-
8/10/2019 Duarte (2014). Red Ochre and Shells Clues to Human Evolution. Review Article. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, Vol
1/6
-
8/10/2019 Duarte (2014). Red Ochre and Shells Clues to Human Evolution. Review Article. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, Vol
2/6
-
8/10/2019 Duarte (2014). Red Ochre and Shells Clues to Human Evolution. Review Article. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, Vol
3/6
The
marine
food
web,
although
rich
in many
essential
nutrients, is relatively poor in iron [29], as iron supply
limits
biological
production
over
much
of
the
coastal
[29]
and open
[3032]
ocean.
Iron
availability
changes
over
geological time in association with climatic oscillations,
with relatively
high
supply
to
the
ocean
during
cold,
glacial
periods,
and
low
supply
during
warm
periods
[33], wheniron plays
a
particularly
important
role
as
a
nutrient
limiting
ocean
productivity
[30,32]. Manipulation
of
red
ochre could have, therefore, provided an iron supplement
to
support
healthy
brain
function
and
development
under
situations of iron limitation, as possibly experienced by
pregnant women on a marine diet. Because iron is an
important
mineral
in
mineralization,
ferritin
is
employed
in the shells of organisms such as mollusks to control the
concentration
and
distribution
of
iron,
thus
sculpting
shell
morphology
and
coloration
[34]. Therefore,
shells
can
be,
themselves, a source of ferritin, and mixing some red ochre
with
seafood
could
have
delivered
essential
nutrients
for
brain development while alleviating iron deficiency. There
can
be
additional
benefits
in
the
use
of
red
ochre
for
humans inhabiting the coastal zone [23], as covering hu-
man
bodies
with
red
ochre
also
protects
the
skin
from
solar
radiation
and
mosquito
bites
and,
when
mixed
with
fat,
as
the Maori applied it (Box 1), it provides thermal insulation
for
humans
diving
in
search
of
seafood.
The
maternal
circulation
is
depleted
in
iron,
iodine,omega
3,
and
DHA
during
fetal
growth
in
order
to
construct
placental
and
fetal
tissues
able
to
deliver
the
huge
oxygen
andenergy supply required for the development of the fetal
brain
[16], leading
to
recommendations
for
the
use
of
iodine
[17], DHA [35,36], and iron [24,25] supplements in preg-
nant women to improve both the mothers and babys
health.
Therefore,
the
combined
use
of
seafood
and
red
ochre could have supplied omega 3, DHA, iodine, iron, and
other
key
nutrients
essential
for
brain
development
and
reproductive
health,
thereby
improving
the
reproductive
success of women and providing a direct advantage in
terms
of fitness.
Specifically,
enhanced
DHA
and
iron
supply associated with the combined use of seafood and
Box 1. Cultural use of red ochre and shells
Themost spectacular evidenceof early ornamental useof shells and
redochre is providedby the finding at theArene Candide cave in the
LigurianCoast, Italy, of the skeleton of an adolescent male, knownas
Il Principe
(dated
23.4 ka), spectacularly ornamented in a bedof red
ochre and his head surrounded by hundreds of perforated shells,
originally forming a kindof cap [41] (Figure IA). Thejoint useof shells
and red ochre has remained embedded in cultural practices of
human societies across theworld for
millennia, ranging from
Masaiand Sudan societies in Africa, to Australianaborigines [21] andNew
Zealand Maoris. Shells and red ochre were also widely used in the
Americas by Aztec andMayan cultures, and by South American and
North American Indians, such as the Beothuk in Newfoundland, and
the Wabanaki nations (Figure 1), which were named red skins by
early European explorersbecause of the ceremonial use of red ochre
to stain their bodies [42]. The importance
of red ochre
in
Beothuk
culture was such that disgraced tribal members were ordered to
remove the pigment as a form of punishment. Red ochre, kokowai,
was used for personal adornment by Maori. A Cook crew member
recorded in 1777, They paint their faces with a coarse red paint,
and oi l or grease the head and upper part of the body. DUrvil le
reported in
1827 that the New Hollanders (Australian
aborigines)
dust their faces with powderedochre. TheNewZealanders. . . usually
use it in an oily paste,which they smear on their foreheads and their
hair. . . on feast days a New Zealander does not think he has carried
out a full
toiletteuntil he hasanointedhis whole body, andespecially
his face and hair, with fish oil and ochre.
