buyin#ne! slaves& and breedin# !as re#ularly practiced after t$e early 7 00s !$en t$ee+ternal slave trade to t$e 1out$ !as $alted by la!, Nlac4 slave !omen !eree+pected to #ive birt$& t$e labor of reproduction& !it$out interruptin# t$eir ot$erlabor& t$e labor of production, Delores %illiams compares t$is practice of breedin#female slaves to t$e !ays in !$ic$ strip-minin# e+$austs t$e eart$Ls body, "#norin#blac4 mot$ers9 $umanity denied t$em t$e protection and satisfaction of blac4families and 4ins$ip net!or4s, As possessions& slaves !ere not permitted to enterinto o5cially reco#ni ed marria#es or family bonds& even t$ou#$ t$e stability of t$eblac4 family unit !as vital to t$e planter class, 1lavery and t$e plantation system&accordin# to Eu#ene enovese& led to a#ricultural met$ods !$ic$ e+$austed t$esoil, %it$out crop rotation or diversi*cation or t$e capital to invest in fertili er&t$e land $ad to be !or4ed $arder and $arder for fe!er returns& a *nancial problemo6set only by a dependence on more intensive labor supplied by t$e slave trade,Nlac4 !omen and t$e very eart$ t$ey !or4ed& alon#side blac4 men& !ere !or4ed atan intensive& destructive& and unsustainable rateX unsustainable for bot$ !or4ersand t$e land t$ey !ere forced to !or4, Delores %illiams !rites: Just as tec$nolo#y9 srapid and often unc$ec4ed contribution to t$e destruction of nature is rationali edon t$e basis of tec$nolo#y providin# #reater pro*ts& comfort& and leisure for moreAmericans& t$e e+ploitation of t$e blac4 !oman L s body !as rationali ed to t$eadvanta#e of !$ite slave o!ners, .

4!ite male domination is t!e root cause of racial oppression


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'redatory $eterose+uality: t$e system by !$ic$ patriarc$al institutions dominate!omen t$rou#$ “coerced) $eterose+uality based on $eteronormativity,3eteronormativity: t$e concept t$at social institutions reinforce t$e idea t$at t$etraditional #ender roles based on t$e $eterose+ual relations$ip are t$e only natural!ays for people to e+ist !it$in bot$ t$eir #ender and se+, 1lave-master relations$ip:

t$is describes t$e relations$ip bet!een blac4 people and !$ite people& respectively&based on t$e le#acy of slavery in t$e >nited 1tates; also related to t$e relations$ipbet!een !omen and men, "n $er essay “=esbianism: an Act of Mesistance&) poetand aut$or C$eryl Clar4e spends a lot of time articulatin# t$e similarities bet!een!omenLs oppression and t$e oppression of African Americans in t$e >nited 1tates att$e !ands of t!e w!ite capitalist male , Dra!in# parallels bet!een t$ee+periences of lesbians and t$e e+periences of many blac4 people& and ina#reement !it$ Eli abet$ Cady 1tantonLs analysis& Clar4e concludes t$at “racismand se+ism $ave been produced by t$e same animal F 7t!e w!ite &axon man( )

787


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Alt


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Alt &olvesEco-feminist pedagogy s!ifts focus from a masculine lens toone t!at gives voice to su0altern groups3uey-li Li - professor of educational p$ilosop$y at t$e >niversity of A4ron; Au#ust

7 & 20"# ; “EC FE "("1 A1 A 'EDA "CA= 'M JEC : % E(& (A >ME& A(DED>CA " (); pp, 8/.-8// Article


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ply focus on recruitin# !omen and et$nic minorities into t$e *elds of scienti*cstudies and ma4in# !omen scientists visible, Mat$er& it is essential to attend to t$ePPinvisibleLL burden on subaltern #roups and to e+plore ecolo#ically con#enial epis-temolo#ical traditions,

Eco-feminist epistemology comes rst and is necessary tores!ape t!e masculine dominant paradigm JytteN!anenge - Development Consultant studies development policies in Africa;February 20 "# ; “Ecofeminism: o!ards "nte#ratin# $e Concerns of %omen& 'oor'eople and (ature "nto Development)

3ence 4no!led#e in a patriarc$al structure is limited to a particular perspective onreality& determined by a speci*c #roup, "ts conditions for epistemolo#y $ave beenandrocentric based on male interests< as !ell as ant$ropocentric based on $umanvalues


