drug abuse in juveniles-2013

1

Drug Abuse and Recidivism in Juveniles

Mount Olive College

Project thesis presented to the faculty of Mount Olive College

in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

Bachelor of Science in Criminal Justice

By

Karen O’neal

June 8, 2010

Mount Olive College, New Bern

Approved by_____________________________________ Date:___________________

______________________________ _____________________

Project Thesis Advisor: Dr. Wesley Fox

DRUG ABUSE AND RECIDIVISM IN JUVENILES 2

Table of Contents

Personal Information Page ………………………………………………………………………4

Abstract…………………………………………………………………………………………..5

Section 1: Introduction………………………………………………………………………..…6

Section 2: Literature Review…………………………………………………………………….9

Section 3: Methodology…………………………………………………………………………21

Section 4: Results and Findings………………………………………………………………....26

Section 5: Discussion and Conclusion…………………………………………………………..28

References: ……………………………………………………………………………………..30

Figures and Charts ……………………………………………………………………………...32


Drug abuse and recidivism in juveniles

By

Karen O’neal

Karen O’neal is currently a student at Mount Olive College. She presently has her Bachelor’s

Degree in Biblical Studies and she seeks to obtain her first Bachelor’s Degree in Science in

Criminal Justice and minor in Psychology and Social Work. Karen works in the field of Human

Services tailoring support for the special needs population. After completing her degree, she

plans to work in the field of probation counselor in the population currently serving and continue

in the field of Evangelism. Karen is originally from New Bern, NC and is attending the satellite

campus in New Bern.


Abstract

Drug abuse continues to be a concern among people today. The thesis will focus on juveniles

and the issues they are facing as a result of drug abuse. It will be discussed and explained about

the factors that may lead to drug abuse, which appears to be the initial cause of the current and

previous criminal behaviors. The focus point will be on juveniles from ages 12-17 years old as

well as some of the risk factors that are of concern. This paper will attempt to look at risk factors

such as mental health, level of activities, employment, parental involvement, education, and

religious activities that may have a great impact on the juveniles who abuse drugs. Although

incarceration has been one method of intervention to reduce crime and the attempt to deter the

continued use of drugs for juveniles, research will indicate that it appears to have no significant

difference whether to incarcerate or seek other methods of treatment and rehabilitation.

Keywords: drug abuse, juveniles, recidivism, incarceration, statistics, mental health, risk factors,

addiction, substance abuse, treatment


Drug Abuse and Recidivism in Juveniles

One major dilemma faced in the United States is drug abuse and the effects it has on

society as a whole, according to the Uniform Crime Reporting Arresting Data Survey. It showed

that arrests for drug abuse violations increased over 20% and continues to be a problem today.

(Levin & Langan, 2002, expression NCJ193427)In an effort to reduce drug abuse related crime,

it must take in consideration the factors surrounding the behavior of the juveniles; this can be

seen as the precedent and antecedent of any drug abuse relationship. While incarceration is one

method of trying to deter drug abuse and the related crimes, other methods has been proven to be

effective with some juveniles, such as rehabilitation centers, therapeutic community outreach

centers, faith-based programs, and outpatient centers(SAMHSA National Clearinghouse, 2002-

2007, figure 2). Some interventions that can be used are implementing various programs and

social activities for the youth to prevent the delinquent behavior, including mentorship, prior to a

problem occurring.

National data from the United States Department of Justice in 2003 indicated that almost

8,000 youths were transferred to criminal court yearly by the discretion of the courts. Almost

30,000 youths were sent straight to the criminal justice system by direct file, and over 200,000

youth completely bypassed the juvenile justice system all together because of the reduction in

age requirement to be treated as an adult, that means that the age bracket for juveniles continued

to decrease("American Psychiatric Association", 2005). Over half of those cases were for

nonviolent drug offenses. The data from the United States Department of Justice showed that

eight percent of the youth were admitted to state prisons before their eighteenth birthday, 77%

were released before age 22, and 93% completed their minimum sentence before turning 28

years old. However, according to the special report, there was no record indicating that anyone


received the rehabilitation support that was needed by any other means("American Psychiatric

Association", 2005).

The importance of the thesis studied and analyzed is to show that incarcerating juveniles

for drug abuse and drug abuse related crimes does not prove to significantly reduce the rate of

drug abuse related crimes or drug abuse in juveniles. This will be evaluated by analyzing the rate

of recidivism in incarcerated and non-incarcerated facilities as well as looking into other areas

that has proven to deter juvenile delinquent behavior as a result of drug abuse and/or addiction.

As drug abuse decreases in juveniles, drug abuse related crimes will also decrease and the quality

of lives in juveniles will have a more basis for improvement, including the factors that may have

made a negative impact on the individual that may have been the cause of the abuse of drugs.

Purpose statement

The purpose of this research is to enlighten interested or affected parties of the

ramifications of incarcerating juveniles before other interventions are discovered, tried, and

tested. It is to show that juveniles who abuse drugs tend to have underlying problems or

situations that have been impacted in their lives in some way, and drug abuse has been a factor

that ultimately may have caused additional problems, including criminal behavior and/or

addiction. The purpose is to examine other methods of intervention prior to incarceration, if

needed. Some may be skeptical about the term drug abuse and may assume that incarceration is

the way to “get them off the streets”, dry them out, and reduce crime. That method may fulfill

one accomplishment, and that is to get them off the streets, but it may not have a significant

impact on reducing drug abuse related crimes or abusing drugs. (See figure 3.)

