dream 2047 january 2011 issue

8/12/2019 Dream 2047 January 2011 Issue

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Dream 2047,January 2011, Vol. 13 No. 4

Paul John Flory is known for his path-breaking and extensive contributions inthe field of polymers or macromolecules. Hegreatly contributed to the understanding ofthe behaviour of polymers in solutions. Florystudied the processes by which polymersform and of their properties in bulk and insolution. He demonstrated the significance

of understanding the sizes and shapes ofpolymers in establishing relationshipsbetween their chemical structures and theirphysical properties. Flory was awardedNobel Prize in Chemistry in 1974 for hisfundamental achievements, both theoreticaland experimental, in the physical chemistryof macromolecules.

Flory was a person of high integrityand honesty. He never hesitated to take upthe causes of the oppressed ones. He was amodest person and never tried to exaggeratehis personal achievements and also he did

not like those who had high opinions aboutthemselves. He always tried to improve thecircumstances in which he happened to be.Commenting on characteristics of Floryspersonality Jhonson, Stockmayer and Taubewrote: He (Flory) was of strong, of highintegrity, and his convictions on importantissues ran deep and were unwavering. Becauseof the depth of his feelings he could be severelycritical of others who did not agree withhim, even on matters that according to my

opinion, those of good will might reasonablyhold opposing views. His convictions couldrun deep even on less important matters andhe frequently resorted to expressing themand his disagreement with others in writing.

He wrote with passion and flair, and theresulting prose was forceful......

Flory was born on 19 June 1910in Sterling, Illinois, USA. His father EzraFlory was a clergyman-educator and hismother Martha Flory (nee Brumbaugh) was

a schoolteacher. Flory studied at the ElginHigh School in Elgin, Illinois in 1927. Hishalf-sister Margaret not only helped him inhis early studies but also encouraged himto pursue higher studies. After completinghis school education in 1931 Flory joinedManchester College in Indiana. This wasthe time of Great Depression and Floryhad to do various jobs to support him atthe College. He graduated in three years.

At Manchester College he was greatlyinfluenced by his chemistry teacher CarlW. Holl. In his autobiography written forthe Nobel Foundation on the occasion ofreceiving Nobel Prize in 1974 Flory wrote:My interest in science and in chemistryin particular was kindled by a remarkableteacher, Carl W. Holl, Professor of Chemistryat Manchester College, a liberal arts collegein Indiana, where I graduated in 1931. Withhis encouragement, I entered the GraduateSchool of the Ohio State University wheremy interests turned to physical chemistry.

Research for my dissertation was in thefield of photochemistry and spectroscopy. Itwas carried out under the guidance of thelate Professor Herrick L. Johnston whoseboundless zeal for scientific research made alasting impression on his students.

As stated above, inspired by his teacherFlory joined the graduate school of the OhioState University. He dug ditches and workedin the Kelvinator factory to support himselfwhile studying at the Ohio State University.Initially he pursued a masters programmein organic chemistry under the supervisionof Cecil E. Brood. But then in the secondyear he opted for physical chemistryand he worked under the supervision ofHerrick L. Johnston. Working in the areaof photochemistry and spectroscopy Floryobtained his PhD in 1934.

After his PhD, Flory joined theDuPont Company, where he came in contactwith Wallace Hume Carothers (1896-1937), an American chemist, inventor andthe leader of the organic chemistry group

It is the special properties of polymeric materials in amorphous phases that render them

uniquely suited to many of the functions they perform both in biological systems and intechnological applications. These properties are intimately related to the nature of thespatial configurations of the constituent molecules.

Paul J Flory in his Nobel Lecture delivered on 11 December 1974

Florys career was an unusual mix of industrial research, and academic activity. Hisresearch contributions have charted the course of polymer science during almost half acentury. His impact has been felt not only through his published papers and books, but inhis effective discussions at scientific meetings and in contributions of the many studentswho received their training in polymer science in his laboratory.

Harold A. Scheraga in Resonance, June 2003

Flory was one of the people, who in the 1930s, began working on the properties ofpolymers. A particular problem at the time was that polymer molecules do not have

a definite size and structure; a given polymeric material consists of a large number ofmacromolecules with different chain lengths. Flory approached this problem usingstatistical methods, obtaining expressions for the distribution of chain lengths.

A Dictionary of Scientists, Oxford University Press, 1999

Paul John Flory

Founder of modern polymer science

Subodh MahantiE-mail: [email protected]

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Paul John Flory


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at DuPont, who inspired Flory to work inthe area of polymers. Flory wrote: Uponcompletion of my PhD in 1934, I joined theCentral Research Department of the DuPontCompany. There it was my good fortune tobe assigned to the small group headed by Dr.Wallace H. Carothers, inventor of nylon andneoprene, and a scientist of extraordinarybreadth and originality. It was through theassociation with him that I first becameinterested in exploration of the fundamentalsof polymerization and polymeric substances.His conviction that polymers are valid objects

of scientific inquiry proved contagious. Thetime was propitious, for the hypothesisthat polymers are in fact covalently linkedmacromolecules had been established by theworks of Staudinger and of Carothers only afew years earlier.

After the death of Carothers in 1937,Flory joined the Basic Science ResearchGroup of the University of Cincinnati,where he developed a mathematical theoryfor the polymerisation of compounds withmore than two functional groups andthe theory of polymer networks or gels.After spending two years at the CincinnatiUniversity, Flory returned to industry; firsthe worked at Esso (later renamed as Exxon)Laboratories (1940-43) of the Standard OilDevelopment Company and then at theResearch Laboratory of the Goodyear Tireand Rubber Company (1943-48). Duringthis period he was engaged in researchand development of synthetic rubber, animportant activity considering the fact thatafter the outbreak of the Second World War

the supply of rubber was badly affected.In 1948, Flory joined the Department

of Chemistry of the Cornell Universityas George Fisher Baker Non-ResidentLecturer. Flory was invited to join theCornell University by Peter Joseph WilliamDebye (1884-1966), then Chairman of the

Chemistry Department. It may be notedthat Peter Debye, an American physicalchemist, worked on dipole moment andthe diffraction of X-rays in gases and heformulated Debye-Huckel theory on thebehaviour of strong electrolytes. Debye wasawarded Nobel Prize in 1974.

In 1957, Flory moved to Pittsburghand joined the Mellon Institute with theobjective of establishing a broad programmeof basic research. However, when Floryrealised that his initial objective could not berealised he left Mellon Institute and joined

the Stanford University in 1961 as J. G.Jackson-C.J. Wood Professor of Chemistry.

The term polymer is derived fromthe Greek words poly meaning manyand meros meaning part. The term wascoined by Jons Jacob Berzelius in 1833. Apolymer is a very large molecule composedof repeating structural units or monomers.Because polymers are large molecules,they are also called macromolecules. Theterm polymer encompasses a large classof natural synthetic materials with a widevariety of properties. Polymers play an

essential and ubiquitous role in everydaylife ranging from familiar synthetic plastics(which can be moulded to form countlessobjects) and elastomers (having particular

kind of elasticity characteristic of rubber) tonatural biopolymers essential for life suchas polysaccharides, starch and cellulose,which give us food and clothing; proteinswhich constitute much of our body, hold ittogether and run it; and nucleic acids, whichcontrol heredity on the molecular level. Weare increasingly becoming dependent onsynthetic polymers. As Morrison Boyd write:We wear these man-made materials, eatand drink from them, sleep between them,sit and stand on them; turn knobs, pullswitches, and grasp handles made of them;

with their help we hear sounds and see sightsremote from us in time and space; we live inhouses and move about in vehicles that areincreasingly made of them.

A large number of polymers have beensynthesised. This has been possible becauseof the unique ability of carbon to formlong chain of atoms. The chemical reactionby which polymers are formed is calledpolymerisation. If the reaction is an additionreaction, the process is called additionpolymerisation. Addition polymers areformed when unsaturated organic moleculesreact to form a long chain molecule; forexample, the formation of polyethene(polyethylene or polythene) from ethene(ethylene).

nCH2=CH

2 -- [-CH

2-CH

2-]n

ethene polyetheneIn case of addition polymerisation the

double bonds are opened up to form singlebonds and no small molecules or atoms areeliminated during the reaction.