The Western culture is no exception and has continued to use
shells and red ochre to ornate their bodies to date. The ornamental
use of shells
and red
ochre as make up has been documented
in
allancient cultures, from ancient Mesopotamia, Egypt and Greece, to
Rome [43]. Noble women in the Roman empire used red ochre
extensively in their make up, leading Plautus to assert that, A
woman without paint is like food without salt. Indeed, classical
Romans called the most powerful men in the city coccinati, the
ones who wear red, and the color red signaled at status and power
across a broad range of societies
[21].
Portraits
show a continuity in
the use of red ochre make up by western women (Figure IB).
Indeed, red ochre, currently reported as FDA-approved cosmetic
Pigment Red 101, remains a key element of modern womens make
upand is present in a broad range of cosmetic products, often worn
along with nacre and pearl jewelry from oysters and other bivalves
(Figure IC).
(A)
(B)
(C)
TRENDS in Ecology & Evolution
Figure I. (A) Photos of theskeleton of a youngmandated 23.4 ka,knowas Il Principe, showing theperforatedshell cap and mass of ochre between theleft clavicle and
mandible. (B) A portrait of Marie Antoinette,showing red ochremake up. (C) A young woman wearing hematite, red ochre, pigmentationand shell ornaments. Photos
reproduced with permission from Antiquity Publications Ltd from a figure printed in [41] (A), and Carlos M. Duarte (C).
Opinion Trends in Ecology & Evolution October 2014, Vol. 29, No. 10
562
-
8/10/2019 Duarte (2014). Red Ochre and Shells Clues to Human Evolution. Review Article. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, Vol
4/6
red
ochre
would
have
provided
the
building
materials
for
a
large
and
healthy
brain
and
the
capacity
to
support
the
supply of oxygen required to support brain development
and
function.
Therefore,
the
combined
use
of
red
ochre
and
shells
might
have
triggered
evolutionary
processes
sup-
porting the exponential growth of the human brain encom-
passing
the
period
between
200
and
50
ka
BP
[21,37],
conducive
to
the
emergence
of
the
cognitive
and
symboliccapabilities that characterize modern humans.
Can fitness advantages associated with the use of red
ochre have indirectly selected for artistic and cognitive
expression?
Fitness, the ability of organisms to contribute genes, in-
volving
survival
and
successful
reproduction,
to
the
next
generation, is a master driver of natural selection [38] and,
therefore,
evolution.
Whereas
the
purpose
of
collecting
shells
arguably
involved
food
provision
as
well
as
symbolic
use, the collection and use of red ochre could not be directly
associated
with
feeding
[21]. However,
early
use
of
red
ochre
for
artistic
purposes
involved
its
use
in
powderedform, often mixed with animal oil and fat to confer adher-
ence
[8],
and
applied
with
the
human
hands.
Therefore,
human groups using red ochre would live in environments
enriched
in iron
and
the
artists
would
have
their
fingers
covered in red ochre, thereby ingesting iron, some of it
possibly bioavailable (Box 2) when eating. This combina-
tion
might
have
particularly
enhanced
the
reproductive
health of women and the healthy brain development of
babies,
which
largely
occurs
during
pregnancy,
thereby
increasing
fitness.
Whereas most arguments linking symbolic thinking
with
human
evolution
do
so
through
the
indirect
benefits
of social
cohesion
on
fitness,
the
argument
strikes
me
as
somewhat
circular,
as
the
onset
of
the
use
of
elements
involved
in
ornamental
and
artistic
expression,
such
as
shells
and
red
ochre,
could
not
have
been
triggered
by
an
anticipation of the long-term benefits of symbolic thinking.