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Ecofeminism as a Frame!or4 for an E+panded Ecolo#ical 1ocial %or4&)$ttp: alliance7,metapress,com content a.2n 7 848p./ 27 fullte+t,pdf

Ecofeminism see4s to $eal t$is dullin# of our sentient capacities by re!eavin# t$ein$erent interconnectedness in all of t$e universe t$rou#$ a revitali ation of eac$personLs direct& lived& and sensual e+perience !it$ t$e comple+ !$ole of nature

Diamond ? renstein& 7BB0; 3ollo!ay& 7BB7; erc$ant& 7BB2


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"n li#$t of t$e lo#ic of domination& t$e oppression of $umans& and t$e destruction ofecosystems& !$at do ecofeminists su##est !e& as educators& doH 3o! mi#$t !edismantle t$e social and conceptual structures t$at support t$e lo#ic of dominationand its un ust outcomesH 'eda#o#y& ar#ues ore 2002


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Alt &olves CapEcofeminism solves capN!anenge ("# , A, Candidate in Development 1tudies& >niversity of 1out$Africa& under Dr, 1, ', reurnic$t,

$ttp: uir,unisa,ac, a bitstream $andle 70.00 . 0 dissertation,pdfHse uenceU7<Ecofeminism perceives an interconnection bet!een t$e domination of !omen andpoor people& and t$e domination of nature, $is domination is founded on modern&%estern& patriarc$al& dualised structures& !$ic$ subordinate all considered as It$eot$erI compared to t$e superior masculine arc$etype, 3ence& all feminine is seenas inferior and may t$erefore be e+ploited, $is is presently manifested in t$e neo-liberal economic development ideal, "ts #lobal penetration #enerates $u#eeconomic pro*ts , w!ic! are reaped 0y Nort!ern and &out!ern elites & !$ile itsdevastatin# crises of poverty, violence, environmental destruction , and $umanri#$ts abuses ma4es life increasin#ly unmana#eable for &out!ern !omen , poorpeople and nature% Feminism and ecolo#y $ave t$erefore come to#et$er aimin#at liberatin# !omen , poor people and nature, $ey !ant to c$an#e t$e dualised&reductionist perception of reality into a $olistic cosmolo#y, Ecofeminismconse8uently aims to integrate t!e concerns of women, poor people andnature into development%


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Alt &olves EnvironmentCannot look at t!e environment wit!out analy2ing t!esociology 0e!ind it ris$;la2e0rook & Doctor and 'rofessor in '$ilosop$y at >niversity of (ort$

e+as& 20"/ & “[aren %arren9s Ecofeminism)& Accessed at:$ttp: !!!, stor,or# stable pdfplus 088B08 ,pdfH?accept CUtrue? pdCon*rmUtrue

"n Ecofeminist '$ilosop$y& %arren9s concern is to su##est t$at Iade uate analysisand resolution of suc$ environmental issues as deforetation& !ater pollution&farmin# and food production& and to+ins and $a ardous !aste location must beinte#rally connected to an understandin# of t$e pli#$t and status of !omen& peopleof color& t$e poor& and c$idren ,,, Yto $elpZ one understand $o! mainstreamenvironmental practices and policies often reKect& reinforce& or create practices andpolicies t$at devalue& subvert& or ma4e invisible t$e actual needs and contributions

of !omen& people of color& t$e underclass& and c$ildrenI %arren 2000& +iv+v


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Environmental destruction and an insatia0le appetite forexploitation are rooted in t!e male-female !ierarc!y*ookc!in & founder of t$e social ecolo#y movement !it$in anarc$ist & libertarian socialist & and ecolo#icalt$ou#$t +? urray& “ o!ards an Ecolo#ical 1ociety)& 7BB/& $ttp: lo#ica,u#ent,be p$ilosop$ica fullte+ts 78-/,pdf

$ese concepts& brou#$t to#et$er in a totality t$at could be e+pressed as unity in diversity& spontaneity& andcomplementarity& comprise not only a ud#ement t$at derives from an Iartful scienceI or Iscienti*c artI as " $avedescribed ecolo#y else!$ere


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a society based on production for t$e sa4e of production is& in my vie!& merely amatter of time & alt$ou#$ !$en it !ill occur is impossible to predict,

Ecofeminism is t!e only remedy for ecological destruction and

oppression of women&t% o!n (9# Donald ', 1t, Jo$n& Ecospirit & A 'ublication of t$e "nstitute forEcosop$ical 1tudies& 8 2 <