Condensation polymerisation takes

History of Science

37

Wallace Hume Carothers Jons Jacob Berzelius

Peter Joseph Debye


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set of conditions (theta point) where thecauses leading to excluded volume will beneutralised.

The Flory-Huggins solution theory is amathematical model of the thermodynamicsof polymer solutions which takes account ofthe great dissimilarity in molecular sizes in

adapting the usual expression for the entropyof mixing.The Flory convention was developed

to define the variables involved onmodelling the position vectors of atomsin macromolecules. For using the Floryconvention it becomes often necessary toconvert from Cartesian co-ordinates (x,y,z) togeneralised coordinates, a set of coordinatesused to describe the configuration of a systemrelative to some reference configuration.

Commenting on Florys work, his co-worker and long-time friend Thomas G. Fox

wrote: The secret of his success is unparalleledintuition for grasping the physical essentialsof a problem, for visualising a phenomenonin terms of simple models amenable tostraightforward treatment and productive ofresults that are valid to the degree requiredby the original statement of the problem.Consequently Florys concepts and results

35

are presented in a way that is instructive,understandable and directly useful to thereader. This is equally true for those workingin basic polymer science and those interestedin industrial applications.

Three important works of Flory are:1. Principles of Polymer Chemistry,

Cornell University Press, 1953.2. Statistical Mechanics of ChainMolecules, Interscience, 1969.

3. Selected Works of Paul J Flory,Stanford University Press, 1985.Flory died on 9 September 1985 at the

age of 75 in Big Sur, California.

References1. Morrison, Robert Thornton, and

Robert Neilson Boyd, OrganicChemistry (Fourth Edition)Massachusetts: Allyn and Bacon, Inc,

1983.2. Johnson, William S., Stockmayer,Walter H., and Taube, Henri, PaulJohn Flory (June 19, 1910-September8, 1985), Biographical MemoirsV.82(2003), National Academy of Sciences,USA (available on the Internet).

3. Scheraga, Harold A., Paul J Flory

History of Science

The Man Who Laid the Foundationsof Modern Polymer Science,Resonance, June 2003.

4. Heilbron, J. L. (Ed.), The OxfordCompanion to the History of ModernScience, Oxford: Oxford UniversityPress, 2003.

5. 100 Years with Nobel Laureates, NewDelhi: Enyclopedia Britannica (India)Pvt. Ltd., 2001.

6. The Cambridge Dictionary of Scientists(2nd Edition), Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity Press, 2001.

7. A Dictionary of Science, Oxford:Oxford University Press,1999.

8. A Dictionary of Scientists, Oxford:Oxford University Press, 1999.

9. Available information on theInternet.

(The article is popular presentation of theimportant points of the lifeand work of Paul John Floryavailable in the existing literature. The idea is to inspirethe younger generation to know more about Paul J.Flory. The author has given the sources consulted for

writing this article. However, the sources on the Internetare numerous and so they have not been individuallylisted. The author is grateful to all those authors whose

works have contributed to writing this article.)

Vigyan Prasar

and

DECU/ISROJointly Presents

New Science Video Serial

Science WatchTelecasting from 7th December 2010 in DD National at 09.30-10.00 am. The 21Episode series took a systematic approach to Science and technology development.

Science watch is a programme based on the new researches in the field of science and technology. In this programme one can see theongoing revolutionary changes in the field of biotechnology, nanotechnology, space science, astronomy, disaster management, life sciences,chemistry and other important field of sciences. This programme also provides information on the innovative experiments in the fieldof agriculture using science and technology. Not only this, science watch also gives information about the scientific and technologicaldevelopments in the field of health. Science Watch programme is an effort to attract the attention of the people towards the developmentalaspect of the science which will familiarize the audience with the new events in the field of science and technology.


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The United Nations has designated theyear 2011 as the International Year ofChemistry (IYC-2011) with UNESCOas the leading UN agency together with

International Union of Pure and AppliedChemistry. The focal theme of the IYC-2011is ChemistryOur Life, Our Future.

The idea behind designating theyear 2011 as the International Year ofChemistry is to celebrate the art and scienceof chemistry and its pivotal contributionsto our knowledge, to environmentalprotection, to improvement of health and toeconomic development. Chemistry has beenrightly called the central science, which haslinked the familiar with the fundamental.Chemistry is the scientific study of the

composition and properties of matter. Thusthe understanding of the material nature ofour world is grounded in our knowledge ofchemistry. All living processes are controlledby chemical reactions.

Through different activities atdifferent levelslocal, regional, national,and international IYC-2011 will try toachieve the following:i. Improvement of the understanding

and appreciation of chemistry by thepublic.

ii. Enhancement in international

cooperation by serving as a focal pointor information source for activities bynational chemical societies, educationalinstitutions, industry, governmentaland non-governmental organisations.

iii. Promotion of the role of chemistryin contributing to solutions to globalchallenges.

iv. Building capacity by engaging youngpeople with scientific disciplines,especially the scientific method ofanalysis developed by hypothesis,experiment, analysis and conclusions.

v. Generation of enthusiasm for thecreative future of chemistry.The year 2011 marks the one-

hundredth anniversary of the Nobel Prize inChemistry awarded to Marie Curie in 1911.This was Marie Curies second Nobel Prize;she was earlier awarded the Nobel Prize inPhysics in 1903. IYC-2011 will provide anopportunity to focus on the achievementsof women scientists, as Curies achievementscontinue to inspire students, particularly

women, to pursue a career in science.The year 2011 also marks the one-

hundredth anniversary of the establishmentof the International Association of ChemicalSocieties in Paris (which later became theInternational Union of Pure and AppliedChemistry or IUPAC). So the IYC-2011will also help highlight the importance ofinternational cooperation in the developmentof chemistry.

Vigyan Prasar will work incollaboration with other organisationsincluding schools, colleges, government

agencies and NGOs for creating awarenessabout the importance of chemistry in

meeting our present needs and ensuringwell-being of future generations. It willtry to highlight the major achievements ofchemistry in recent years both in India andabroad. Through various activities VigyanPrasar will attempt to draw the attention offirst-rate students to chemistry. It will try tohelp the public to appreciate the importanceof chemistry in their daily lives.

Subodh Mahanti n

International Year of Chemistry 2011Vigyan Prasar has planned to organise nation-wide

activities during IYC-2011

It may be noted that Vigyan Prasar organised nation-wide activities during the InternationalYear of Physics-2005, International Year of Planet Earth 2008, and International Year ofAstronomy 2009. VP has also planned a number of activities during the International Year ofBiodiversity 2010. The proposed activities for the IYC-2011 are the following:1. Innovative experiments in chemistry.2. Audio programme.3. Television programme.4. Interactive activity kit.5. Training of resource persons for conducting programmes in schools .6. Wall planner.7. Fun with chemistry.8. Preparation of specific materials for agricultural workers.9. Preparation of specific materials for women self-help groups.10. Hands-on demonstrations.

11. A set of posters on chemistry and healthcare.12. Food adulteration kit.13. Resource materials on kitchen.14. A CD on power-point presentations on different aspects of chemistry.15. Innovative multi-media presentations on chemistry.16. Specific activities/programmes for popularising the life and work of Acharya P.C. Ray.17. Books : Pioneers of Modern Chemistry; The World of Chemical Elements; Chemistry

and Human Life; Chemistry in the Kitchen; What is Chemistry?; A Quiz Book inChemistry; Success Stories in Indian Chemistry; Careers in Chemistry; The Story ofOxygen; Fingerprints of Elements; and books linking major issues like climate changewith chemistry and highlighting the contributions made by the Nobel Laureates 1901-2009. Reprints of the following two books The Story of Chemistry and Topsy-turvy inChemistry will be brought out. Some new titles are in the process of being identified.

18. PostersA set of posters depicting the growth of chemistry and how it has influencedhuman life.

19. Popular lectures in different parts of the country by well-known chemists and sciencecommunicators.

20. Green chemistry.21. Workshops/training programmes.22. Articles in newspapers/magazines.23. Entrepreneurial activities like soap making.24. Chemistry behind Miracles.25. Desk calendar.


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Organic chemistry is the basis of life and

is responsible for numerous fascinatingnatural phenomena we see around: colourand fragrance of flowers, sweetness andflavour of fruits, snake poison, and alsobacteria killing substances such as penicillin.Organic chemistry has allowed scientists tobuild on natures chemistry making use ofcarbons ability to provide a stable skeleton

for functional molecules. This has givenmankind new medicines to fight disease andrevolutionary materials such as plastics andpolymers to make life better.

