duarte (2014). red ochre and shells clues to human evolution. review article. trends in ecology &...

8/10/2019 Duarte (2014). Red Ochre and Shells Clues to Human Evolution. Review Article. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, Vol

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The

marine

food

web,

although

rich

in many

essential

nutrients, is relatively poor in iron [29], as iron supply

limits

biological

production

over

much

of

the

coastal

[29]

and open

[3032]

ocean.

Iron

availability

changes

over

geological time in association with climatic oscillations,

with relatively

high

supply

to

the

ocean

during

cold,

glacial

periods,

and

low

supply

during

warm

periods

[33], wheniron plays

a

particularly

important

role

as

a

nutrient

limiting

ocean

productivity

[30,32]. Manipulation

of

red

ochre could have, therefore, provided an iron supplement

to

support

healthy

brain

function

and

development

under

situations of iron limitation, as possibly experienced by

pregnant women on a marine diet. Because iron is an

important

mineral

in

mineralization,

ferritin

is

employed

in the shells of organisms such as mollusks to control the

concentration

and

distribution

of

iron,

thus

sculpting

shell

morphology

and

coloration

[34]. Therefore,

shells

can

be,

themselves, a source of ferritin, and mixing some red ochre

with

seafood

could

have

delivered

essential

nutrients

for

brain development while alleviating iron deficiency. There

can

be

additional

benefits

in

the

use

of

red

ochre

for

humans inhabiting the coastal zone [23], as covering hu-

man

bodies

with

red

ochre

also

protects

the

skin

from

solar

radiation

and

mosquito

bites

and,

when

mixed

with

fat,

as

the Maori applied it (Box 1), it provides thermal insulation

for

humans

diving

in

search

of

seafood.

The

maternal

circulation

is

depleted

in

iron,

iodine,omega

3,

and

DHA

during

fetal

growth

in

order

to

construct

placental

and

fetal

tissues

able

to

deliver

the

huge

oxygen

andenergy supply required for the development of the fetal

brain

[16], leading

to

recommendations

for

the

use

of

iodine

[17], DHA [35,36], and iron [24,25] supplements in preg-

nant women to improve both the mothers and babys

health.

Therefore,

the

combined

use

of

seafood

and

red

ochre could have supplied omega 3, DHA, iodine, iron, and

other

key

nutrients

essential

for

brain

development

and

reproductive

health,

thereby

improving

the

reproductive

success of women and providing a direct advantage in

terms

of fitness.

Specifically,

enhanced

DHA

and

iron

supply associated with the combined use of seafood and

Box 1. Cultural use of red ochre and shells

Themost spectacular evidenceof early ornamental useof shells and

redochre is providedby the finding at theArene Candide cave in the

LigurianCoast, Italy, of the skeleton of an adolescent male, knownas

Il Principe

(dated

23.4 ka), spectacularly ornamented in a bedof red

ochre and his head surrounded by hundreds of perforated shells,

originally forming a kindof cap [41] (Figure IA). Thejoint useof shells

and red ochre has remained embedded in cultural practices of

human societies across theworld for

millennia, ranging from

Masaiand Sudan societies in Africa, to Australianaborigines [21] andNew

Zealand Maoris. Shells and red ochre were also widely used in the

Americas by Aztec andMayan cultures, and by South American and

North American Indians, such as the Beothuk in Newfoundland, and

the Wabanaki nations (Figure 1), which were named red skins by

early European explorersbecause of the ceremonial use of red ochre

to stain their bodies [42]. The importance

of red ochre

in

Beothuk

culture was such that disgraced tribal members were ordered to

remove the pigment as a form of punishment. Red ochre, kokowai,

was used for personal adornment by Maori. A Cook crew member

recorded in 1777, They paint their faces with a coarse red paint,

and oi l or grease the head and upper part of the body. DUrvil le

reported in

1827 that the New Hollanders (Australian

aborigines)

dust their faces with powderedochre. TheNewZealanders. . . usually

use it in an oily paste,which they smear on their foreheads and their

hair. . . on feast days a New Zealander does not think he has carried

out a full

toiletteuntil he hasanointedhis whole body, andespecially

his face and hair, with fish oil and ochre.

The Western culture is no exception and has continued to use

shells and red ochre to ornate their bodies to date. The ornamental

use of shells

and red

ochre as make up has been documented

in

allancient cultures, from ancient Mesopotamia, Egypt and Greece, to

Rome [43]. Noble women in the Roman empire used red ochre

extensively in their make up, leading Plautus to assert that, A

woman without paint is like food without salt. Indeed, classical

Romans called the most powerful men in the city coccinati, the

ones who wear red, and the color red signaled at status and power

across a broad range of societies

[21].