Drug abuse, by definition, is anyone who has one or more of the following symptoms:

recurrent use of drugs and failure to fulfill major obligations at work, school, or at home


(American Psychiatric Publishing, Inc., 2010, para.2). There may also be recurrent use in

situations that can be physically dangerous, such as driving while impaired or under the

influence, continuous drug abuse related legal problems or continuing to abuse drugs despite

how it affects the social or interpersonal life. First of all let’s take a look at the following:

Non incarceration of drug abuse juvenile offenders

Drug abuse should be treated as a problem, and not a crime. (Bretteville, 2006). Based

on the DSM-IV of the Mental Health Statistical Records, substance abuse is a diagnosable illness

that requires treatment(American Psychiatric Publishing, Inc., 2010, para. 1). It can be addictive

and manipulative. Some drugs are more manipulative or addictive than others. Either way, it is a

mind altering substance that causes individuals to behave in ways they may not have behaved if

not under the influence.

It can cause affected individuals to become very depressed, loss of interest in anything

other than the substance itself, and a decrease in self image or self esteem, according to the

DSM-IV Manual from the American Psychiatric Association. Therefore, if the root cause of the

problem of juveniles abusing drugs is not addressed, then incarceration will not necessarily

reduce the use or the crimes relating to it because based on statistics, in a lot of cases, the

problem is still there. Incarceration may, however, cause the opposite effects, including giving

up on freedom or oneself due to depression and/or anger. It may result in suicidal thoughts

because what was needed to be addressed was “locked up” instead; this can be due to depressive

modes that come from one of the symptoms of drug abuse.

Other measures can be taken into consideration, and depending on the severity and the

offense, incarceration could be the last resort. It is not to completely ignore the crimes, if a true

crime has been committed; but drug abuse is an issue in itself that must be addressed. Prison or


any other form of incarceration may have a temporary fix, yet may not have the appropriate

ability to get to the root cause of the problem or to actually treat the abuse itself, verses just

addressing the crimes. Although there are treatment programs available in prison settings, the

initial negative impact is incarceration, prison records, and other issues that follow (Bretteville,

2006). Some of those issues can be appropriate staffing, the knowledge of the prison counselors

in reference to the specific abuse itself, the separation from society, family or significant others,

as well as other limitations that follow in a jail or prison.

Incarceration interventions

The problem of implementing drug treatment programs in correctional settings is often

difficult. The difficulty is that despite contrary arguments, the primary focus and tasks in prison

settings are custody. It is to control the inmates and every aspect of their lives, according to

James A. Inciardi, S. Martin, and Hillary Surratt from the article written about therapeutic

communities in prisons and work release (SAMHSA National Clearinghouse, 2002-2007). This

is data referenced from the Treatment Episodes Data Sets, also known as “TEDS”. Juveniles who

abuse drugs, and sometimes are addicted to them, need effective and positive intervention or

treatment, not prison or jail.

According to the American Psychiatric Services, the recidivism rate for re admittance for

drug abuse of any kind is only 18%(American Psychiatric Publishing, Inc., 2010). Data shows

that the most effective means of successfully making a positive impact on an individual with a

drug abuse problem is to treat or help ones who volunteer on their own to come in and be

treated(American Psychiatric Publishing, Inc., 2010, figure 3). Those individuals were more

likely to remain in rehabilitation and successfully complete the programs to result in the change


of risk taking behavior. The recidivism rate for those individuals alone was only 2%, compared

to 78% for court ordered offenders

Literature Review

Based on the initial statement of this research, it is noted that juveniles who abuse drugs

may have other risk factors that contributes to the drug use, and in turn, the criminal behaviors as

a result. This basis of review and research is focusing on juveniles from 12-17 years old.

Incarceration of the juveniles does not necessarily reduce the rate of drug abuse related crimes,

nor abuse of drugs. Recent studies from the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency

Prevention Journal written by Cocozza Skonyra states that incarcerated youth account for about

75% who have a diagnosable mental illness (Cocozza, 2000, p. 7). Mental illness can be

anywhere from major depressive episodes to bipolar or conduct disorders, to name a few. In

either case, it is a diagnosable illness and if left untreated or acknowledged, it could cause

negative impacts on the individual and/or others.

For the purpose of this research, juvenile drug abuse is going to be discussed, assessed,

and analyzed. Having the symptoms of physical danger, trouble with the law due to the

substance abuse, and an increased tolerance of drug abuse or criminal behavior can interfere in

everyday lives and constitutes a problem for society as a whole. If drug abuse is addressed or

effective means are taken into consideration, evaluated, and appropriate interventions are

followed, crime rates in relation to drug abuse may be reduced.

The problems of drug abuse in juveniles may lie within several factors. Some of those

factors are imperative when trying to make a positive impact for teenagers with drug abuse

problems, especially for the ones who do not commit crimes or commit non-violent ones. Many

may begin to contemplate of the possible reasons behind drug abuse in juveniles or where they


began. There could be a number of reasons or explanations. Some of the factors that will be

discussed are to consider their mental health, parental involvement and education of the youth,

the level of activities, their employment status, or their religious activity levels.

It has already been established what drug abuse means by definition, but some may

primarily look at the issues of hard drug abuse or illicit drugs, also known as controlled drugs.

They are the drugs that are known to have a higher risk of dependency. However, any form of

abuse of any drug is detrimental to the health and well being of the individual abusing the drug

and can cause criminal behavior as a result of that drug (American Psychiatric Publishing, Inc.,

2010).