All chemical reactions involverearrangement of atoms, which in turninvolve breaking some bonds and makingnew bonds. Carbon-carbon bonds can bebroken easily, but in order to create complexchemicals, chemists need to be able to

join carbon atoms together. Chemists diddevelop some methods to join carbon atomstogether, which worked when creating simplemolecules. In fact, efficiently forming carbon-to-carbon bonds has long been a focus ofchemistry, and various methods startingwith Victor Grignards use of magnesium tohelp bind carbon atoms in 1912 have beenawarded the chemistry Nobel. But whentrying to synthesise more complex molecules,they ended up with too many unwanted by-

products in their test tubes.

In course of time, reactions using therelatively rare silvery-white metal palladiumas catalyst solved that problem and providedchemists with a more precise and efficienttool to work with. The technique enabledthe building of complex organic compoundswith wide application in medicine, industryand agriculture. In the so-called palladium-catalysed cross coupling reactions, developedindependently by Richard F. Heck , Ei-ichiNegishi, and Akira Suzuki, carbon atomsare made to come together on a palladiumatom, whereupon their proximity to one

another kick-starts the chemical reaction.The three scientists have been awarded theNobel Prize in Chemistry for 2010 for theirwork. Heck (79) is a professor emeritus atthe University of Delaware, now living inthe Philippines; Negishi (75) is a chemistryprofessor at Purdue University in WestLafayette, USA; and 80-year-old Suzuki is aretired professor from Hokkaido Universityin Sapporo, Japan.

The palladium-catalysed cross-coupling reaction is unique since it is possibleto carry it out under mild conditions and

with very high precision. Previously, chemistshad to use reactive substances and hightemperatures to start the chemical reaction

to join two carbon atoms. But as mentionedearlier, such methods led to the creation ofunwanted by-products. When chemists wantto create large molecules they build up the

molecule in several steps. Production of toomuch unwanted by-products in each step,often left too little material to work with.

For joining carbon atoms, chemistsneed to first activate the carbon atoms andmake them more inclined to react withanother carbon atom. Victor Grignard,Nobel Laureate in Chemistry in 1912, founda solution to this problem. Using variouschemical tricks he coupled a magnesium

atom to a carbon atom that he wanted tomake more reactive.

The Grignard reaction, which uses acarbon-magnesium compound, is one of thecharacteristic reactions especially useful as ameans of forming new carbon-carbon bonds.The Grignard method of coupling carbonatoms has been enormously important inchemistry. But when it comes to creatinglarge and complex molecules, the methodhas its limitations. The carbon atom in the

A powerful tool for

organic synthesis

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Biman Basue-mail: [email protected]

Richard F. Heck

Ei-chi Negishi

Akira Suzuki


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unstable Grignard reagent does not behave

predictably. When the reagent has severaldifferent carbon atoms to react with, toomany unwanted by-products are created.The palladium-catalysed cross-couplingreaction solves this problem and providesprecision in the process.

When palladium is used as a catalyst,it provides a setting that allows carbonatoms or compounds with carbon in themto come together for bonding, acting likea matchmaker. Once close enough, thecarbons form their own attachment anddrop the palladium, enabling the catalyst to

produce more such pairings. Thus palladiumtakes part in and facilitates the process, but isnot itself consumed.

Palladium-catalysed cross coupling isused in research worldwide, as well as in thecommercial production of pharmaceuticalsand molecules used in the electronicsindustry. The materials that can be producedusing palladium-catalysed reactions rangefrom carbon-based polymers such as styreneused to make plastics to organic compoundsthat can emit light, enabling thin televisionscreens or computer monitors. However,

the processes find their widest applicationin synthesising medicinal compounds,especially anti-cancer drugs.

In fact, one of the most notableapplications of the palladium-catalysedcross-coupling reaction was for the synthesisof the anti-cancer compounds calleddiscodermolide, which was first discoveredin the marine sponge Discodermia dissolutain the Caribbean Sea. In the marine spongediscodermolide is found only in minute

quantities, and the natural source would

have never been enough to meet the demandfor its medicinal use. Using the palladium-catalysed cross-coupling reaction, scientistscan now artificially produce discodermolide.Negishis variant of the reaction was used asa central step in its synthesis. Other scientistshave subsequently optimised the process andmanaged to obtain sufficient quantities ofdiscodermolide to begin clinical testing onhumans suffering from cancer.

Richard Heck was working for anAmerican chemical company in Delaware,when he began experimenting with

using palladium as a catalyst. In 1968 hepublished his successful work in a series ofscientific papers including one describingaddition of methyl and phenylpalladiumhalides to olefins at room temperature. Afurther step allowed the unprecedentedalkylation of an olefin. Among other things,he was able to link a ring of carbon atomsto a shorter fragment of carbon in order toobtain styrene, a major component in theplastic polystyrene. Four years later he hadfurther developed his reaction which hascome to be known as the Heck reaction

and is one of the most important reactionsfor creating single bonds between carbonatoms. For instance, it is used in large-scaleproduction of the anti-inflammatory drugNaproxen, the asthma drug Montelukast,and to produce a substance used in theelectronics industry.

In 1977, Ei-ichi Negishi developeda variant of the Grignard reagent whenhe substituted magnesium for zinc. Heinvestigated the palladium-catalysed cross-

Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2010

n

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coupling of organometallic species with

organohalides, eventually demonstrating thatorganozinc compounds could permit highlyselective reactions under mild conditionsand in the presence of a range of functionalgroups. The carbon atom becomes lessreactive when using zinc, but the zinc atomtransfers the carbon atom to the palladiumatom. When the carbon atom subsequentlymeets another carbon atom on the palladiumatom, then they can easily bond.

Two years later, Akira Suzuki used theelement boron. It is the mildest activator sofar and is even less toxic than zinc, which

is an advantage when it comes to large-scaleapplications. For instance, Suzukis reactionis used in the commercial synthesis of asubstance that protects agricultural cropsfrom fungi.

In subsequent years these reactionswere improved and modified to becomeindispensible tools for the organic chemistand have been used to synthesise a rangeof complex natural products which wouldotherwise remain extremely difficult ifnot impossible to make. For example, themethods developed by the three scientists

have been used to create new antibiotics thatwork on resistant bacteria and a number ofcommercially available drugs, including theanti-inflammatory drugs.

Today, it is estimated that no less than25 percent of all chemical reactions in thepharmaceutical industry are based on thesemethods. Palladium-catalysed cross couplinghas also been used by the electronics industryto make light-emitting diodes used in theproduction of extremely thin monitors.

The Heck reaction. Richard Heck experimented with palladium as a catalyst and linked a short olefin to a ring of carbon atoms. When the twomeet on the palladium atom they react with each other, producing styrene a fundamental component of plastics. (Credit: nobelprize.org)


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The Centre for Technology &Development, or CTD, as it ispopularly known, is a unit of the Societyfor Economic & Social Studies (SESS) andis an independent non-profit organisationworking in the field of sustainable ruraldevelopment through science and technologyapplications.

The formation of CTD with severalfield stations in Dehradun (UA), Mandi(HP), Ukhrul (Manipur) and Kavali (AP)was catalysed by the Delhi Science Forum, areputed public-interest organisation focusingon S&T policy issues, with the goal of puttingforward and demonstrating alternative

models for sustainable development.CTD/SESS is a multi-disciplinary group

of dedicated and experienced professionalswith backgrounds in engineering, naturalsciences, medicine, social sciences, etc. DRaghunandan is a key person behind thesuccess of CTD who has been leading CDTduring the last 27 years. Er Anuj Sinha,Director, Vigyan Prasar and Consultant,Department of Science & Technology, Govt.of India interacted with D. Ragunandan onthe role of S&T in social entrepreneurship,problems of rural artisans, new technological

solutions, and related issues. Here are excerptsfrom the interview.

Anuj Sinha: Raghunandanji, pleaseintroduce yourself and your work for ourreaders.