$at t$e ecolo#y movement must be understood as rooted in !ider culturalmovements $as been an assumption of t$is ournal from t$e be#innin#, %$et$er wespeak of a c!ange in paradigms or of a transvaluation of symbols& t$e causes ofecolo#ical devastation are in t$e minds and $earts of $uman bein#s, %e are s$apedby t$e lan#ua#e& symbols& rituals& Imyt$s&I and be$avior patterns of our culturaltraditions, $us& culture is bot$ t$e problem and t$e solution& bot$ our curse andour $ope , $e dept$ of our understandin# of t$ese cultural dynamics !ill a6ect t$edept$ of our ecolo#ical !isdom or eco-sop$ia, 1op$ia is t$e !isdom of a body andmind oined in sensitive response to and dance !it$ t$e !isdom of aia& t$e eart$,Not$ 1op$ia and aia are ree4 !ords of feminine #ender, $ey lin4 us to t$e#oddess *#ures of t$e ancient iddle East& Europe& C$ina and 1out$ Asia as !ell ast$e Americas, $at t$e eart$ $as traditionally been ima#ed as feminine provides aclue to t$e connection bet!een t$e oppression of t$e eart$ and t$e oppression of!omen t$at be#an in earnest !it$ t$e rise of patriarc$al reli#ion and culture somesi+ to seven t$ousand years a#o, %e are all $eirs of traditions !$ic$ or#ani ereality accordin# to $ierarc$ies of po!er& t$e arc$etype bein# t$e po!er of maleover female, Confucianist C$ina& @edic "ndia& Niblical C$ristendom& and [oranic"slam reKect and perpetuate a !orld !$erein male e+periences& values& symbolsand perspectives are ent$roned as t$e norms for bein# $uman, $en various

ualities of t$is I$umannessI are dra!n upon to le#itimate t$e superiority of$uman4ind to t$e natural !orld, $e IvoicesI of !omen and nature are drasticallyreinterpreted or completely i#nored in t$e deliberations and plans of men, $e$umanist modi*es but does not brea4 !it$ t$is I$allo!edI tradition,>nderstandin# t$e sustained and violent attac4s upon t$e eart$ t$at $avedramatically accelerated in our late patriarc$al time merely in terms of t$escienti*c met$od& tec$nolo#ical #iantism or& even& ant$ropocentrism is inade uate , As C$arlene 1pretna4 points out in t$is issue of Ecoap=r =t & t$e problem isandrocentrism male-centeredness< and not ant$ropocentrism $uman-centeredness


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.adical &!ift Alt!e alternative is a radical paradigm s!ift

N!anenge ("# , A, Candidate in Development 1tudies& >niversity of 1out$Africa& under Dr, 1, ', reurnic$t,

$ttp: uir,unisa,ac, a bitstream $andle 70.00 . 0 dissertation,pdfHse uenceU7<"n order to understand t$e current crises alternative premises must be applied,(or#aard 7BB : /2< calls t$ese for $olism& determinism& conte+tualism&sub ectivism and pluralism, "n systems& parts cannot be understood separate fromt$eir !$oles& and t$e !$oles di6er from t$e sum of t$eir parts, 'arts and t$eirrelations$ips are constantly c$an#in# and reKectin# eac$ ot$er, 1ome c$an#escould be mec$anical but t$ey mi#$t as !ell be deterministic or evolutionary,

oreover& c$an#es in systems are continent upon multiple factors, $us& c$an#esare c$aotic and discontinuous& and t$erefore not predictable, Furt$ermore& systemscannot be understood apart from $uman perception& values& 4no!led#e andactions, Conse uently& systemic 4no!led#e is not universal, 1ystems can beunderstood in di6erent !ays dependin# on t$e perceptions and values used, Nasedon t$ese alternative premises environments and societies need to be perceived ascomple+ systems& !$ic$ constantly c$an#e accordin# to diverse factors and inpatterns& !$ic$ in$erently are inconsistent, (or#aard 7BB : 28< *nds t$at t$esesystems not only c$an#e individually& t$ey also co-evolve to#et$er, $is ma4es t$eoutcome comple+& c$aotic& and not compre$ensible for people, $us dealin# !it$dis-orderly co evolvin# systems means t$at e6ects cannot be predicted and eventscannot be controlled, $e only t$in# one can do is to e+plain after!ards, As(or#aard e+presses it 7BB : 8/