The
perspective
provided
here
suggests
a
different
casual
pathway,
with
a
direct
link
between
use
of
shells
and
red
ochre and human fitness and brain growth, eventually
leading
to
cognitive
and
symbolic
thinking
and
the
devel-opment of social structure. The suggestion in this opinion
article
is
that
the
improved
fitness
of
women
ingesting
omega
3
and
DHA-rich
seafood
and
iron-rich
red
ochre,
because they used shells and red ochre for symbolic pur-
poses,
could
have
indirectly
selected
for
artistic
and
sym-
bolic expression, also providing key benefits in terms of
communication
and
social
cohesion,
which
have
played
an
essential
role
in
human
evolution
[6,7,21].
The
discovery
of
elaborated workshops to process red ochre and deposit the
powder
in
shells
[8]
suggests
that
the
individuals
involved
spent
substantial
time
working
in
their
caves
to
process
these materials and decorate their walls and their own
bodies.
A
further
speculation,
for
which
no
evidence
is
available as yet, is that some of these early artists mighthave
been
women
in
advanced
pregnancy
stages,
with
reduced mobility and agility to gather food outside the
cave.
Indeed,
it
is
women
and
their
babies
who
benefit
the
most
from
dietary
supplements
in
DHA,
omega
3, iodine,
and iron [17,24,25,35,36].
Concluding remarks: the significance of understanding
the role of red ochre and shells in human evolution
I acknowledge
that
the
opinion
put
forward
here
is
specu-
lative
and
could,
therefore,
be
proven
wrong.
However,
I
believe it provides a plausible hypothesis, consistent with
paleoanthropological
evidence,
history,
oceanography,
physiology,
and
human
health,
and
is
worth
considering.Whereas
evidence
of
a
significant
use
of the
marine
food
web by early humans [39], and for the role of seafood and
ingestion
of
DHA
on
brain
development
and
human
evo-
lution,
is
now
particularly
robust,
the
hypothetical
role
of
red ochre, through iron oxide forms such as ferrihydrate, on
ironnutrition
has
not
yet
been
tested.
The
alternative
view
that
the
significance
of
the
combined
use
of
red
ochre
and
shells by humans is limited to a clue for symbolic expres-
sion appears
insufficient
to
explain
why
these
two
ele-
ments, shells and red ochre, have been combined for
200 ka and remained combined in so many cultures around
the planet, given that so many alternative objects and
materials
could
be
used
to
express
symbolic
thinking.
I
submit
that
the
overwhelming
evidence
for
the
role
of
essential nutrients contained in seafood and iron in the
reproductive
and
brain
health
of
extant
humans,
in
partic-
ular, involving
the
health
of
the
mother
and
the
newborn,
amounts to a partial validation of the hypothesis put
forward,
as
it
provides
solid
support
for
the
notion
that
these
two
sources
of
essential
nutrients
have
a
positive
impact onhuman fitness, and have, therefore, evolutionary
significance.
Understanding
the
connections
between
the
200-ka
trajectory
of
the
combined
use
of
red
ochre
and
shells
and human evolution is of consequence because it could
also
suggest
a
pathway
for
a
healthy
future
for
human
Box 2. Can iron in red ochre be assimilated?
Whether the handling and accidental use of red ochre, alone or
whenmixedwith bone marrow andother foods, is conduciveto iron
assimilation remains to be tested directly, a test that could involve
examination of the
iron status of indigenous cultures that continue
to use red ochre in their traditional practices. Most of the iron
contained in red ochre occurs as hematite (aFe2O3), a stable,
oxidized form of iron that is insoluble and which is believed to be
unavailable [44]. However, red ochre also contains variable propor-tions of other, nonheme meta-stable forms of iron, such as:
ferrihydrite, magnetite, and maghemite [4547], particularly when
depositing under acidic pH [48] as reported in the Kokowai Springs
exploited by Maori, where ferrihydrite is the dominant iron form
[45]; in the materials used in the Pecos River rock paintings [46]; in
artifacts found in Malawi [49]; or in Pinnacles Cave, South Africa
[50]. Thesemetastable forms of iron are bioavailable, althoughwith
variable assimilation efficiency, depending on factors such as the
relative amounts of chelators and ligands (e.g., phytate and citrate),
pH, the amounts of reducing compounds ingested, and pre-heating
[44,51]. Mixing of ferrihydrate with food, as documented in early
uses [8], would be particularly effective, as ferrihydrate would be
coated with protein to yield a ferrit in analog [52,53].