D. Raghunanadan: My basic degreeis a Bachelors in Mechanical Engineering(Hons.) with specialisation in aero-engines. Iobtained my degree from London Universityin 1971 and was sponsored for my studiesby M/S Rolls Royce Aero Engines Ltd,UK with whom I served as an engineeringapprentice. I then worked for a few years at

Hindustan Aeronautics Ltd, Aero-EnginesDesign Division, Bengaluru. My life thentook a strange turn when, for a variety ofreasons, I decided to pursue further studiesin the Social Sciences. I obtained an M.Philin Sociology from the Jawaharlal NehruUniversity, New Delhi and also did researchwork towards a doctorate. After university,I was invited by the Delhi Science Forum,a Delhi-based NGO working in the areaof science and technology policy, to lead a

project sponsored by the Department ofScience & Technology (DST) to conduct

field and other studies in collaboration witha coalition of S&T-based NGOs and S&TInstitutions towards working out a directionand approach for application of S&T forrural development. Recommendations of thissponsored project were then utilised to lay

the foundation for the societal programmesof DST. This project also catalysed a new

organization, the Centre for Technology andDevelopment (CTD), New Delhi, which Ihave been leading for the past 27 years andwhich has been engaged in development anddissemination of appropriate technologiesfor rural industrialisation.

A S: Raghunandanji, you have aremarkable career graph. You obviouslybring the precision of engineering and thehorizons of sociology to your work. Couldyou have the same job satisfaction if you hadopted for a regular career in the industrialsector or the academic world?

D R: Yes I probably could, both inindustry and academics, as so many of mycontemporaries do. But I do feel that mywork in the NGO sector and with CTDin particular, has given me enormoussatisfaction which I may not have got ina different career. I am my own boss anddecide my own projects according to mychosen areas of interest. My work combinesin a fantastic way both the disciplines Ilove, namely engineering and sociology,

and I feel uniquely enabled to conductmulti-disciplinary action research with both

academic and social impact. And finally, itis both hugely challenging and enormouslysatisfying to know that I am contributing tothe welfare of the underprivileged sections ofmy country and to the creation of models forsocial transformation.

A S:This is very encouraging. I do notmeet many others who can feel really satisfiedwith their career choices. Often, they regretthe decisions made. What really influencedyour moves? Did your parents have a majorrole? Did you have a role model then?

D R: These are very interesting and

serious questions, and I hope I can do justice.Part of my motivation in the early years wasthat most work done assigned to engineers,at least at that time, was of a managerialnature and, even if the work was technical,the scope for creativity was rather narrow.This may be an erroneous perception orrestricted only to certain sectors of industryin the early seventies, but nevertheless thatwas how I experienced it and that was a majormotivating factor. On the other hand, myinterest in sociology was genuine and keptgrowing till it became irresistible! My readings

also showed me that several renownedscholars had made a successful transitionlike I was contemplating. Famous sociologistMalinowski, philosopher Wittgenstein andin more modern times Edmund Leach in theUK, Jit Singh Oberoi in Delhi University,Sudhir Kakar the psychoanalyst in Delhiwere all inspirations. I was doubly fortunatein that I did not abandon engineering butam able to combine both my disciplinaryinterests in the work that I do. There werethree big influences in my career. The firstwas my University, JNU, which showed the

courage to admit me into the MPhil/PhDprogramme while all other universitieswanted me to do an MA. And as shouldhappen in the best universities, I learned asmuch outside the classroom, from intenseinteractions with students and faculty, as Ilearned inside it! The second huge influencewas my mother, a career educationist herself,who gave me full support in making thistransition which was a very big risk indeed.Finally, DST and especially its Science

Leader of appropriate technologyD. Raghunandan

D. Raghunandan

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& Society Division (now called SEEDDivision) has been like an anchor, allowingthis creativity to flourish and providing themuch-needed financial support. The open-minded, liberal and creative atmosphere atDST, quite non-typical in India, has been ofenormous help.

A S:I recall our interaction at Wardhaabout 25 years back when we were bothstudying the problems of rural artisans fromdifferent perspectives you from the fieldand I from the sponsoring organisation.Your perceptions over the past three decadesmust have transformed in light of continuedintensive interaction with the society. Whathave been the major changes in the ruralareas? How have artisans have survived thesechanges?

D R: I feel that in many ways villagesparticularly in northern India have not

changed much although rural areas takenmore broadly including small towns havechanged considerably. Perhaps the biggestchange is visible in district towns whereconsumer goods, white goods, brand namestores, etc., are widespread compared totwo decades ago when every third shopsold vessels, textiles or groceries, with a fewjewellery stores and eateries thrown in. Inpart, this reflects the growing prosperity ofa section of the rural populace. Rural peoplethough have changed in deeper ways. Theirknowledge of developments in other parts

of the country, in cities and in industry, isfar greater than it once was. Rural peopleare more aware; they feel they have potentialto bring about changes and are politicallymore awakened. But opportunities toactually change are scarce, migration to citiesremains an option but with not very goodprospects in the face of jobless growth.Also, mainstream thinking and institutionalframeworks have not changed in ways thatcould respond to the new aspirations of ruralIndia. As far as artisans and other workingpeople in rural areas go, they are barely

surviving, their prospects and opportunitieshave shrunk substantially, and agriculture,which is the base of the rural economy, isstagnant if not declining. The future forrural areas lies in rural industrialisationwhich is the best option for employmentgeneration as well as for transformation ofthe rural economy.

A S: CTD has been leading theappropriate technology driver in the country.The organisation has constantly reviewed its

About CTD/SESS

The Society for Economic & Social Studies (SESS) is an independent non-profitorganisation working through its executive arm, the Centre for Technology &Development (CTD). CTD/SESS works towards sustainable development and rural industrialisation

for the benefit of artisans, small farmers, landless labour and other deprived sectionsespecially women through S&T-based innovation and participatory action research.Major thrust of CTD/SESS is on development and dissemination of viable

technology packages and replicable models for pro-poor rural enterprises in differentsectors (spanning the entire innovation chain comprising technology generation,production, capacity-building and organisation), and on policy advocacy, campaigns andcommunity-level interventions in public health. With the above focus CTD/SESS:l provides turnkey and other consultancy services to user groups and development

agencies covering feasibility studies, project design, project commissioning andmanagement, training, trouble-shooting and hand-holding towards sustainability;

l undertakes applied social science research, studies/surveys, monitoring/evaluation;l engages in nationwide action programmes, campaigns and advocacy in public

health;

l works throughout India on its own and/or in partnership with a wide network ofNGOs;

l itself runs production and other activities at its Field Station in Dehradun district ofUttaranchal;and

l has collaborative linkages with several S&T Institutions.

CTD/SESS has been active since 1982 and:l is a multi-disciplinary group of dedicated and experienced professionals with

backgrounds in engineering, natural sciences, medicine and social sciences;l has core competences in systems-based appropriate technologies for rural industries,

public health, participatory action research and social research;l is widely acknowledged as a leading agency in the field of rural industrialisation;l has evolved replicable technologies and field models in several non-farm sectors of

vital importance to the rural and national economy;l has helped set up and run over 200 rural enterprises in 26 States/UTs;l fabricates and supplies innovative equipment/machinery for different rural

industries;l manufactures and markets a wide variety of processed fruit and vegetable products

under the brand name FARMERS which is also franchised currently in six areas;l has implemented numerous projects supported by governmental agencies at national

or state levels and international agencies of the UN system.

strategies and priorities to address issues ofimportance. Many other such groups havenot been able to display such dynamism.

What has been the key to this success? Issize of an organisation important? How areyou attracting fresh talent to keep the grouprelevant to its mandate?

D R: Again, challenging questions! Ithink part of CTDs success lies in carefullyand systematically approaching technologydevelopment options sector-by-sector after athorough study of the sector, the foreseeablescenario in technology and markets, andavailable technologies and the state of art,

along with participatory identification offelt needs and problems of target groupsand those of all other stakeholders in the

production and distribution chain ofgoods, services and knowledge. CTD hasconsistently avoided a top-down approachof evolving some technology which WEthink is best and then figuring out why itis not being absorbed by its intended users.Our multi-disciplinary approach has helped.So has a clear vision that economic viabilityand self-sustainability is our goal. No, I dontthink size of an organisation is important, butthe culture of creativity built and promoted

Interview

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within the organisation is. Sometimes smallermore compact organisations deliver betterresults. Attracting fresh young talent hasbeen the biggest challenge and I cannot claimmuch success in this. Perhaps these thingshave a generational cycle. My generationwas shaped in the idealistic sixties and

seventies, and perhaps more of us are drivento dedicate ourselves to societal causes thanat present when the youth are more drivenby career prospects and financial goals. Sucha trend was witnessed in the West too where,however, the next trend-change has alreadybegun. Maybe we have to wait for the nextwave in India a decade or two down theroad!