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%estern t$eoretical perception of economic issues& to#et$er !it$ t$e priority t$eeconomy $as& means t$at concerns for social and natural environments areoverloo4ed and in t$e economic process bot$ are destroyed, "nstead & t$e social andt$e natural systems need to interact and co-evolve, Nased on t$e outcome of t$is asuitable economic system can be developed, 3ence& successful solutions to t$e#lobal crises re uire a radical s$ift in perceptions& t$in4in#& values and actions, $ereductionist met$od must be restricted and a more prominent space must be #ivento a systemic crises approac$, $at re uires a ma or cultural transformation, Capra7B 2: /; E4ins et al 7BB2: 0; Capra 7BB : 8-


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AtF Cede !e 5olitical;rassroots solve1tep$anie La!ar & 'rinciple of =a$ar and Associates& #roup for civic c$an#e& 7B +1 &“Ecofeminist $eory and rassroots 'olitics&) Jstor

$e lar#est identi*ably ecofeminist actions t$at $ave ta4en place in t$e $istory oft$e movement !ere t$e %omenLs 'enta#on Actions in (ovember of 7B 0 and(ovember of 7B 7, !$ic$ !ere or#anised by participants in t$e %omen and =ife onEart$: Ecofeminism in t$e lB osI conference in Am- $erst, assac$usetts, "n t$esenonviolent direct actions& !omen surrounded t$e 'enta#on& issuin# a >nity1tatement t$at called for social, economic, and reproductive ri#$ts as !ell as anend to t$e arms race and t$e e+ploitation of resources, people, and t$eenvironment, "n t$e 7B os ecofeminism became a presence and, in some cases& anor#ani in# principle in decentrali ed movements on t$e American andinternational left, "nitiatives t$at ecofeminism $as bot$ dra!n from and contributedto include t$e peace movement, t$e direct action movement, and reen partypolitics,L Ecofeminism s$ares over- lappin# #oals !it$ t$ese ot$er loosely or#anisedmovements includin# e ui- table and peaceful social relations, and sustainable andnone+ploitative economic systems and life-styles, "t also s$ares a spirit of resistanceto institu- tionali ed po!er structures and is committed to nonviolence and openproces- ses of communication, As $as been t$e case in ot$er activist movements&ecofeminists $ave attempted to implement t$ese ideals amon# eac$ ot$er andout!ardly, $ey $ave encountered t$rou#$ debates and di6erences a stru##le to*nd #round bet!een t!o poles: on t$e one $and a prematurely uni*ed t$eory andpolitical pra+is t$at obscures and suppresses di6erences, and on t$e ot$er anindiscriminate pluralism t$at results in va#ue t$in4in#, passivity, and politicalinertia,


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AtF Alt $ailsEven if t!e alt isn(t perfect t!at(s not a reason to re6ect de0ating t!e alt is key to real world c!ange JytteN!anenge - Development Consultant studies development policies in Africa;


1ince dualism $as done so muc$ dama#e to $umans& animals and t$e Eart$& radicalpolitical t$eories must attempt to deconstruct it, Dualisms must be c$an#ed byconcrete social activities and relations$ips in !$ic$ people en#a#e, $e t$ird !aveof feminism refuses to separate culture from nature and men from !omen, 'oliticalen#a#ement is meant to dissolve t$e boundaries bet!een t$ese t!o cate#ories,

!is s!ould 0e done in t!e spirit of constructive de0ate & not by tras$in# ordestroyin# t$ose !$ose intentions are similar to ours, Criti ue s$ould be directeda#ainst concrete& material po!er relations& $e#emonic discourses and practices, "t

s$ould not dama#e fra#ile modes of opposition, ne s$ould not avoid debate ordisa#reement !it$in social movements, 3o!ever& if one waits for t!e perfectt!eory 0efore 6oining popular opposition movements one s!all surely fail ,"n 1tur#eon9s understandin# 7BB : 7B.< t$e most vital radical political t$eoriesdeveloped in tandem !it$ radical movement practice, 3ence& one does not precedet$e ot$er, Goun# 7B 8: 7 ; 1tur#eon 7BB : 7B - 7B.