Portraits

show a continuity in

the use of red ochre make up by western women (Figure IB).

Indeed, red ochre, currently reported as FDA-approved cosmetic

Pigment Red 101, remains a key element of modern womens make

upand is present in a broad range of cosmetic products, often worn

along with nacre and pearl jewelry from oysters and other bivalves

(Figure IC).

(A)

(B)

(C)

TRENDS in Ecology & Evolution

Figure I. (A) Photos of theskeleton of a youngmandated 23.4 ka,knowas Il Principe, showing theperforatedshell cap and mass of ochre between theleft clavicle and

mandible. (B) A portrait of Marie Antoinette,showing red ochremake up. (C) A young woman wearing hematite, red ochre, pigmentationand shell ornaments. Photos

reproduced with permission from Antiquity Publications Ltd from a figure printed in [41] (A), and Carlos M. Duarte (C).

Opinion Trends in Ecology & Evolution October 2014, Vol. 29, No. 10

562


4/6

red

ochre

would

have

provided

the

building

materials

for

a

large

and

healthy

brain

and

the

capacity

to

support

the

supply of oxygen required to support brain development

and

function.

Therefore,

the

combined

use

of

red

ochre

and

shells

might

have

triggered

evolutionary

processes

sup-

porting the exponential growth of the human brain encom-

passing

the

period

between

200

and

50

ka

BP

[21,37],

conducive

to

the

emergence

of

the

cognitive

and

symboliccapabilities that characterize modern humans.

Can fitness advantages associated with the use of red

ochre have indirectly selected for artistic and cognitive

expression?

Fitness, the ability of organisms to contribute genes, in-

volving

survival

and

successful

reproduction,

to

the

next

generation, is a master driver of natural selection [38] and,

therefore,

evolution.

Whereas

the

purpose

of

collecting

shells

arguably

involved

food

provision

as

well

as

symbolic

use, the collection and use of red ochre could not be directly

associated

with

feeding

[21]. However,

early

use

of

red

ochre

for

artistic

purposes

involved

its

use

in

powderedform, often mixed with animal oil and fat to confer adher-

ence

[8],

and

applied

with

the

human

hands.

Therefore,

human groups using red ochre would live in environments

enriched

in iron

and

the

artists

would

have

their

fingers

covered in red ochre, thereby ingesting iron, some of it

possibly bioavailable (Box 2) when eating. This combina-

tion

might

have

particularly

enhanced

the

reproductive

health of women and the healthy brain development of

babies,

which

largely

occurs

during

pregnancy,

thereby

increasing

fitness.

Whereas most arguments linking symbolic thinking

with

human

evolution

do

so

through

the

indirect

benefits

of social

cohesion

on

fitness,

the

argument

strikes

me

as

somewhat

circular,

as

the

onset

of

the

use

of

elements

involved

in

ornamental

and

artistic

expression,

such

as

shells

and

red

ochre,

could

not

have

been

triggered

by

an

anticipation of the long-term benefits of symbolic thinking.

The

perspective

provided

here

suggests

a

different

casual

pathway,

with

a

direct

link

between

use

of

shells

and

red

ochre and human fitness and brain growth, eventually

leading

to

cognitive

and

symbolic

thinking

and

the

devel-opment of social structure. The suggestion in this opinion

article

is

that

the

improved

fitness

of

women

ingesting

omega

3

and

DHA-rich

seafood

and

iron-rich

red

ochre,

because they used shells and red ochre for symbolic pur-

poses,

could

have

indirectly

selected

for

artistic

and

sym-

bolic expression, also providing key benefits in terms of

communication

and

social

cohesion,

which

have

played

an

essential

role

in

human

evolution

[6,7,21].

The

discovery

of

elaborated workshops to process red ochre and deposit the

powder

in

shells

[8]

suggests

that

the

individuals

involved

spent

substantial

time

working

in

their

caves

to

process

these materials and decorate their walls and their own

bodies.

A

further

speculation,

for

which

no

evidence

is

available as yet, is that some of these early artists mighthave

been

women

in

advanced

pregnancy

stages,

with

reduced mobility and agility to gather food outside the

cave.

Indeed,

it

is

women

and

their

babies

who

benefit

the

most

from

dietary

supplements

in

DHA,

omega

3, iodine,

and iron [17,24,25,35,36].

Concluding remarks: the significance of understanding

the role of red ochre and shells in human evolution

I acknowledge

that

the

opinion

put

forward

here

is

specu-

lative

and

could,

therefore,

be

proven

wrong.