A S: Your focus on rural developmenthas yielded many interesting models ofincome generation that have becomesustainable. What are the issues

in wide scale replication of suchmodels? How can CTD help inthese being adopted by mainstream development or financingagencies?

D R: I would characteriseinstitutional reform as the biggestchallenge in widespread adoptionof rural enterprise models,and by institutional reformI mean changes in the way allof us, NGOs, government,banks and others, do things.

Technology developers must takeresponsibility for disseminationalso and not leave the job toothers, and this also impliesthat more attention needs tobe paid to the viability and suitability ofthe technology for uptake. NGOs need toprofessionalise, to move from being do-good charities to groups with specialisedcompetences and an entrepreneurial spirit.The very concept of rural enterprises indevelopmental circles needs to undergofundamental changes. The cobbler

under the tree model of tiny household-based activities is no longer relevant, highquality and productivity are essential incontemporary markets and this is wheregood, high-class yet appropriate technologycomes in. Collectively it is necessary thatnot just technologies but also enterprisemodels be evolved and mainstreamed so thatfinancing for such enterprises is availablethrough normal banking channels whichrequire to be sensitised and enabled to make

the necessary changes in their systems andthinking.

A S: You can be classified as a socialentrepreneur. How can we breed more suchentrepreneurs?

D R: To some extent I believeentrepreneurs are born, one cannot teach

someone to have an entrepreneurial spiritor drive, he or she either has it or not!Dhirubhai Ambani was not well educated,neither is Bill Gates of Microsoft! An MBAdegree holder may make a great managerbut may not succeed as a businessman. Infact I believe statistics show that very fewMBA graduates become entrepreneurs. Atthe same time, it is important to recognisethe entrepreneurial spirit in some one,then encourage it, cultivate it and refine it.At a broader societal level, it is necessary

to promote entrepreneurship and providemore encouragement to entrepreneurship,self-employment and a sense of enterpriseamong the youth especially in the urbanmiddle-classes from communities withouta traditional trade or business background.Regulatory systems also need to be reformedso that it becomes easier for people to

start and run small businesses without thenotorious red tape, procedural hassles,multiple clearances, huge paperwork andcorruption that make India one of the lowestranked countries in the world in terms ofease of doing business. So these are largersocietal-level challenges rather than justindividual ones.

A S:The urban poor are in many waysworse off than their rural counterparts. Willthey be the focus of CTD and how?

D R: At present we have our handsfull with rural transformation. Not that wehave neglected urban employment issues.We have initiated urban enterprises in patch-work leather bags and other goods usingwaste from the leather garment industry, andhave also undertaken research on laundry

systems for dhobis, introduced LPG-firedkilns for urban potters, new-design cyclerickshaws and so on. The problems in urbanareas are quite different and the challengeslie even more in legal, regulatory andsociological aspects than in technologicalterms. Nevertheless, CTD is also turningits attention to some potential urban-poorenterprises such as machine-made incensesticks, recycled paper and products, andother such areas which build upon materialsand resources characteristic of urban areas.

A S: You mentioned about

prioritisation of problems. Can wehave a system of identifying andclassifying a range of problems thatcan be given as challenges to R&Dor educational institutions?

D R: Yes this is possible, andsuch attempts have been made earliertoo. It is necessary, however, thatR&D or educational institutionsbe geared to meet such challenges.It is a common misunderstandingthat any scientist and technologistcan tackle and solve rural problems.

In fact, these require reorientationand a commitment by scientistsand technologists to a differentway of thinking and working, aswell as efforts to understand rural

needs. Intermediate organisations such asNGOs have a crucial role to play. They cantranslate felt needs into S&T problems thatR&D Institutions can more easily take up,and also help these R&D or educationalinstitutions in outreach for which they arenot geared.

A S: What type of technological

support services are possible for artisanalgroups to sustain their economic activitiesbased on new technological solutionsdeveloped by CTD or other such groups?Is there a case for trained force of diplomaholding engineers to support such efforts?

D R: Handholding and supportservices are perhaps the most important,and regrettably the most neglected, aspect oftechnology dissemination or transfer. This isalso one of the reasons why R&D Institutions

D. Raghunandan with Er Anuj Sinha

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face difficulties in this field, because suchinstitutions are simply not structured toperform such functions and scientists whowork in them do not have the time to doso. NGOs are better placed but need to re-orient themselves and acquire the technicalcapability to offer such services. Diploma

engineers or other barefoot technicians arewell equipped to play such roles provided theyhave a supportive institutional framework todo so, such as from within S&T NGOs orother R&D Institution engaged in S&T-based rural development.

A S:For many years CTD documentedefforts of pioneering groups and disseminatedit among interested institutions. Is there aneed for reviving such a vehicle? What shapeshould it take?

D R:There is a sore need for regulardissemination of information on appropriate

technologies for both rural and urbanapplication. At present there is no single-point source of reliable information andpotential users of appropriate technologiesare forced to rely on word of mouth, afew stray in-house publications and somecompendia brought out by different agencieswhich list thousands of technologies but givelittle or no information as to their successin the field, viability or other such practicaland essential information. Need-basedInformation systems should be availablein both print form and on the internet so

as to maximise access while also enablingcontinuous updating. There is anotherimportant need such a vehicle should caterto. There are today many researchers in S&TNGOs, S&T institutions and academicinstitutions working in the field of appropriatetechnology which is a specialised disciplinealthough unfortunately not recognised assuch. But unlike other disciplines, there isno journal which can be used as referenceor where research findings can be perused.So a vehicle such as being discussed hereshould also try to capture and communicate

information on on-going research and theirstatus so that unnecessary duplication isobviated, experiences can be shared and newresearchers can properly identify a subject ofresearch and chart a direction for it.

A S: Women need to be the focus ofdevelopmental efforts to raise a communityabove poverty. You have helped in manypolicy initiatives in this area. What are yourviews on this and how can more such effortsbe nurtured?

D R: Women are crucial to the futureof the nation. It is imperative that morewomen in both urban and rural areas arebrought into the work force with technicalskills and knowledge so as to enable Indiato emerge into the modern industrial andpost-industrial age. One of the important

things I have learned is that women shouldbe encouraged and enabled to leave the homefor work to the extent possible. Why shouldwomen be perennially bound to housework?It is too often assumed that women will (andmust?) stay at home, so work is designed forthem to do in their spare time. But preciselybecause their time is undervalued, such tasks,for example put-out labour like envelope-making or agarbatti-rolling, end up beingdrudgery-filled and do not even compensatefor the time spent. Other forms of indirectexploitation of women include family labour

such as in pottery. Our experience of runningFPO-licensed fruit processing enterpriseswith mostly women workers is that womenfind it a highly liberating experience to workin a factory-like environment away fromhome, socialising with a variety of others,being exposed to many experiences andbroadening their horizons besides generatingsubstantial incomes for them and enhancingtheir social status.

A S: It has been a very enrichingexperience talking to you. Thank you forsharing your views and ideas with our

readers.

Letters to the editor

Useful for students

Just now I got this esteemed magazine frommy friend. I am impressed by the excellentarticle on Justus Von Liebig. I have hadthe privilege of visiting his lab (LiebigUniversity, Germany) during my stay inGermany. Similarly, the information aboutthe Nobel laureates is very good. I wouldlike to receive the magazine regularly. Itwill be useful for my students.

Dr. Prof. V.D.Patil,Head, Department of Agriculture,

Chemistry and Soil Science,

Marathwada Agricultural University,

Parbhani, Maharashtra 431402

*****Thank you

Thank you so much for the copies ofDream 2047, where our views have beenthoroughly and accurately covered. I thankyour office for doing such a nice job. Let ushope to have more collaboration betweenVigyan Prasar and JBNSTS.

Papiya NandyDirector, JBNSTS

*****

Interview

28

Stroy of ChemistryAnirban Hazra

ISBN: 81-7480-135-9pp: 115 Price: `75

This book traces the development of Chemistry,the science of matter, from its origins in antiquityto the modern and quickly evolving sceince thatit is today.