Indeed, the
paradigm of iron absorption is shifting due to recent developments
in nanomedicine providing evidence that the dissolution of
ferrihydrate may not be necessary for absorption to take place[53]. This knowledge has been used recently to develop ferrihydrite-
based [53] and maghemite-based [54] supplements, combining
these forms of iron with ligands, to fortify foods and are included in
iron-based parenteral drugs used to treat iron deficiency anemia,
such as Ironate1 and Feraheme1 [55].
Opinion Trends in Ecology & Evolution October 2014, Vol. 29, No. 10
563
-
8/10/2019 Duarte (2014). Red Ochre and Shells Clues to Human Evolution. Review Article. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, Vol
5/6
kind.
The
sharp
rise
in
brain
disorders,
which,
in
many
developed
countries,
involves
social
costs
exceeding
those
of
heart
disease
and
cancer
combined,
has
been
deemed
the
most worrying change in disease pattern in modern socie-
ties,
calling
for
urgent
consideration
of
seafood
require-
ments
to
supply
the
omega
3
and
DHA
required
for
brain
health [15]. Likewise, iron deficiency is the most common
form
of
malnutrition
in
the
world,
affecting
more
than
2billion people globally [24,25]. These disorders affect
humans
across
developed
and
developing
nations.
In
con-
clusion,
the
deep
and
sustained
connection
between
hu-
manuse of red ochre and shells summarizedheredelivers a
new
perspective
on
the
role
of
seafood
and
iron
nutrition
on
the health of the human brain and human fitness, critical
to
both
understanding
our
past
evolution
and
addressing
our future
health
challenges.
Acknowledgments
I thank J. Erlandson for useful comments, G. Duarte for help with
Box 1, and N. Faria, G. Anderson, E.C. Theil, and C. Hutchinson for
advice on Box 2.
References1 Marean, C.W. et al. (2007) Early human use of marine resources and
pigment in South Africa during the Middle Pleistocene. Nature 449,
905908
2 Balter,M. (2009)Earlystartfor humanart? Ochremayrevisetimeline.
Science 323, 569
3 Ramos, J. et al. (2011) Marine resources exploitation by Palaeolithic
hunterfishergatherers andNeolithic tribal societies in the historical
region of the Strait of Gibraltar. Quaternary Int. 239, 104113
4 dErrico, F. andStringer, C.B. (2011)Evolution, revolution or saltation
scenario for theemergenceof moderncultures?Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B
366, 10601069
5 Roebroeks, W. et al. (2012) Use of red ochre by early Neanderthals.
Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 109, 18891894
6 Bouzouggar, A. et al. (2007) 82,000-year-old shell beads from North
Africa and implications for the origins of modern human behavior.Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 104, 99649969
7 Bar-Yosef Mayer, D.E. et al. (2009) Shells and ochre in Middle
Paleolithic Qafzeh Cave, Israel: indications for modern behavior. J.
Hum. Evol. 56, 307314
8 Henshilwood, C.S. et al. (2011) A 100,000-year-old ochre-processing
workshop at Blombos Cave, South Africa. Science 334, 219222
9 Marean,C.W.(2010)When thesea savedhumanity.Sci.Am.303,5461
10 Zilhao, J. et al. (2010) Symbolic use of marine shells and mineral
pigments by Iberian Neanderthals. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.
107, 10231028
11 Mellars, P. (2006) Going east: new genetic and archaeological
perspectives on the modern human colonization of Eurasia. Science
313, 796800
12 Broadhurst, C.L. et al. (2002) Brain-specific lipids from marine,
lacustrine, or terrestrial food resources: potential impact on early
African Homo sapiens. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. B: Biochem. Mol.