Some of those drugs may be the abuse of cigarettes, prescription drugs, alcohol, or illicit

drugs, such as marijuana, cocaine, heroin, etc. If the individual has a problem with drug abuse of

any kind, criminal behavior can still result just because the individuals may need a means of

getting or obtaining that drug. Some of the problems may be money; so they may steal, rob, or

assault an individual to get what they want or think they need (National Survey on Drug Use and

Health, 2009). Since, by definition, drug abuse is a mental illness and can be addictive, it can

also continue regardless of incarceration or not.

To incarcerate the individual without knowing the cause of the drug abuse that may have

been the main factor of the criminal behavior does nothing but keep the individual there to dry

him/her out and “stamp” a criminal record number by their name. It doesn’t necessarily deter the

behavior, except maybe for a little while. That may appear to be a temporary “fix” to a more

problematic issue.

Addictive behaviors due to frequent drug abuse


When an individual becomes dependent on a drug, despite the consequences, they

continue to use or abuse that drug. A person is identified as being dependent on the drug by a

few factors, according to DSM-IV. There is a tolerance level that makes the drug less effective

with the same amount; so therefore the individual uses more to try to get the same effect, even if

there is a health or legal risk. There are withdrawal symptoms that follow in the absence of the

drug after a period of time, so crime can be committed to avoid the feelings of withdrawal, even

if there is a desire to stop using drugs, there is an inability to do so on their own (American

Psychiatric Publishing, Inc., 2010).

Social activities, work, family, and other responsibilities suffer but there is still continued

use, and threats of consequences or knowledge of the abuse has little to no effect of changing the

behavior without appropriate and effective methods of interventions or efforts to address or

“tackle” the issue.

Risk factors and the impact on drug abuse in juveniles

Even knowing what drug abuse does to individuals, one may ask where did it start or why

did it begin? This is where the variables or risk factors are important. Looking at the risk factors

previously mentioned, according to SAMHSA’s 2005 National Survey on Drug Use and Health,

depression can have a great impact on whether a juvenile will turn to drugs as a method of

solving their problems (See figure 2). SAMHSA National Survey assessed major depressive

episodes of juveniles from ages 12-17 years old in the past year of 2008. They found that when a

juvenile was majorly depressed, they accounted for 37.4% who turned to illicit drug use

compared to 17.2% of youth who were not depressed.


Other types of drugs mentioned earlier, such as cigarettes, increased the risk of illicit drug

use. If the juvenile began smoking cigarettes at that age or earlier, they were twice as likely to

turn to more illicit drugs. The same result was found in juveniles who drank alcohol.

Level of activities

The level of activities was another risk factor for juveniles who turned to drugs as a way

of escape. The more activities youth were involved in during community functions, religious

activities, or school based activities, the less likely they were to use drugs. It is imperative to give

children something structured to do or encourage them to participate in meaningful activities that

they can find interesting and rewarding. The more they are enjoying what they are doing and

finding their time meaningful, the more they will take time out to do it and the less likely they

will use drugs as a means to an end. Boredom can play a role in risky behaviors, just as well as

peer pressure therefore; according to the SAMHSA survey, the more activities the children or

juveniles participated in the less likely they will abuse or use drugs (See figure 1).

Youth in families of lower income were more likely not to participate in any school-

based, community based, or related activities; however, regardless of the income, youths who

participated in activities had lower rates of cigarette, alcohol, or drug use than the ones who did

not participate(United States Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, 2003). This

indicates that the activities may be there for all to participate regardless of income, yet without

the income or ability to attend for various reasons, the individuals were unable to join. That also

leads to finding something else to do that may not be as constructive; or being left out of events

while watching or hearing of others enjoying them.

As unfortunate as it is, everyone does not have the means to enjoy all the preventative

and extracurricular activities available. It may be stated that some school, church or community


functions are free. While they may be free, it still takes transportation to get there. The juveniles

may be left home to take care of other things that are needed, such as babysitting, house sitting,

or simply not having the time or motivation to participate because of income status or parental

encouragements and motivation to the youths. Lack of motivation from parental involvement, or

self-motivation, tend to lead to excuses because regardless of transportation and income,

activities could be created wherever they are.

Employment issues

Employment issues are another risk factor in juvenile drug abuse. It is estimated that

one-third of youth from ages 15-17 years old were employed. The studies of SAMHSA National

Survey indicates that employed youths of that age range were more likely to have abused

alcohol, or at risk of abusing it, including binge alcohol and are more likely to use an illicit drug

than the ones who were unemployed(Blumenson & Nilsen, 2002, p. 68). This may be because

some youths, especially at risk youth, may not be mature enough to handle money and tend to

spend it irresponsibly, including having money to purchase alcohol or drugs to use or share with

friends. Where there is work, there comes responsibilities; however, if juveniles are at risk of

abusing drugs or are influential by immature minds, money may be their way of supporting their

habits and plans.

Mental illness in the home

Other factors that may affect juveniles are the mental illness of a family member. In 2002

and 2003, there was an average of 18 million women age 18 and over who lived in the home

with children from ages 12-17 years old. About 2.1 million of those mothers had a mental illness

and abused illicit drugs. Studies have indicated that juveniles who live with a parent who has a


serious mental illness and uses drugs and alcohol are almost 30% likely to abuse drugs as well

(SAMHSA National Clearinghouse, 2002-2007).

Religious activities and services

Religious activities also contribute to the risk factors of juvenile youth. About 33% of

youths age 12-17 years old attended religious services at least 25 times or more in the past year.

After conducting the survey by secondary data from the SAMHSA National data base, 78%

reported that religious beliefs were a very important part of their lives and that the majority of

them stated that it positively influenced their choices and the impact on their lives.

School experience

School experiences and parental involvement makes an impact of the lives of juveniles.