DirectorVigyan PrasarA-50, Institutional Area , Sector-62. NOIDA (201307)Phone: 91-120-240 4430,35 Fax: 91-120-2404437e-mail : [email protected] : http://www.vigyanprasar.gov.in

For further details please write to:


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T

oo much chaat-pakori, a tad too muchof spices in the food, or too much stress,

and not just your Mom and Dad, but yourdoctor was also quick to warn you that youcould be headed for an ulcer.

Until just a few years ago, the commonbelief was that ulcers were a result of lifestyle.But not any more. Doctors now know that abacterial infection or medication, not stressor diet, causes most ulcers. The big welcometidings are: instead of taking months or yearsto treat, ulcers can often be cured in 2 to 4weeks.

Types of peptic ulcersUlcer is the medical term for an open sore.Peptic ulcers develop on the inside lining ofthe stomach or small intestine. The lining ofthe stomach and the duodenum normallyhas a barrier of mucus to protect it from theeffects of acidic digestive juices. If the barrieris damaged, the acid may cause inflammationand erosion of the lining. The resultingeroded areas are known as peptic ulcers.

There are two types of peptic ulcers.A peptic ulcer that occurs in the stomach iscalled a gastric ulcer. If the ulcer develops in

the small intestine, it commonly developsin the first part of the small intestine. Thissection of the small intestine is called theduodenum, and an ulcer that develops inthis part is named a duodenal ulcer.

Duodenal ulcers are more commonthan gastric ulcers and usually occur inpeople aged 20 to 45, particularly men.Gastric ulcers are more common in peopleover the age of 50.

Causes

Bacteria are the culpritsThe understanding and treatment of pepticulcers has changed in a big way since 1983when two Australian researchers found acorkscrew-shaped bacterial organism inbiopsy specimens of people who had ulcersand persistent stomach inflammation(gastritis).

The bacterium discovered by theresearchers, called Helicobacter pylori (H.

pylori), lives and multiplies within themucous layer that covers and protects tissuesthat line the stomach and small intestine.Often, H. pylori causes no problems.However, sometimes it can erode digestivetissues, producing an ulcer.

Approximately 1 in 20 people infected

with H. pyloriget an ulcer. One reason maybe that these people already have damage tothe lining of the stomach or small intestine,making it easier for bacteria to invade andinfect tissues.

The risk of harbouring H. pyloribacteria increases with age. By the time theyare in their 20s, a large majority of peoplein this country are infected with H. pylori.Although it is not clear how the organismspreads, it appears to be transmitted from

person to person by close contact. Poor foodhandling and sanitation practices are thoughtto be common routes of transmission. Asscientists have found H. pyloriin water, theysuspect the infection also may be transmittedin contaminated drinking water.

Other risk factors include:l Having a low socio-economic standard

of livingl

Living in a large family or crowdedconditionsl Having an infant in the homel Being exposed to vomit of an infected

individualSuch a situation may arise even in well-

to-do families, due to the lack of hygiene onpart of the cook or the domestic help whoworks for them.

This new understanding into thecausation of ulcers has been truly a majorbreakthrough. In countries that havedeveloped higher standards of sanitation,

and have understood the significance ofhygiene, have a much lower rate of new H.pylori infections, and lower incidence ofpeptic ulcers.

Helicobacter pylori presently accountsfor 50 per cent or more of all peptic ulcers.In certain populations, such as smaller citieswith crowded conditions and a low socio-economic standard of living, the rate of H.pyloriinfection is much higher than in otherparts.

Beyond the bug

Helicobacter pylori is the most common.However, it is not the only cause of pepticulcers. The other causes of peptic ulcersinclude:

Excessive use of pain relieversNon-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs(NSAIDs) like aspirin, ibuprofen, naproxenand ketoprofen can irritate or inflame thelining of your stomach and small intestine.The medications are available both by

Magic Mantras to Prevent and Heal the

Ulcers in Stomach and Duodenum

Dr Yatish Agarwale-mail: [email protected]

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prescription and over the counter. To helpavoid stomach upset, take NSAIDs withmeals.

About 20 per cent of people who takeNSAIDs regularly develop ulcers. The drugsinhibit production of an enzyme (cyclo-oxygenase) that produces prostaglandins.

These hormone-like substances help protectyour stomach lining from chemical andphysical injury. Without this protection,stomach acid can erode the lining, causingbleeding and ulcers.

It is possible that regular use ofNSAIDs also may increase risk of ulcers inpeople infected with H. pylori.

SmokingNicotine in tobacco increases the volume andconcentration of stomach acid, increasingyour risk of an ulcer. Smoking also may slow

healing during ulcer treatment.

Excessive alcoholAlcohol can irritate and erode themucous lining of your stomach andintestines, causing inflammation andbleeding. It is uncertain, however,whether this alone can progress intoan ulcer or whether other contributingfactors must be present, such as H.pyloribacteria or nicotine.

Role of psychological

stressPsychological stress is no longerbelieved to be one of the primarycauses of peptic ulcers, but it may play a partin making an existing ulcer worse.

Common symptomsThe most common symptom of a pepticulcer is a gnawing pain in the upper abdomenbetween the bellybutton and breastbone.This pain, caused by stomach acid washingover the open sore, may linger for just a fewminutes, or it may last for hours.

The pain from a duodenal ulcer isoften worse before meals when the stomachis empty, and therefore tends to flare at night.Food buffers the acid. That is why eatingoften temporarily relieves the pain. But itusually recurs a few hours afterwards.

By contrast, pain caused by a gastriculcer is often aggravated by food. Quiteunderstandably, more than a few peoplesuffer loss of appetite, and therefore, loseweight.

Some people experience feeling offullness, nausea and sometimes vomiting.Other signs and symptoms include vomitingup blood, which may appear bright red orblack, and blood mixed with stool that mayappear dark-coloured.

ComplicationsLeft untreated, peptic ulcers can causeinternal bleeding. This happens when theulcer becomes deeper and erodes into thenearby blood vessels.

Minor bleeding may cause nosymptoms apart from those of iron deficiencyanaemia, such as pale skin, tiredness, andfaintness. It may also result in vomiting ofblood. Alternatively, blood may pass throughthe digestive tract, resulting in black, tarrystools. Sometimes the bleeding can becomeso severe as to be life threatening and may

require urgent medical attention. In some people, an ulcer can eat

a hole through the wall of the stomach orsmall intestine, allowing gastric juices toenter the abdomen and putting you at riskof serious inflammation of your abdominalcavity (peritonitis).

Occasionally, gastric (stomach) ulcersalso can produce scar tissue and result innarrowing of the stomach outlet into the

duodenum, which prevents the stomachfrom emptying fully. When that happens, aperson may feel bloating after meals, vomitundigested food hours after eating, andsuffer weight loss.

Diagnosing an ulcerIf your doctor suspects that you have anulcer, he or she may arrange an endoscopyto view the stomach and duodenum. In thissensitive procedure, a long, narrow tube with

an attached camera is threaded down yourthroat into your stomach and duodenum.With this instrument, your doctor can viewyour upper digestive tract and identify anulcer.

If an ulcer is found, your doctor mayremove small tissue samples (biopsy) near the

ulcer. These samples are examined under amicroscope to rule out cancer of the stomach.A biopsy also can identify the presence of H.pyloriin your stomach lining. Since cancer ofthe duodenum is rare, a biopsy of a duodenalulcer is seldom necessary.

In addition to a biopsy, three othertests can determine if the cause of your ulceris H. pylori infection:

Blood testIt checks for the presence of H. pyloriantibodies. A disadvantage of this test is

that it cannnot differentiate betweenpast exposure and current infection.After H. pylori bacteria have beeneradicated, you may still get a positiveresult.

Breath testThis test uses a radioactive carbonatom to detect H. pylori. First, youblow into a small plastic bag, whichis then sealed. Then you drink a smallglass of a clear, tasteless liquid. Theliquid contains radioactive carbon

as part of a substance (urea) that willbe broken down by H. pylori. Thirtyminutes later you blow into a second

bag which also is sealed. If you are infectedwith H. pylori, your second breath samplewill contain the radioactive carbon in theform of carbon dioxide. It takes about a dayto get the test results.