Biol. 131, 653673
13 Gomez-Pinilla, F. (2008) Brain foods: the effects of nutrients on brain
function. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 9, 568578
14 Bradbury, J. (2011) Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA): an ancient nutrient
for the modern human brain. Nutrients 3, 529554
15 Crawford, M.A. and Broadhurst, C.L. (2012) The role of
docosahexaenoic and the marine food web as determinants of
evolution and hominid brain development: the challenge for human
sustainability. Nutr. Health 21, 1739
16 Delange, F. (2001) Iodine deficiency as a cause of brain damage.
Postgrad. Med. J. 77, 217220
17 Berbel, P. et al. (2007) Iodine supplementation during pregnancy: a
public health challenge. Trends Endocrinol. Metabol. 18, 338343
18 Schrauzer, G.N. (2002) Lithium: occurrence, dietary intakes,
nutritional essentiality. J. Am. Coll. Nutr. 21, 1421
19 Marmol, F. (2008) Lithium: bipolar disorder and neurodegenerative
diseases. Possible cellular mechanisms of the therapeutic effects of
lithium.Progr.Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry32, 17611771
20 Crawford, M.A. et al. (1999) Evidence for the unique function of
docosahexaenoic acid during the evolution of the modern hominid
brain. Lipids 34, S39S47
21 Oakley, K.P. (1981) Emergence of higher thought 3.0-0.2Ma BP.
Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B 292, 205211
22 Elliot,A.J.et al. (2010)Red,rank,andromance inwomenviewingmen.
J. Exp. Psychol. Gen. 139, 39941723 Erlandson, J.M.et al. (1999) Geochemical analysis of eight red ochres
from western North America. Am. Antiquity 64, 517526
24 Zimmermann, M.B. and Hurrell, R.F. (2007) Nutritional iron
deficiency. Lancet 370, 511520
25 Beard, J.L. et al. (1996) Iron metabolism: a comprehensive review.
Nutr. Rev. 54, 295317
26 Gusnard, D.A. and Raichle, M.E. (2001) Searching for a baseline:
functional imaging and the resting human brain. Nat. Rev.
Neurosci. 2, 685694
27 Fleming, J. and Joshi, J.G. (1987) Ferritin: isolation of aluminum
ferritin complex from brain. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 84,
78667870
28 Zecca, L. et al. (2004) Iron, brain ageing and neurodegenerative
disorders. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 5, 863873
29 Duarte, C.M. et al. (1995) Evidence of iron deficiency in seagrasses
growingabovecarbonate sediments.Limnol. Oceanogr. 40, 1153115830 Martin, J.H. and Fitzwater, S.E. (1988) Iron deficiency limits
phytoplankton growth in the north-east Pacific subarctic. Nature
331, 341343
31 De Baar, H.J.W. et al. (2005) Synthesis of iron fertilization
experiments: from the Iron Age in the Age of Enlightenment. J.
Geophys. Res. Oceans 110, C09S16 http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/
2004JC002601
32 Boyd, P.W. and Ellwood, M.L. (2010) The biogeochemical cycle of iron
in the ocean. Nat. Geosci. 3, 675682
33 Martnez-Garcia, A.et al. (2011) SouthernOcean dust-climate coupling
over the past four million years. Nature 476, 312315
34 Jackson, D.J. et al. (2007) Dynamic expression of ancient and novel
molluscan shell genesduring ecological transitions.BMC Evol. Biol. 7,
160 http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2148-7-160
35 Helland, I.B. et al. (2003) Maternal supplementation with very-long-
chain n-3 fatty acids during pregnancy and lactation augments
childrens IQ at 4 years of age. Pediatrics 11, http://dx.doi.org/
10.1542/peds.111.1.e39
36 Carlson, S.E. et al. (2013) DHA supplementation and pregnancy
outcomes. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 97, 808815
37 Lee, S-H. and Wolpoff, M.H. (2009) The pattern of evolution in
Pleistocene human brain size. Paleobiology 29, 186196
38 Orr, H.A.
(2009)Fitness andits role in evolutionarygenetics.Nat. Rev.