As discussed earlier, the more involvement in school-based activities, the less likely to abuse

drugs. Further studies from the 2007 SAMHSA’s National Survey indicated that school plays a

vital role in students. The experience in school showed that students with a positive school

experience were less likely to use drugs or alcohol, including illicit drugs. They indicated that

students with a positive experience in school were those who enjoyed going to school, who felt

that their assigned schoolwork was meaningful, and who felt that the things learned would be

important factors in their life for the future.

During school, there are drug and alcohol prevention messages that are taken heed by the

students who see a value in their life and the value of what they want to do in life. They are less

likely to exhibit behaviors that will hinder their success in school or their activities. On the

contrary, students who either do not appear to value school for various reasons, whether

problems in the home, peer influences, or the inability to comprehend the work, tend to do

poorly in school and may result in conduct disorder behaviors, higher dropout rates, or criminal


behavior due to lack of taking school and education seriously or giving up the ability to try for

lack of self-esteem, self image, or other reasons (SAMHSA National Clearinghouse, 2002-2007).

Many students lack the resource for additional help with school work outside of school

hours. Some students live in single parent homes or with two working parents that may not have

the time or the academic ability to assist in school work, so tutoring can be an issue and anger or

frustration can be a result. Based on the 2008 Survey of SAMHSA National database, parental

involvement plays a very important role in the success of students to avoid juvenile delinquent

behavior or drug abuse in juveniles.

Parental Involvement

Those studies showed and indicated that illicit drug use, cigarettes, and alcohol abuse was

lower among youths 12-17 years old who reported that their parents were involved in monitoring

their behaviors and school work than among youths that reported very little to no monitoring of

those same factors. These statistics resulted in 7.7% of juveniles who did not abuse drugs

compared to 15.6% who abused them. Some of the circumstances discussed cannot be controlled

by the juvenile, such as inability to control the family’s income, unable to control any mental

illness or disability in oneself or in the family. These things can result in stress, depression, or

other behaviors. Many young teenagers can revert to negative behaviors due their circumstances

that hinder their ability to be an active part of their success without the help of outside sources,

including mentorship in one way or another; however, those factors can still have either a

positive or a negative effect on their decision making skills.

Some things, however can be controlled, such as requesting extra help from school, being

determined to “beat the odds” of statistics by searching for help and support needed. These

findings in survey or statistics is not to make an excuse for the behaviors of juveniles that can


lead to drug abuse, but they are reasons to consider and preventative measures that can be

addressed and assessed. Incarceration of juveniles who abuse drugs or committed crimes while

under the influence of the drugs temporarily fixes the problem, but doesn’t necessarily stop the

problem if the root cause addressed.

Choices are choices and consequences are consequences. Society, as a whole, has the

responsibility to protect and educate all children. Everyone has a part in making a difference in

the children in society. Other measures can be taken if and when a problem is perceived other

than looking at the behavior and not the reasons behind it.

Regardless of the situations or circumstances, consequences can follow that can impact

the juvenile’s life and either leave a negative stigma or can leave a negative one. All or most

consequences don’t have to be incarceration. However, what is imperative is to reduce the rate of

drug abuse in juveniles and increase the positive outlook on life; including, but not limited to

appropriate and effective interventions and treatments, if needed.

Implications that can result from incarceration or arrest

To incarcerate juveniles of drug abuse or their non-violent drug abuse offenses can

impact the individual, but not necessarily in a positive way. Let’s take a look at the adjudication

of youths based on an approved documentary in the article of “Adjudication of youths as Adults

in the Criminal justice system in 2005. The initial goal of the adjudication process was to deter

youth from their criminal behavior and crimes, to reduce the recidivism among youth who are

transferred and to improve the public’s safety. However, the results were the opposite. It

disrupted the lives of the youth and their families, especially from the minority families. With a

federal criminal record on the juvenile’s file, there is a denial of a college education in addition


to other sanctions for drug offenders (United States Department of Justice, Office of Justice

Programs, 2003).

As a result of two federal statutes, the law suspends or forever terminates a drug

offender’s eligibility for federal college loans and grants and they are not eligible for the Pell

Grants that formerly provided the means to obtain a college degree in prison. This was based on

the 1998 and 1994 federal statute. They are even ineligible for work study for funds to help with

college, regardless of the type of federal offense, whether violent, non-violent, or misdemeanor.

Yet this does not include the offense for rape, robbery, or murder according to the War on Drugs

facts data base (Blumenson & Nilsen, 2002, p. 70).

Based on the ramifications and consequences for juveniles who are arrested for drug

abuse or drug related crimes, much is to lose yet is not showing a significant difference in

deterring the behaviors or reducing the crimes. Between the years of 2001-2007, youths from the

ages of 10-17 years old who were arrested for drug abuse violations only decreased by 1-2%. In

2001, the arrest rate for juveniles was 12.8% and six years later, it was only 10.6%. That only

accounts for a 2% difference in six years (National Center for Juvenile Justice, 2009).

Based on the arrest rate of juveniles by the National Center for Juvenile Justice in

October 31, 2009, arrest rates did not change significantly. Between the year of 2000 and 2008,

there were 600 out of 100,000 youths arrested for drug abuse violations, which did not show a

significant difference of arrested youths in former or post-dated years. In 2000, the rate was

622.8, and eight years later the rate went to 540 per 100,000. This is a difference of 82 children

in eight years(National Center for Juvenile Justice, 2009).

Since drug abuse is a diagnosable mental illness, although the problem may not have

been initially planned to abuse drugs as a way of life, it happened and continues to affect


juveniles today. It is not to say that drug abuse offenders will not be helped. Some may not want

help now or is ready for it.