If you are taking a medication called aproton pump inhibitor, it is important thatyou stop taking the medication for at leastthree days before the breath test, becausethe medication can interfere with the test

results.The breath test is sensitive to the

presence of H. pylori nearly 90 per centof the time. That is similar to the bloodtest. The advantage of the breath test isthat it can monitor the effectiveness oftreatment to eradicate H. pylori, detectingalmost immediately when the bacteria havebeen killed. With the blood test, H. pyloriantibodies may still be present a year or moreafter the infection is gone.

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Stool antigen testThis test checks for H. pylori in stoolsamples. Its useful in helping to diagnoseH. pyloriinfection. It also may be useful inmonitoring the success of treatment.

Treatment

An ulcer isn not something you should treaton your own, without a doctors help. Over-the-counter antacids and acid blockers mayrelieve the gnawing pain, but the relief isalways short-lived.

A combinat ion o f medicationsWith a doctors help, you can find promptrelief from ulcer pain as well as a lifelongcure from the disease. Since most ulcers stemfrom H. pyloribacteria, doctors use a two-pronged approach:l Kill the bacteria.

l Reduce the level of acid in thedigestive system to relieve pain andencourage healing.

Accomplishing these two stepsrequires use of at least two, and sometimesthree or four, of the following medications:

Antibiot icsSeveral combinations of antibiotics killH. pylori. Most of the medications areequally effective, killing the bacteria nearly90 percent of the time. However, for thetreatment to work, it is essential that you

follow your doctors instructions precisely.Antibiotics most commonly

prescribed for treatment of H. pyloriincludeamoxycillin, clarithromycin, metronidazoleor tetracycline. Some pharmaceuticalcompanies package a combination of twoantibiotics together, with an acid suppressoror cytoprotective agent specifically fortreatment of H. pylori infection. Thesecombination treatments are sold underdifferent names.

Youll need to take antibiotics foronly 1 to 2 weeks, depending on the type

and number of antibiotics your doctorprescribes.

Other medications prescribed inconjunction with antibiotics generally aretaken for a longer period.

Ac id blockersAcid blockers also called histamine(H-2) blockers reduce the amount ofhydrochloric acid released into the digestivetract to relieve ulcer pain and encourage

healing. Normally, this acid is not damagingto the stomach and duodenum. But if a defectdevelops in the mucous layer that coats thedigestive tract, hydrochloric acid can seepinto the defect and produce an ulcer. Otherulcer-promoting factors, including use ofnicotine, NSAIDs and alcohol, increase the

risk of the defect turning into an ulcer.Acid blockers work by keepinghistamine from reaching histamine receptors.Histamine is a substance normally presentin the body. When it reacts with histaminereceptors, the receptors signal acid-secretingcells in the stomach to release hydrochloricacid.

Available by prescription or overthe counter, acid blockers include themedications ranitidine, famotidine, andcimetidine.

Antac idsYour doctor may include an antacid in yourdrug regimen. An antacid may be takenin addition to an acid blocker or in placeof one. Instead of reducing acid secretion,antacids neutralise existing stomach acid andcan provide rapid pain relief.

Proton pump inhibitors

A more effective way to reduce stomachacid is to shut down the pumps withinacid-secreting cells. Proton pump inhibitorsreduce acid by blocking the action of thesetiny pumps. They include the prescriptionmedications omeprazole, lansoprazole,rabeprazole and esmaprazole. Anotherdrug, pantoprozole, can be taken orally oradministered intravenously in the hospital.

Proton pump inhibitors also appearto inhibit H. pylori. However, the drugs

cost almost twice as much as acid blockers.Uncommon side effects include stomachpain, diarrhoea and headache.

Cytoprotective agentsThese medications are designed to helpprotect the tissues that line the stomach and

small intestine. They include the prescriptionmedications sucralfate and misoprostol.The drugs carry some side effects.

Sucralfate may cause constipation.Misoprostol may cause diarrhoea anduterine bleeding. Pregnant women shouldnot take Misoprostol because it can causemiscarriage.

Another cytoprotective agent isbismuth subsalicylate. In addition toprotecting the lining of the stomach andintestines, bismuth preparations appear toinhibit H. pylori activity.

Measures you can takeBefore the discovery of H. pylori, peoplewith ulcers were often placed on a restricteddiet and told to reduce the amount of stressin their lives. Now that food and stress havebeen eliminated as causes of ulcers, thesefactors no longer apply.

However, while an ulcer is healing,it is still advisable to watch what you eatand control stress. Acidic or spicy foodsmay increase ulcer pain. The same is truefor stress. Stress slows digestion, allowing

food and digestive acid to remain in yourstomach and intestines for a longer period.

Your doctor also may suggest thesesteps: Dont smoke. Avoid alcohol. To relieve pain, take paracetamol

instead of NSAIDs.

Most ulcers healwith treatmentWith treatment, about 19 in 20 peptic ulcersdisappear completely within a few months.

However, the ulcer may recur if lifestylechanges are not made or if there is reinfectionwith H. pylori.

[This column is primarily intended to educate thereader about the basics, and the dos and dontsin a medical situation, and not as a substitutefor professional medical advice. Before startingany form of treatment, please consult yourphysician.]

n

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Recent developmentsin science and technology

LHC creates mini Big Bangs

by collid ing lead ionsScientists at the Large Hadron Collider(LHC) near Geneva, worlds biggest atomsmasher, smashed the first stable beams oflead ions on 8 November 2010, creatingthe first mini Big Bangs and the highesttemperatures and densities ever achieved inan experiment that mimicked conditions amillionth of a second after the birth of theuniverse. According to the researchers, thecollision event took place in a safe, controlledenvironment generating incredibly hot anddense sub-atomic fireballs with

temperatures of over 10 trilliondegrees Celsius a million timeshotter than the centre of theSun.

The lead-ion collisionstook place at energy of 287 TeV(287 1012 eV) per beam. Eachlead nucleus contains 82 protons,and the LHC accelerates eachproton to energy of 3.5 TeV,thus resulting in energy of 287TeV per beam, or a total collisionenergy of 574 TeV. The lead ion

collisions were detected by a hostof detectors including ALICE (ALarge Ion Collider Experiment),ATLAS (A Toroidal LHCApparatuS), and CMS (CompactMuon Solenoid).

When two lead nuclei slam into eachother at high enough energy, they form afireball of hot, dense matter. The temperaturescreated in the fireball are so great that theyturn the protons and neutrons into a densesoup of subatomic particles known as quarkgluon plasma (QGP), in which quarks and

gluons roam freely. The QGP exists for onlyan instant before the fireball expands andcools to the point where quarks and gluonsonce again form composite particles.

One of the main scientific goalsof the ALICE detector of the LHC is tocharacterise the quarkgluon plasma inan attempt to find out more about thenature of the strong force, one of the fourfundamental forces of nature. Despite beingresponsible for generating 98% of the mass

of atoms, the strong force is still the most

poorly understood of the forces. For thispurpose, ALICE was specifically designed totrack large numbers of particles. It can detectup to 15,000 particles per event, which maybe produced from the collisions betweenlead nuclei occurring in the centre of thedetector.

The 8 November event marks thebeginning of the main physics programmefor the ALICE experiment, which has beendesigned specifically for heavy-ion collisionsand is seeking to recreate the conditions

that existed just 1011s after the Big Bang.At that time, the energy in the universe wasso concentrated that protons and neutronscould not hold together instead, spacebegan to be filled with QGP.

Earlier, in September 2010, the LHChad produced its first pair of Z bosons through

proton collision, which were detected by the

CMS. Creation of this first pair is consideredan important step in LHCs hunt for theHiggs boson because the generation andanalysis of many more such events couldprovide one of the key signatures of theelusive Higgs boson. The CMS experimentuses a general-purpose detector to investigatea wide range of physics, including the searchfor the Higgs boson, extra dimensions, andparticles that could make up dark matter.

The LHC was built to help scientistsanswer key unresolved questions in particle

physics. According to some

scientists, the unprecedentedenergy it achieves may evenreveal some unexpected resultsthat no one has ever thoughtof. For the past few decades,physicists have been able todescribe with increasing detailthe fundamental particles thatmake up the universe and theinteractions between them. Thisunderstanding is encapsulated inthe Standard Model of particlephysics, but it contains gaps and

cannot tell us the whole story.To fill in the missing knowledgerequires experimental data, andthe next big step to achievingthis is with LHC.