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A F


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Caring 3A=Essentialism&tatus 8uo norms relate women to t!e natural world t!e alt iskey to c!allenge social situations

ary :ellor -1ocial 1cience 'rofessor at (ort$umbria >niversity and aut$or;

/""" ; “Feminism and Environmental Et$ics: A aterialist 'erspective); Et$ics andt$e Environment& . 7


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"n fact& t$ey $ave not, $e c$ar#es a#ainst Eco feminists as essentialist&et$nocentric& anti-intellectual #oddess-!ors$ippers !$o mista4enly portray t$eEart$ as female or issue totali in# and a$istorical mandates for !orld!ide ve#anismXt$ese s!eepin# #enerali ations& often made !it$out speci*c and supportin#documentation& $ave been disproven a#ain and a#ain in t$e pa#es of academic and

popular ournals& at conferences and in conversations& yet t$e contaminationlin#ers, Ecofeminism in t$e 7B 0s !as indeed a broad umbrella for a variety ofdiversely infected approac$es& some of !$ic$ !ere rooted in essentialist cultural<feminisms& ust as ot$ers #re! out of liberal& social& ar+-ist& anarc$ist& and socialistfeminisms aard 7BB8b& 7BB ; erc$ant 7BB.; 1tur#eon 7BB


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t$en& !e can e+amine t$e !ays ueers are femini ed& animali ed& erotici ed& andnaturali ed in a culture t$at devalues !omen& animals& nature& and se+uality, %ecan also e+amine $o! persons of color are femini ed& animali ed& erotici ed& andnaturali ed, Finally& !e can e+plore $o! nature is femini ed& erotici ed& even

ueered, $e critical point to remember is t$at eac$ of t$e oppressed identity

#roups& eac$ c$aracteristic of t$e ot$er& is seen as Icloser to natureI in t$e dualismsand ideolo#y of %estern culture, Get ueer se+ualities are fre uently devalued forbein# Ia#ainst nature,I Contradictions suc$ as t$is are of no interest to t$e master&t$ou#$ suc$ contradictions $ave been of #reat interest to feminists and ueert$eorists ali4e& !$o $ave ar#ued t$at it is precisely suc$ contradictions t$atc$aracteri e oppressive structures Frye 7B 8; o$r 7B ; 1ed#!ic4 7BB0


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least t$ree cate#ories: as acts a#ainst biblical morality& a#ainst nature& or a#ainstpsyc$olo#y, $us& ueer se+ualities $ave been seen as a moral problem& ap$ysiolo#ical problem& or a psyc$olo#ical problem 'ron4 7BB8


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$ramework .eps focus is key to understand ocean constructions and !owwe make policiesDebora$


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!$om it stands, $is is a model of participatory democracy, 1econdly t$e politicalsystem must reco#ni e t$e citi ens$ip of nature as !ell as $umans of all races andclasses, "n t$is !ay democracy also becomes ecolo#ical, $irdly& a subsistenceperspective promotes a #rassroots en#a#ement in all political& economic&tec$nolo#ical and social decisions, 'roblems are interconnected and cannot be

solved in isolation, 3ence social problems must be solved to#et$er !it$ ecolo#icalones, $is interconnectedness of all life& of problems and solutions& is one of t$emain insi#$ts of ecofeminism, 3ence a subsistence perspective re uires aImultidimensional syner#ic problem-solvin# approac$I, "t means t$at all divisionsbet!een sectors& includin# t$e public and private sp$eres& must be abolis$ed andstate bureaucracies must be decentrali ed, $e intention is t$at citi ens assumepolitical responsibility in a communal and practical !ay, $is is a type of face-to-face democracy, Fourt$ly& for ecofeminism a sustainable future re uire t$at t$epublic decision ma4in# arena can address t$e et$ical issues underlyin# t$eenvironmental and $uman crises, $is demands development of ne! structures&processes and met$ods based on ecolo#ical principles, "t includes evolution ofinstitutions and practices founded on feminist et$ics& !$ic$ $as responsibility andcarin# reciprocity as its primary values, 1uc$ an et$ics is suitable in a society !it$ asense of empat$y& interconnectedness and responsibility& li4e t$e subsistencecommunity, 1ince institutions embody and reinforce values& institutional c$an#e !illover time stimulate transformation of social values, "mproved social relations !illresult in empo!erment of citi ens, $is !ill lead to a needed collective decision-ma4in# process t$at can counteract t$e problem of internali ed patriarc$alstructures and values, ies and 1$iva 7BB8: 87B-820; Nir4eland 7BB.: 0; aard2007: 7/


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$ard refusal of all forms of domination and celebration of a !$ole& $uman learner att$e center of education !$o e+ists !it$in a conte+t of a lar#er environment&ecosystem& and natural !orld,