Problems to Consider

There are problems that may cause strict enforcement of the juveniles who abuse drugs

and refuse or don’t think they need help. Intervention can be mandated and alternatives made if

it’s not completed or continuous efforts are not made. At that point, incarceration may be an

option.

This indicates that the problem is there, the individual have been educated, assessed, and

addressed, but chooses not to follow through on professional recommendations or interventions

(SAMHSA National Clearinghouse, 2002-2007). One can only be helped if they want to be

helped. Excuses begin to surface and manipulation tends to be inevitable. In cases such as these

and documented evidence of interventions or lack of, other options, such as incarceration, may

be warranted. However, caution must be taken because drug abuse is still drug abuse and all

interventions are not for everyone; therefore, profession in the specialty field and the

qualifications of the counselor in all areas are vital to success.

The problem can sometimes lie within the individual who needs help and are willing to

get help and the individual who needs it and will not admit it or refuse to get help. The

individuals would be required to stick to it in order to give oneself the opportunity to change

their lives and not abuse drugs that can end up resulting in criminal behaviors or further health,

work or school related problems, including family and legal problems. Out of 20.8 million

people surveyed in 2008 who were classified as “needing help” for substance abuse, but not

receiving treatment in a specialty facility, accounts for 4.8% based on a 2005 National Survey of

SAMHSA.


Prison and jail are not drug abuse centers although they may have therapeutic community

facilities separate from inmates of no drug abuse violations. Although, after assessment of the

juveniles, it was reported that counselors and psychiatrists perceived that the juveniles needed

treatment for illicit drug and alcohol abuse. Out of one million people who felt they needed

treatment, but didn’t receive it was 233,000 or 23.3%. Report indicated that they made an effort

to get treatment; however the other 766,000 or 76.7% reported making no effort to get treatment

(SAMHSA National Clearinghouse, 2002-2007).

This case scenario was stable for a year, except now is the issue that the people who felt

they needed treatment, but did not receive it decreased from 380,000 persons in 2007 to 233,000

in 2008. The people who felt they needed treatment among those who were “classified” as

needing drug abuse treatment declined from 6.4% in 2007 to 4.8% in 2008. As a result more

juveniles denied the need for treatment as a result of needing it, but didn’t get it.

There were reasons, according to these studies, of why the denial of the need for

treatment. The number and percentage of youths who needed treatment for illicit drug and

alcohol use problems remained constant for a year. Later, only 143,000 juveniles needed and

received treatment in a specialty treatment facility out of 2 million juveniles needing treatment.

That resulted in 1.8 million youths who needed treatment, but did not receive it in a specialty

facility.

In the combination of data during the year of 2005 and 2008, there were the five most

often reported reasons for not receiving substance and alcohol abuse treatment among children

12 years and older who needed treatment, but didn’t receive it, yet counselors perceived the need

for treatment(SAMHSA National Clearinghouse, 2002-2007). Some of those reasons were that

they were not ready to stop using drugs, which accounted for 38.8%. 37.4% stated that there was


no health coverage, and therefore they couldn’t afford to get treatment. Other reasons were that

12.3% was concerned that there would be a negative effect on their job, 12% did not know where

to go for treatment or where to start looking, and 11% thought of what neighbors and friends

would think or say about them. 10% had no transportation, and 8.3% stated that there wasn’t a

need for treatment.

Based on the data discussed, how significant is incarceration of juveniles compared to

other methods of intervention. Data from the Bureau of Justice Statistics shows that drug abuse

related arrests continues to increase in adults (Levin & Langan, 2002, expression NCJ 193427).

It has not significantly decreased in juveniles, yet remains stable. Each year almost 100,000

inmates are arrested for drug abuse related crimes, and the numbers continue to rise. For

juveniles, the rate fluctuates from 10,000 to 20,000 inmates arrested for the same types of drug

abuse related crimes.

Based on data from the Bureau of Justice Statistics and the reentry trends in the United

States, the recidivism rate for drug abuse related crimes increased from about 50% in 1983 to

almost 70% in 1994. That continues to show the importance of treating the root cause of the

problems or crimes, and not just the crimes themselves. Continuing to incarcerate juveniles for

drug abuse crimes is showing no significant positive impact for the youths. However, it does

show that it appear to result in the increase in the adjudication process to treat them as adults to

“pay for their crimes”! This means that the ages of the juveniles who committed drug abuse

related crimes is decreasing and they are being tried as an adult.

There are several steps that can be taken to make attempts to deter juveniles from the

initial abuse of drugs as well as to intervene when drug abuse has already become a factor. Some

protective factors in making a positive impact on the juveniles and try to deter them from


criminal behavior is to implement and follow through on supportive programs for children and

teenagers, such as camps, sports, informative organizations, and needed help in other areas.

Interventions are important ways to try to prevent drug abuse by implementing or

improving the influence of risk factors and to encourage and enhance the effectiveness of

protective factors. To overlook the risk factors and try to implement protective factors is difficult

to achieve. It appears easier to try to cover up or input interventions or programs in place without

grasping the full picture; however, one is just as important as the other. Without getting to the

root cause of a situation or addressing risk factors, the process of elimination cannot take place

and the cycle of drug abuse and re arrest or re admittance will continue, unless other drastic

measures are taken.

This study is based on juveniles who are ages 12 to 17 years old and incarcerating the

juvenile offenders does not make a significant positive impact on the drug abuse related crimes

that are committed. Most, if not all of them, committed crimes while under the influence of

some kind of drug, or committed the crimes to obtain money for the drugs. It appears that if the

drug abuse decreases, so will the drug abuse related crimes committed by the juveniles decrease.