Genet. 10, 531539
39 Erlandson, J.M. (2001) The archaeology of aquatic adaptations:
paradigms for a new millennium. J. Archaeol. Res. 9, 287350
40 Duarte, C.M. (2013) Data set on thejoint useof shells and red ochre by
humans. Digital CSIC.URI http://digital.csic.es/handle/10261/100867.
41 Pettitt, P.B.et al. (2003)The Gravettian burialknownas thePrince (Il
Principe): new evidence for his age and diet. Antiquity 77, 1519
42 Shoemaker, N. (1997) How Indians got to be red.Am. Hist. Rev. 102,
625644
43 Huq, A.et al. (2006) Combined technique analysis of the composition of
Punic make-up materials. Appl. Phys. A 83, 253256
44 Cornell, R.M. andSchwertmann,U. (2003)The IronOxides: Structure,
Properties, Reactions, Occurrences and Uses, John Wiley & Sons
45 Childs, C.W. et al. (1986) Kokowai Springs, Mount Egmont, New
Zealand: chemistry and mineralogy of the ochre (ferrihydrite)
deposit and analysis of the waters. J. R. Soc. N. Z. 16, 8599
46 Bu, K. et al. (2013) The source of iron oxide pigments used in Pecos
River style rock paints.Archaeometry 55, 10881100
47 Capel, J. et al. (2006) Red ochre decorations in Spanish Neolithic
ceramics: a mineralogical and technological study. J. Archaeol. Sci.
33, 11571166
48 Taylor, K.G. and Konhauser, K.O. (2011) Iron in Earth surface
systems: a major player in chemical and biological processes.
Elements 7, 8388
Opinion Trends in Ecology & Evolution October 2014, Vol. 29, No. 10
564
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0005http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0005http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0005http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0005http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0005http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0005http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0005http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0010http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0010http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0010http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0015http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0015http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0015http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0015http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0015http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0015http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0015http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0020http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0020http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0020http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0020http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0025http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0025http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0025http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0025http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0025http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0030http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0030http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0030http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0030http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0030http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0030http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0035http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0035http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0035http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0035http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0035http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0035http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0035http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0040http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0040http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0040http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0040http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0040http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0040http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0045http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0045http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0045http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0045http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0045http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0050http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0050http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0050http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0050http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0050http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0050http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0055http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0055http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0055http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0055http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0060http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0060http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0060http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0060http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0060http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0060http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0060http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0060http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0060http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0060http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0060http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0065http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0065http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0065http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0065http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0065http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0065http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0070http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0070http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0070http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0070http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0075http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0075http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0075http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0075http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0075http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0075http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0080http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0080http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0080http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0085http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0085http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0085http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0085http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0085http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0085http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0090http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0090http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0090http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0090http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0095http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0095http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0095http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0095http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0095http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0100http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0100http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0100http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0100http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0100http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0100http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0100http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0105http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0105http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0105http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0110http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0110http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0110http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0110http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0110http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0115http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0115http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0115http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0115http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0115http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0115http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0120http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0120http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0120http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0120http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0125http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0125http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0125http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0125http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0125http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0130http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0130http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0130http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0130http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0130http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0135http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0135http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0135http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0135http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0135http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0140http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0140http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0140http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0140http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0140http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0140http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0145http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0145http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0145http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0145http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0145http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0145http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0150http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0150http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0150http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0150http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2004JC002601http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2004JC002601http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0160http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0160http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0160http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0160http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0165http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0165http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0165http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0165http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0165http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0165http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0165http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0165http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2148-7-160http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.111.1.e39http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.111.1.e39http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0180http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0180http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0180http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0180http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0180http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0180http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0180http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0180http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0185http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0185http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0185http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0185http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0190http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0190http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0190http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0190http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0190http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0190http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0195http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0195http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0195http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0195http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0205http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0205http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0205http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0205http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0205http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0205http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0210http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0210http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0210http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0210http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