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5ermsrying to reform politics from wit!in fails and leads to

corporate cooption Janis*irkeland O 'ro6essor of 1ustainable Desi#n at t$e >niversity of Auc4land;

“Ecofeminism: =in4in# $eory and 'ractice); Ecofeminism %omen& Animals& (ature7B+ < p, 78-7

Madical #reen p$ilosop$y is premised on t$e conviction t$at t$e sources of t$eenvironmental crisis are deeply rooted& in modern culture& and t$ereforefundamental social transformation is necessary if !e are to preserve life on eart$ inany meanin#ful sense, $is follo!s from t$e reali ation t$at we cannot rely onpatc!work reforms t$rou#$ more appropriate economics& tec$nolo#y& andre#ulation& or better policies #ained t$rou#$ #reen electoral politics, ur publicc$oice mec$anisms and tec$nocratic met$ods are in$erently biased a#ainstenvironmental preservation and conKict prevention, 7 $erefore& t$e #radual

attrition& de#radation& and biolo#ical impoveris$ment of t$e natural environmentare inevitable under t$e e+istin# system, o save a !ilderness area is to $old a*n#er in a burstin# dam: it only buys time, %$ile t$e recent electoral success of t$eenvironmental movement in some parts of t$e !orld appears to be #rounds foroptimism& t$e system of representational democracy is itself biased to!ard s$ort-term bene*ts at lon#-term cost, Furt$er& better environmental policy means little!$ere po!erful resource e+traction and development interests are above #overn-ments and above t$e mar4et, 1pecial interests $ave t$e ability to create real orapparent t$reats of resource s$orta#es to disempo!er t$e environmentalmovement& ust as t$ey $ave $istorically e+ploited business do!nturns to !ea4ent$e labor movement, Nut unli4e labor& !ilderness is not an interest #roup: it cannotlose political battles and still !in t$e !ar, Ecosystems cannot be put bac4, $ere isanot$er problem !it$ political Isuccess,I 'ressure politics is a matter of po!er& and!$ile po!er attracts ne! talent& it also can divide and corrupt& %e are be#innin# tosee t$is in t$e #reen movement in Aus- tralia, any Inouveau #reensI see4in#positions in t$e public arena lac4 a deep analysis or an et$ical commitmentsu5cient to prevent t$e com- promise of principles or a latent a#enda of personalpo!er, !e process of cooptation !as 0egun : a pluralist environmentalmovement is #radually bein# transformed into a structure of corporatistrepresentation and me- diation,2 $e le#itimation of environmcntal interests byincorporation into e+istin# decision-ma4in# structures& as $as $appened !it$ t$elabor movement& cannot resolve t$e underlyin# psyc$olo#ical and be$avioralcauses of environmental or social conKict,

Alt is a prere8uisite to e ective reformism strategies[ristina &c!ma! & >niversity of Sueensland Nac$elor of 1cience and 3onorsNac$elor of =etters& 7B+9 & “EC FE "("1 1 MA E "E1 F M C3A( E: A CA1E 1 >DG"( %E1 EM( A>1 MA="A&) $ttp: tinyurl,com sprl M


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Ecofeminism #oes to t$e core, %it$ its ori#ins in radical feminism - t$e !ordIradicalI meanin# I#oin# to t$e rootI or#an 7BB/


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A$$


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/AC1% 5olicy $ramework rst 0est teac!es pragmatic c!ange% And

avoids regress in nite amount of unpredicta0le kritiksdiscourages clas!

/% 5erm 3o *ot! solves our met!odology is t!e only way tocom0ine t!eory wit! practiceMt!e a (s met!od must 0ecom0ined wit! t!e alt%

4arren and C!eney +1 [aren J,& 'rofessor of '$ilosop$y at acalesterColle#e& and Jim& 'rofessor Emeritus at t$e >niversity of %isconsin-%au4es$a&IEcolo#ical Feminism and Ecosystem Ecolo#yI& 3ypatia& @ol, /& (o, 7 & Ecolo#icalFeminism& 1prin#& pp, 7 B-7B <