However,

I

believe it provides a plausible hypothesis, consistent with

paleoanthropological

evidence,

history,

oceanography,

physiology,

and

human

health,

and

is

worth

considering.Whereas

evidence

of

a

significant

use

of the

marine

food

web by early humans [39], and for the role of seafood and

ingestion

of

DHA

on

brain

development

and

human

evo-

lution,

is

now

particularly

robust,

the

hypothetical

role

of

red ochre, through iron oxide forms such as ferrihydrate, on

ironnutrition

has

not

yet

been

tested.

The

alternative

view

that

the

significance

of

the

combined

use

of

red

ochre

and

shells by humans is limited to a clue for symbolic expres-

sion appears

insufficient

to

explain

why

these

two

ele-

ments, shells and red ochre, have been combined for

200 ka and remained combined in so many cultures around

the planet, given that so many alternative objects and

materials

could

be

used

to

express

symbolic

thinking.

I

submit

that

the

overwhelming

evidence

for

the

role

of

essential nutrients contained in seafood and iron in the

reproductive

and

brain

health

of

extant

humans,

in

partic-

ular, involving

the

health

of

the

mother

and

the

newborn,

amounts to a partial validation of the hypothesis put

forward,

as

it

provides

solid

support

for

the

notion

that

these

two

sources

of

essential

nutrients

have

a

positive

impact onhuman fitness, and have, therefore, evolutionary

significance.

Understanding

the

connections

between

the

200-ka

trajectory

of

the

combined

use

of

red

ochre

and

shells

and human evolution is of consequence because it could

also

suggest

a

pathway

for

a

healthy

future

for

human

Box 2. Can iron in red ochre be assimilated?

Whether the handling and accidental use of red ochre, alone or

whenmixedwith bone marrow andother foods, is conduciveto iron

assimilation remains to be tested directly, a test that could involve

examination of the

iron status of indigenous cultures that continue

to use red ochre in their traditional practices. Most of the iron

contained in red ochre occurs as hematite (aFe2O3), a stable,

oxidized form of iron that is insoluble and which is believed to be

unavailable [44]. However, red ochre also contains variable propor-tions of other, nonheme meta-stable forms of iron, such as:

ferrihydrite, magnetite, and maghemite [4547], particularly when

depositing under acidic pH [48] as reported in the Kokowai Springs

exploited by Maori, where ferrihydrite is the dominant iron form

[45]; in the materials used in the Pecos River rock paintings [46]; in

artifacts found in Malawi [49]; or in Pinnacles Cave, South Africa

[50]. Thesemetastable forms of iron are bioavailable, althoughwith

variable assimilation efficiency, depending on factors such as the

relative amounts of chelators and ligands (e.g., phytate and citrate),

pH, the amounts of reducing compounds ingested, and pre-heating

[44,51]. Mixing of ferrihydrate with food, as documented in early

uses [8], would be particularly effective, as ferrihydrate would be

coated with protein to yield a ferrit in analog [52,53].

Indeed, the

paradigm of iron absorption is shifting due to recent developments

in nanomedicine providing evidence that the dissolution of

ferrihydrate may not be necessary for absorption to take place[53]. This knowledge has been used recently to develop ferrihydrite-

based [53] and maghemite-based [54] supplements, combining

these forms of iron with ligands, to fortify foods and are included in

iron-based parenteral drugs used to treat iron deficiency anemia,

such as Ironate1 and Feraheme1 [55].


563


5/6

kind.

The

sharp

rise

in

brain

disorders,

which,

in

many

developed

countries,

involves

social

costs

exceeding

those

of

heart

disease

and

cancer

combined,

has

been

deemed

the

most worrying change in disease pattern in modern socie-

ties,

calling

for

urgent

consideration

of

seafood

require-

ments

to

supply

the

omega

3

and

DHA

required

for

brain

health [15]. Likewise, iron deficiency is the most common

form

of

malnutrition

in

the

world,

affecting

more

than

2billion people globally [24,25]. These disorders affect

humans

across

developed

and

developing

nations.

In

con-

clusion,

the

deep

and

sustained

connection

between

hu-

manuse of red ochre and shells summarizedheredelivers a

new

perspective

on

the

role

of

seafood

and

iron

nutrition

on

the health of the human brain and human fitness, critical

to

both

understanding

our

past

evolution

and

addressing

our future

health

challenges.

Acknowledgments

I thank J. Erlandson for useful comments, G. Duarte for help with

Box 1, and N. Faria, G. Anderson, E.C. Theil, and C. Hutchinson for

advice on Box 2.

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