Drug abuse is not going to go away on its own. Based on the review, it will increase the

older juveniles get(National Center for Juvenile Justice, 2009). At that time it will no longer be

treated as juveniles, but as adults. The age of adjudication has changed before, and it may, if it’s

felt needed, change again. The lives of the juveniles are significantly impacted and put into the

criminal justice system before they can even learn how to be a child or youth.

Based on the literature review and the focus of this thesis, drug abuse is a diagnosable

illness. The abuse of drugs can hinder many areas in a person’s life, yet cannot be improved if no

interventions that are effective or helping the juvenile is being implemented. Incarceration of


juveniles who abuse drugs or commit drug abuse related crimes does not always appear to have a

positive significant effect on the youth. The problem remains when untreated or ineffectively

addressed. In addition to that, incarcerating juveniles for drug abuse puts additional negative

stigma on the youth before they reach the age of adulthood. The lives of the juveniles have been

impacted and some of the negative impacts may follow them for the rest of their lives.

On the other hand, since it doesn’t appear to make a huge difference whether to

incarcerate or mandate other forms of intervention, the youth should be given that opportunity.

The drug abuse, and not just the crime, should be the focused point for the juvenile. Education,

treatment, involvement, support, and motivation can go a long way with youth. They can be

taught that life will not always be what they imagine it to be and life is not always a bed of roses,

but it’s better to learn how to accept the things you cannot change, change the things you can,

and have the wisdom to know the difference.

Once the juvenile gets a criminal record, there is always a criminal record. The only

difference is whether it’s sealed or not depending on the adjudication process and the limits of

the law. Youths still have time to grow. Their lives are all they have and it should be valued as

such.

Methodology

In essence to restate the purpose of the thesis is to show that incarceration of juveniles

who abuse drugs does not make a significant difference on the effective method of intervention

used to reduce drug abuse or drug abuse related crimes. Although incarceration is one method

used for drug abuse offenders, it has been proven by various data bases and surveys that non-

incarceration of the same is also effective. There tends to be other favorable benefits for the

juveniles outside of prison walls than the appearance of the “snow ball effect” of incarceration


with limited means of intervention. The “snow ball effect” is when consequences of an action

continue to get bigger and bigger the longer it goes unaddressed or untreated. The larger it gets,

the harder it can be to ameliorate it or help things to improve. If risk factors of drug abuse in

juveniles are ignored, yet incarceration keeps growing or remaining constant, the end result will

also keep growing with ramifications that can become difficult to overcome or adjust.

The method that was used to demonstrate the hypothetical theory of incarceration verses

non incarceration was to use the hypothesis test and the one-tailed or two-tailed test for the

proportions of non-incarcerated drug abuse juveniles compared to incarcerated drug abuse

juveniles(Bachman & Paternoster, 2009, p. 314). Using this method will help to determine the

critical value of “z” within the critical region. This method was to show whether incarceration

had a significant impact on the rate of recidivism in juveniles due to drug abuse or drug abuse

related crimes. Computation was completed for a one-tailed test of alpha level .01 and a two-

tailed test of alpha level .01. This means that the confidence level of accuracy is 1 out of 100

chances of being accurate.

Independent random samples were used based on the data sets of the Bureau of Justice

and the Office of Juvenile and Delinquency Prevention data sets. Variables were taken primarily

from the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services data sets and the American Psychiatric

Publishing and the American Psychiatric Association Services. Samples used were 100

incarcerated juveniles with a recidivism rate of 66.7% which included a population of 8.9% of

juveniles who were arrested for the abuse of drugs.

It is suspected that the sample of drug abuse offenders would have a lower recidivism

rate with non-incarceration methods of intervention that the 67% or incarceration recidivism rate.

Therefore, the following hypothesis statement is made:


1. H0: p =.67 or 67% þ = 67% n=100

H1: p ≠ .67 or 67% P = 8.9% of drug abuse population q= 1-p

2. Because of the size of the sample, a “z” test for proportions will be use with the “z”

distribution as the sampling distribution.

3. An alpha level of .01 will be used with a one-tailed test. The critical level of “z” at

this level is 2.33. The critical region are all values less than or equal to 2.33. The null

hypothesis will be rejected if z is less than or equal to 2.33.

4. Percents are converted back to proportions by dividing by 100.

a. Z = ^p-p/√p(q)/n

b. Z = 0.23-.089/√.089(1-.089)/100

c. Z =0.14/√.08/100

d. Z =0.14/√.0008

e. Z=0.14/.028

f. Z=.5 or 50%

5. Based on a z distribution curve, the obtained value of z is .50 standard deviations less

than the critical region; which indicated that the null hypothesis would be rejected

because the obtained critical value is less than the critical value of z. The recidivism

rate of incarcerated juveniles is .5 or 50%.

Now as we look at the rate for non-incarcerated juveniles and incarcerated juveniles

recidivism rate to determine if there is a significant difference. After one year, juveniles who

were rearrested for the same type of crime, which was drug abuse or drug abuse related crimes,

was compared to non-incarcerated juveniles who recidivated or returned to treatment during the

same period.


Using a non-directional two-tailed research hypothesis, it will be discovered whether

there is a significant difference in the recidivism rate of drug abuse or drug abuse related crimes.

The hypothesis is therefore stated as follows:

1. H0: p1 =p2

H1: p1 ≠ p2

2. Z test will be used again due to the sample size.

3. Alpha level will be .01, which for a two tailed test, the critical level of z is ± 2.58.

Because of the fact it is a two tailed test, the critical values lie on both sides of the z

distribution curve and consists of values less than or equal to 2.58 or greater than or

equal to 2.58.