Ecofeminism !elcomes appropriate ecolo#ical science and tec$nolo#y,

Environmental problems demand scienti*c and tec$nolo#ical responses as part oft$e solution , $ese IdataI represent a piece of t$e ecolo#ical pie , %$at ecofeministsinsist on is t$at t$e perspectives of !omen and indi#enous peoples !it$ re#ard tot$e natural environment also be reco#ni ed as relevant I data ,I As a feminism& ecofeminisminsists t$at relevant IdataI about t$e $istorical and interconnected t!in e+ploitations of !omen and ot$eroppressed peoples< and nature be included in solutions to environmental problems; as an ecolo#ical feminism&ecofeminism insists upon t$e inclusion of appropriate insi#$ts and IdataI ofscienti*c ecolo#y, %$at ecolo#ical feminism opposes is t$e practice of one !it$outt$e ot$er,

% Ecofeminist t!eori2ation is overly simplistic and reinforcesot!er dominant !ierarc!ies

[arla Arm0ruster & %ebster 1tate 'rofessor of En#lis$& 7B ++ & “LNu6alo als&%onLt Gou Come ut oni#$tL: A Call for Noundary-Crossin# in Ecofeminist =iteraryCriticism)& oo#le Noo4s

$e pat$ bet!een continuity and di6erence t$at ecofeminist t$eorists must !al4 isso narro! and di5cult not because of inade uacies in t$e t$eorists or t$e t$eories&but because of t$e comple+ity of t$eir tas4, Ecofeminism e+plic- itly !or4s toc$allen#e dominant ideolo#ies of dualism and $ierarc$y !it$in %estern culture t$atconstruct nature as separate from and inferior to $uman culture and !omen asinferior to men


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and $ierarc$y by constructin# yet anot$er dualism: an uncomplicated oppositionbet!een !omen9s perceived unity !it$ nature and male-associated culture9salienation from it, n t$e ot$er $and & an unbalanced emp$asis on di6erences in#ender & race& species& or ot$er aspects of identity can deny t$e comple+ity of$uman and natural identities and lead to t$e $ierarc$ical ran4in# of oppressions on

t$e basis of importance or causality, Alt$ou#$ many ecofeminist t$eorists are 4eenlya!are of t$e pervasiveness of dominant ideolo#ies of dualism and $ierarc$y& t$eyare far more li4ely to note t$e !ays t$at ot$er *elds manifest t$e inKuence of suc$forces t$an to searc$ for t$eir traces in ecofeminist discourse itself,P $us& t$ey ris4unconsciously reinforcin# t$e very cultural beliefs and attitudes t$at t$ey !is$ totransform, o $elp ful*ll t$e political potential of ecofeminism, ecofeminist literarycrit- ics must become more conscious of t$e !ays t$at ecofeminist t$eory can besubtly diverted into t$e traps of continuity or di6erence and t$us recontained by t$epervasive force of dominant ideolo#ies of dualism and $ierarc$y, And to ma4e asi#ni*cant impact on literary criticism and t$eory& ecofeminist literary critics musto6er a perspective t$at complicates cultural conceptions of $uman identity and of$uman relations$ips !it$ non$uman nature instead of relyin# on unproblemati edvisions of continuity or di6erence,

@% 5erm do t!e non-mutually exclusive part of t!e alternative if t!e alternative can overcome t!e links to t!e status 8uot!an it can overcome t!e links to t!e plan

B% Ecofeminism !as no direct action movement solves not!ing=eila M,*rammer & professor of Communication 1tudies at ustavus Adolp$usColle#e& 'aper presented at t$e (ational Communication Association 7B +9 Convention& (e! Gor4& (G,“EC FE "("1 & 3E E(@"M ( E( & A(D 1 C"A=

@E E( 1) Access at: $ttp: $omepa#es,#ac,edu lbrammer Ecofeminism,$tml

ne of t$e areas !$ere ecofeminism is found lac4in# in t$e traditional paradi#m ofsocial movements is t$e area of action, $e common vie! is t$at social movementsen#a#e in protest and direct action; $o!ever& ecofeminism calls for consciousnessraisin#& $ealin#& and a communion !it$ nature, $ere is little direct action , 1omecall for concern and to be involved in crucial issues, t$ers call for intellectual !or4to form a $olistic conception of ecofeminism Diamond and renstein& +ii


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conferences are $eld& articles are !ritten& and boo4s are publis$ed and bou#$t, Nut&ecofeminism $as not resulted in collective action in t$e !ay Nlac4 'o!er as ap$ilosop$y did, $is issue is one t$at is s$ared by many environmental #roups& and&t$rou#$ an e+amination of ecofeminism& ne! !ays of t$

eco feminism critique - hss 2014

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