0215http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0215http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0215http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0215http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0215http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0215http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0220http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0220http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0220http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0220http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0220http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0220http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0225http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0225http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0225http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0225http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0225http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0225http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0225http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0230http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0230http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0230http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0230http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0230http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0230http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0235http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0235http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0235http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0235http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0235http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0235http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0235http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0240http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0240http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0240http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0240http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0240http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0240http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0240http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0235http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0235http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0235http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0230http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0230http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0225http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0225http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0225http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0220http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0220http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0215http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0215http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0210http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0210http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0205http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0205http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0195http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0195http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0190http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0190http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0185http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0185http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0180http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0180http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.111.1.e39http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.111.1.e39http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2148-7-160http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0165http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0165http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0160http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0160http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2004JC002601http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2004JC002601http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0150http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0150http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0150http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0145http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0145http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0140http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0140http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0135http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0135http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0135http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0130http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0130http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0130http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0125http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0125http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0120http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0120http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0115http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0115http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0110http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0110http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0105http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0105http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0105http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0100http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0100http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0100http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0095http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0095http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0095http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0090http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0090http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0085http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0085http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0080http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0080http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0075http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0075http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0075http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0075http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0070http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0070http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0065http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0065http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0060http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0060http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0060http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0060http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0055http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0055http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0055http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0050http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0050http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0050http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0045http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0040http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0040http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0035http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0035http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0035http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0030http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0030http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0030http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0025http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0025http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0020http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0020http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0020http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0015http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0015http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0015http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0010http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0010http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0005http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0005http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0005 -
8/10/2019 Duarte (2014). Red Ochre and Shells Clues to Human Evolution. Review Article. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, Vol
6/6
49 Zipkin, A.M. et al. (2014) Ochre fingerprints: distinguishing
among Malawian
mineral
pigment
sources with
Homogenized
Ochre Chip LAICPMS. Archaeometry http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/
arcm.12090
50 Watts, I. (2010) The pigments from Pinnacle Point Cave 13B, Western
Cape, South Africa. J. Hum. Evol. 59, 392411
51 Zhao, G. (2010) Phytoferritin and its implications for human health
and nutrition.Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1800, 815823
52 Faria, N.et al. (2011) Ligand doping of iron oxide nanoparticles as an
approach to novel oral iron therapeutics. In 11th IEEE Conference onNanotechnology (IEEE-NANO). pp. 837840 IEEE
53 Powell, J.J. et al. (2014) A nano-disperse ferritin-core mimetic that
efficiently corrects anaemia without luminal iron redox activity.
Nanomedicine http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.nano.2013.12.011
54 Hilty, F.M. et al. (2011) Incorporation of Mg and Ca into
nanostructured Fe2O3 improves Fe solubility in dilute acid and
sensory characteristics in foods. J. Food Sci. 76, N2N10
55 Futterer, S. et al. (2013) Structural characterization of iron oxide/
hydroxide nanoparticles in nine different parenteral drugs for the
treatment of iron deficiency anaemia by electron diffraction (ED)
and X-ray powder diffraction (XRPD). J. Pharm. Biomed. Anal. 86,151160
Opinion Trends in Ecology & Evolution October 2014, Vol. 29, No. 10
565
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/arcm.12090http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/arcm.12090http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0250http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0250http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0250http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0250http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0255http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0255http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0255http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0255http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0260http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0260http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0260http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0260http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0260http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0260http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0260http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0260http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0260http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.nano.2013.12.011http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0270http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0270http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0270http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0270http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0270http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0270http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0270http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0270http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0270http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0270http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0270http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0275http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0275http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0275http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0275http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0275http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0275http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0275http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0275http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0275http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0275http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0275http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0275http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0275http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0275http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0270http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0270http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0270http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0270http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0270http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.nano.2013.12.011http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0260http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0260http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0260http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0255http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0255http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0250http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0169-5347(14)00176-1/sbref0250http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/arcm.12090http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/arcm.12090