4. It would result in failing to reject the null hypothesis if the obtained value in between

-2.58 and 2.58.

5. Using two proportion sample sizes, but the same estimated population proportion to

determine whether it is a significant difference.

6. Based on earlier documented data from the Bureau of Justice Survey, the proportion

of recidivated juveniles is .22 or 22% within one year. For non-incarcerated juveniles,

the proportion of recidivism was .024 in one year or 2.4%. The total sample

population is 120. Therefore, the calculations are as follows:

a. ^p (for total population) = n1 ^p1 + n2^p2/ n1 +n2

b. ^p =(60)(.22) +(60)(.024)/60 +60

c. =14.64/120

d. = 0.12


Now to find the standard error estimate of the difference between population proportions

is the following: √^p^q *√n1 +n2/n1n2

a. √.12 *.88√60 +60/60*60

b. =√.11*√120/3600

c. =.33 *√.033

d. =.33*.57

e. =0.188

Now to find the obtained z value, the numbers or simply plugged in formula whereas z

=^p1-^p2/ √^p^q*√n1 +n2/ n1n2

=.23 -.024/0.188

=.21/.188

=1.12

The obtained statistical value is 1.12. Because it lies between the two critical regions,

meaning 1.12 is greater than -2.58 and less than 2.58, the result is to fail to reject the null

hypothesis. This indicates that there is no significant difference in the recidivism rate between

incarcerated and non incarcerated juveniles who abuse drugs or commit drug abuse related

crimes.

As a result of the methods used to determine the recidivism rate of drug abuse offenders,

although it doesn’t show a significant difference in the rate of recidivism, there are still negative

impacts that affect the youth who are incarcerated and carry the name inmate, the charge of a

felony or misdemeanor, or the lack of the support needed to address the underlying problem.

Incarceration can have damaging effects such as the inability or difficulty to find housing, a

meaningful job, educational loans and grants or other important areas of daily living. With a


criminal record, especially a felony record, the inability to vote has also been affected. This may

be as a result of a problem that was either not addressed or address after the facts of drastically

changing the lives of juveniles as young as 12-17 years old.

Findings and Results

As a result of the research and secondary data collected it has been found that many

factors can contribute to the abuse of drugs and incarceration does not necessarily deter the

occurrence or the recidivism of those behaviors or crimes relating to them. There is an

association between depression and alcohol or illicit drug abuse. Based on a 2005 survey, 8.8%

of youth, which accounts for 2.2 million who used drugs has reported an experience of at least

one major episode of depression also known as (M.DE). 15.4% or 2.7 million youths who had

not previously abused alcohol began to use alcohol for the 1st time within a year. 7.6% of the

youth who had not used illicit drugs previously, which is 1.5 million youths, used at least one

illicit drug within a year. Out of all the youth who had not used alcohol or illicit drugs previously

were twice as likely to start using after an onset of a major depressive episode.

For example, youths who have not previously used alcohol accounted for almost

30% of those who experienced a major depressive episode compared to 14.5 % of

those who didn’t. Based on the activity levels discussed earlier, youths who

participated in zero activities accounted for 18.3%.Youth who participated in one

to three activities, the results were 11.9%. Youths who participated in four to six

and seven or more accounted for 9.4% and 6.8%, respectively. As can be seen, the

more youths are involved in activities of structure and constructive, the less likely

they may abuse drugs.


In 2008, the rate of illicit drug abuse was more than nine times higher among

youths age 12-17 who also smoked cigarettes in the past month. That is 49% of

youths compared to 5.3% who did not smoke. Youths who drank alcohol were at

a greater risk of abusing illicit drugs. Youths who were heavy drinkers or ones

who drank at least five or more drinks at any given occasion for five or more

days, were 60% in 2007 and 68% in 2008. That is an increase in drug abuse

within a year (SAMHSA National Clearinghouse, 2002-2007, par. 7).

Realizing the problems of drug abuse and related crimes that may occur to support the

habit of drug abuse, it must be realized how serious a problem it is and cannot afford to be

ignored. As discussed earlier, incarceration is not always the answer to help the juveniles in their

delinquent and drug abuse behaviors. However, the effectiveness of any intervention, whether

it’s incarceration or non-incarceration, such as faith based programs, outpatient and substance

abuse centers, will depend on the individual, the counselor, the support, and society as a whole.

Further studies and findings of recidivism for drug abuse was noted in the survey of the

American Psychiatric Service Publishing Incorporation. Out of 185 residents who were

hospitalized for drug abuse, 28 returned, which is 15%. 9% returned after rehabilitation. Out of

290 court ordered drug abuse offenders, there were 229 who returned, which was 78%. However,

only 2% of the juveniles returned when they volunteered and sought treatment on their own. That

was on 36 out of 1490 juveniles. However, based on the same supportive data base, the re arrest

of drug possession and other unspecified drug offense, not trafficking accounted for 93.1% (See

figure 3.)


Based on recidivism of prisoners release in 1994 in the report of the Bureau of Justice

Statistics Special Report, after four years of monitoring, the recidivism rate increased

significantly from 9.5%-32.6%. But after three years it rose from 50.4% to 66.7%.

Based on various data sets , secondary data surveys and computations of researched data,

drug abuse continues to be an issue. There may be causes and factors that affect the initial issue

of drug abuse and preventative methods to monitor and address the problem before it becomes a

crime or a violent crime. Measures have to be taken to protect the children, otherwise, the drugs

and the criminal justice system may do the opposite for them.