Physicists believe that theuniverse was filled with QGP millionths of asecond after the Big Bang, until it expandedand cooled enough for the very firstcomposite particles to form. This processis mirrored at very small scales in heavy-ioncollisions, allowing scientists to study inthe laboratory one of the early stages of the

universes evolution. By creating millions ofQGPs over the next month, scientists willlearn more about how the basic buildingblocks of matter quarks and gluons cometogether to form particles, which in turnform all the matter in the universe.

The LHC will be colliding lead ionsuntil 6 December. The accelerator willthen be shut down for two months formaintenance, and will start up again inFebruary 2011 with proton beams.

24

One of the first lead-ion collisions in the Large Hadron Collider, asrecorded by the ALICE detector. This was a high-multiplicity collision

that produced thousands of particles, including muons. (Credit: CERN)

Inside view of the Large Hadron Collider


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22

New Horizons

which are incorporated into the organicmolecules produced by algae depending on

the environmental conditions under whichthey grow. Ancient climate can thereforebe reconstructed by analysing the carbonisotope ratios of molecules preserved infossilised algae.

The researchers used fossilised algaepreserved in sediment cores extracted fromthe seafloor near Tasmania, Australia, bythe Ocean Drilling Program. They used theavailable information on the past marineecosystem, derived from studying changesin the abundance of different groups offossil plankton, to refine their estimates

of carbon dioxide levels. Their analysesindicated that carbon dioxide levels musthave at least doubled over a period of around400,000 years. In conjunction with thesefindings, data on sea surface temperatureavailable from other sources show that theclimate warmed by between 4 and 6Cover the same period. From the analysis theresearchers found a close correspondencebetween carbon dioxide levels and seasurface temperature over the whole period,suggesting that increased amounts of carbondioxide in the atmosphere played a major

role in global warming 40 million years ago.The researchers point out that the

large increase in atmospheric carbon dioxideindicated by their analysis would haverequired a natural carbon source capableof injecting vast amounts of carbon intothe atmosphere. One possible cause of therapid increase in atmospheric carbon dioxidelevels around 40 million years ago couldbe the release of carbon dioxide caused bydestruction of carbonate rocks with the rise

of the Himalayas, which occurred aroundthe same period, as suggested in another

paper in the same issue of Science by PaulN. Pearson of Cardiff University. Be that asit may, the recent findings do corroboratewhat climatologists have been suggesting formany years now that increase in levels ofatmospheric carbon dioxide due to humanactivity is indeed the real cause of the currentglobal warming.

Bacteria infuence evolution

According to Charles Darwin, evolution is arandom process that proceeds through naturalselection in which only the fittest organisms

survive and prevail over those who are unfit.But a recent study by a team of researcher ofTel Aviv University, Israel, shows that someorganisms may be capable of influencing theevolutionary process. The researchers, led bymicrobiologist Gil Sharon raised some fruitflies (Drosophila melanogaster) on molassesand others on starch. They expected onthe basis of previous studies that the flieswould mate preferentially with partnersraised on the same diet, and the flies did.

However, the researchers did not have anyidea why the flies showed a preference formates that shared the same diet.

It was later discovered that a changein diet acted on symbiotic bacteria livingon the flies and influences their matingpreference, rather than acting directly on the

flies themselves. Probably, bacteria that liveon the fruit fly can affect their hosts choiceof mate by altering the flys pheromones.According to the researchers, the changein mate choice could in turn lead to theevolution of new fly species suggestingthat bacteria can indirectly change thespecies of their hosts (Proceedings of NationalAcademy of Sciences, 1 November 2010 |doi:10.1073/pnas.1009906107). This ideais consistent with the hologenome theoryof evolution, first proposed by two membersof the research team, Eugene Rosenberg

and his wife, fellow evolutionary biologistIlana Zilber-Rosenberg, in 2008, whichemphasises the role of microorganisms in theevolution of animals and plants. In the studythe fruit flies were found to develop a matingpreference just a single generation after theywere introduced to a new diet and the effectwas seen to last for 37 generations.

To confirm that it was the bacteriaon them that were influencing their matingbehaviour and not the direct response of fliesto their diet, the researchers treated the flieswith antibiotics, wiping out the bacteria that

live on them. They then tested the flies againand found that they mated randomly anddid not show any preference for same-dietpartners. This indicated that the bacteria wereindeed influencing the flies mate choice.

By looking at genetic fingerprints, theresearchers identified Lactobacillus plantarumas the bacterial species responsible. In fliesfed on a diet of starch, L. plantarummade up26% of their symbiotic bacteria, comparedwith just 3% on molasses-fed flies. Toconfirm that L. plantarum was indeedresponsible, antibiotic-treated flies were re-

infected with the bacterium, and seen toreturn to preferential mating behaviour.

The team also examined fly pheromones chemicals that affect the behaviour of othermembers of the same species. Although theresults are not yet conclusive, the researchersfound that the starch-fed flies had alteredlevels of some pheromones known to beinvolved in mating behaviour.

Biman Basu n

Destruction of carbonate rocks as the Himalayas formed might have contributedto a dramatic rise in atmospheric carbon dioxide 40 million years ago.

Bacteria living on the fruit fly,Drosophila melanogaster, influences

the flys mating preferences.


20/20

D 2047 J 2011 V l 13 N 4

Your opinionDream 2047has been inviting your opinion on a specific topic every month. The reader sending the best comments will receive a popularscience book published by VP. Selected comments received will also be published in Dream 2047. The comments should be limited to400 words.

This months topic:Will it be possible to control global warming in the next 50 years?

Response should contain full name; postal address with pincode and email ID, if any; and should be accompanied by a recent passportsize photograph. Response may be sent by email ([email protected]) or by post to the address given below. If sent by post,Response: Dream 2047January 2011 should be clearly written on the envolope.

Vigyan PrasarA-50, Institutional Area, Sector-62, Noida 201 307 (U.P.)Phone: 91-120-240 4430/35 Fax: 91-120-240 4437Email: [email protected] Website: www.vigyanprasar.gov.in

Pradosh Dhal, Std-X,C/O- Mr. P. Dhal, PrincipalDAV Public School, TensaPO-Tensa, Dist-Sundargarh, OrissaPIN-770042The Central and State governments have launched

many a projects for the eradication of mosquito-borne diseases like malaria and dengue. NGOs and voluntaryorganisation are spending a lot of money on it. A survey on malariadeaths shows that the average death toll by these diseases is stillalarmingly high in India in spite of govt. initiatives. The mainreason is the fact that a majority of the population of the countryresides in rural areas and slums with least awareness of sanitationand cleanliness. Lack of consciousness due to illiteracy is one majorreason. It is not money but the mindset of the public that counts. In my opinion these pandemic diseases can be eradicatedwith a concerted effort in creating public awareness on cleanlinesssupplemented by Governments health programmes, improvedmanagement information system (MIS), and effective public

distribution system (PDS) in remote and rural areas, ensuringaccess to personal and community sanitary services.

*****

Ayush Sharma,D-181 Sector 27, Noida - 201301,Uttar PradeshIndia lacks sanitation facilities. If one moves totowns it is common scene that the sewage system is

choked and the stagnant water promotes breeding of mosquito at arapid rate leading to diseases like malaria and dengue. To eradicatemosquito-borne diseases everyone has to contribute his/her mite.Mass communication is the best way to educate the people; we canhave rallies to spread awareness about the how these diseases arespread. In my opinion mosquito-borne diseases can be eradicated

with the help of active participation of people in spreadingawareness.

*****

Pooja ChawlaVaheguru Niwas,Plot No. 216/A,Radha Krisha Colony,Valivade Road, Gandhinagar,Kolhapur 416 119We all know that cleanliness is next to godliness.To keep ourselves disease-free, it is necessary to keep cleanliness. To

maintain cleanliness is not only the responsibility of governmentbut also the people in society. For the government to maintaincleanliness there should be public interest. Then only can weeradicate disease. If public interest is not there, we cannot eradicatemalaria and dengue. These diseases can be eradicated only if thebreeding of mosquitoes is prevented by active public support,which can be done by better sanitation and prevention of waterstagnation anywhere.

*****

Winners of Your Opinion contest for October 2010

Topic: Can mosquito-borne diseases like malaria and dengue be eradicated, given thepublic apathy to sanitation and cleanliness?

Your Opinion

dream 2047 january 2011 issue

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