Limitations

The study has some limitations to consider. The research done was based on a sample

proportion of the incarcerated and non incarcerated population. It was also limited to youths ages

12-17. There was one study included that included the age of 10 years old and the arrest rate of

the same. Computations was based on data in the database of secondary analysis, so therefore

estimation and calculation was used to account for an equal amount of offenders, the rate of stay

and the length of post release prior to incarceration or re arrest. Other limitations did not take

into account of type of drugs abused when recidivate since some drugs are more addictive than

others.

The study focused on juveniles and did not have clear evidence that some juveniles by

age was excluded in the survey based on adjudication data. There was no way of knowing what

risk factors caused the recidivism or if one was worse than the other.

Discussion and Conclusion

One of the ways to reduce or try to prevent drug abuse or drug abuse related crimes is to

form support prevention programs. Some of those programs may be programs such as


delinquency prevention direct programs that teach youth how to prevent delinquency behaviors

and entering the juvenile justice system. There are also programs that are tailored to specific

based on ethnicity and culture groups. They can play an important role to help prevent substance

abuse behaviors. Some programs include skill building and tutoring that is free of charge or price

based on a sliding fee scale for low income youths.

According to Juvenile Justice Department and Prevention 2002, there are also programs

that primarily address the disproportionate number of minority juveniles who come in contact

with the juvenile justice system. Job training and skills will create projects and things

constructive that the youth can get involved in, including for the first time or non-violent

offenders. They can help to prepare for employment. It must be implemented and taking

seriously about the assessment, evaluation, and intervention of the youth who abuse drugs. Crime

is crime, and it’s not to ignore what have occurred; but focusing on crime, such as stealing to get

money to buy drugs or public intoxication, to name a few is not helping the juvenile or the

problem. However, it could add to it.

There should be increased education on the risk factors of drug abuse and how to support

the families of individuals who have no control of some of those factors. Increased knowledge to

the individuals and the support group to increase motivation and determination. Parental

involvement plays a very important role with the youth. Parents have to take the time and

sacrifice something they want for something they need, and that is to support, encourage, and be

a positive mentor or role model for the youths. Parents need education to in the aspects of risky

behaviors or at risk youth. The doors of communication must remain open if the goal is to reduce

drug abuse and drug abuse related crimes. Incarceration is one way, but it’s not the only way.


Incarceration should be the last resort after other measures have been exhausted. This is also

based on the cooperation of all involved.


References

American Psychiatric Association (2005, December) Adjudication of Youths as Adults in the

Criminal Justice System Retrieved from

www.aacap.org/galleries/legislativeAction/AoYaACJS.pdf

American Psychiatric Publishing, Inc. (2010).Psychiatric Services [Data file].Retrieved from

http:

Bachman, R & Paternoster, R. (2009).From estimation to Statistical Tests. In M. Ryan (Ed.),

Statistical methods for criminology and criminal justice (pp.301-343).New York, NY:

McGraw-Hill Companies.

Blumenson, E., & Nilsen, E. S. (2002, May). How to construct an underclass, or How the war on

drugs became war on education. The journal of gender, race, and justice, 1-80. Retrieved

from http://sr.nellco.org/cgi/view content.cgi? article =1005

Bretteville, J. A. (Ed.). (2006). Economic approaches to the decriminalization of drugs (4th ed.)

Retrieved from http://supreme.state.az.us

Cocozza, S. K. (2000). Youth with mental disorders. Issues and emerging responses, 7. doi:

Department of Justice Federal Bureau of Investigation (1994-2003) Crime in the United States

2003 Arrest of juveniles for drug abuse Department of Justice Retrieved from

www.ncdoj.gov

Flores, J. R., & Slowikowski, J. (2009 October). OJJDP In Focus Community Prevention Grants

Program US. Department of Justice Office of Justice Programs Office of Juvenile Justice

and Delinquency Prevention.doi: 227345

Levin, D. J., & Langan, P. A. (2002). Recidivism of Prisoners (NCJ 193427) Retrieved from

Bureau of Justice Statistics: www.ncboj.gov


National Center for Juvenile Justice (2009).Juvenile Arrest Rates [Data file].Retrieved from

www.ojjdp.ncjrs.org/ojst

National Survey on Drug Use and Health (2009) NSDUH Report (Annual Report) Retrieved

from Samhsa: http://oas.samhsa.gov

SAMHSA National Clearinghouse (2002-2007) U.S. Department of Health and Human Services

and SAMHSA [Data file]. Retrieved from www.samhsa.gov

United States Department of Health and Human Services (2009) Substance Abuse and Mental

Health Services Administration Office of Applied Studies [Data file]. Retrieved from

www.samhsa.gov

United States Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs.(2003).Juvenile offenders and

victims, National report series. (National Report) Retrieved from Office of Juvenile

Justice and Delinquency Prevention: www.ojjdp.ncjrs.gov


Risk factors that impact drug abuse in juveniles age 12-17 years old

Figure 1 How level of activities affect juvenile drug abuse

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

20

No activities Participated in oneto three activities

Participated infour to sixactivities

Participated inseven or more

activities

Participation level of Activities


Figure 2 The impact employment in juveniles have on drug abuse and related crimes for ages 12-17.

Figure 3 Recidivism for Juvenile drug abuse related offenses ages 12-17 years old

0

10

20

30

40

50

Alcohol useBinge alcohol

use Illicit drug useSmoked

cigarettes

Employment and the effects it has on drug abuse in juveniles

Employed Unemployed

0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

Incarceration Recidivism

Non Incarceration Recidivism

Missing data

drug abuse in juveniles-2013

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