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Dragoman Journal of Translation Studies

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Dragoman Journal of Translation Studies

Dragoman is an annual international peer-reviewed digital journal published by Arabic Translators International, (ATI: www.atinternational.org), an international association established in 2004 according to the Belgian Law. Dragoman publishes high-quality original research articles in the fields of Translation Studies (practical & applied), Linguistics, (theoretical & applied), Terminology Studies and Cultural Studies. Articles submitted for publication may be written in Arabic, English or French. All articles go through a double-blind peer-reviewing process. Director: Dr. Wafa Kamel Fayed (University of Cairo). Editorial Board: Zouheir Soukah and Jameela Hassan. International Advisory Board (in first name alphabetical order): Dr. Abdelmajeed Al Obeidi (University Umm Al Qura); Dr. Basil Hatim (American University of Sharjah); Dr. Faruq Mawasi (Al-Qasemi Academy); Dr. Luc Van Doorslaer (University of Leuven). Dr. Mohammed Benhaddou (King Fahd School for Translation in Tangiers); Dr. Mohammed Didaoui (Geneva). Dr. Ronak Husni (American University of Sharjah); Dr. Said Faiq (American University of Sharjah); Please send your articles to: [email protected] ISSN: 2295-1210

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Contents List of Contributors 1 Terminology and Standardization: ISO/TC 37

Hendrik J. Kockaert 4

2 Contextualized Ethics in Interpreter-mediated Police Questioning and Awareness Raising through Joint Training Heidi Salaets

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3 The limits of notes in literary translation Chuanmao Tian

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4 The Question of Identity in the Business World: Call Centres located in Morocco as a case study. Mohamed Adli

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شعر الغزؿ في الجاىمية 5 أحمد الميثي

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نظريات الذاكرة الجمعية كتطكراتيا في مياديف العمـك االنسانية 6 زىير سككاح

128

اإلسالمي: أركاف اإلسالـ أنمكذجاترجمة المصطمح 7 ليمى الغزكاني كحناف كاسنكاف

141

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Terminology and Standardization: ISO/TC 37 Hendrik J. Kockaert

KU Leuven & University of the Free State

Introduction This article refers to the 2013 Business Plan proposed by the ISO Technical Committee 37 (ISO/TC 37 “Terminology and other language and content resources”), and intends to promote the standards developed by ISO/TC 37 in the areas of terminology management. The TC 37 standards extend beyond standardization and terminology and cover also other language and content resources and their applications in any field or application which involves communication as well as the creation, management and transfer of information and knowledge. TC 37 is one of nine ISO technical committees which are called horizontal committees, and are as such recognized as being strategically important and having an impact horizontally across other ISO technical committees and industries using standards concerning terminology, language and structured content. Standardization initiatives worldwide rely on TC 37 standards1. The areas in which TC 37 is known to generate impact, such as computer assisted translation tools, interpretation and translation services, localization, and multilingual communication are out of the scope of this contribution, and will be referred to occasionally, when it is relevant to this article.

1standard: document, established by consensus and approved by a recognized body, that provides, for common and repeated use, rules, guidelines or characteristics for activities or their results, aimed at the achievement of the optimum degree of order in a given context; NOTE Standards should be based on the consolidated results of science, technology and experience, and aimed at the promotion of optimum community benefits (ISO/IEC Guide 2:2004, 3.2).

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TC 37 standards are basic standards2 and provide the groundwork for terminology standardization in technical committees within ISO, IEC and other standardizing bodies, as well as in other types of terminology work and terminological applications, including terminology standardization to support commercial processes. Therefore, TC 37 activities form an integral part of general international standardization policies, because the terminological standardization of domain-specific terms is often the prerequisite for the development of effective standards in all areas of human activity. The purpose of this article is to focus on the activities undertaken by ISO/TC 37 in the area of terminology management, and more in particular on the latest developments, the new work item proposals, as well as the impact ISO/TC 37 standards related to terminology have on the language industry and in standards development. We refer for this purpose to standards development in health informatics (ISO 17115:2007; ISO/TS 17117:2002; ISO/TR 12309:2009) and metrology (ISO/IEC Guide 99:2007), and to best practices observed by the Ministry of Justice (FOD Justitie) in Belgium and the NATO. The overall scope of TC 37 involves the “[s]tandardization of principles, methods and applications relating to terminology and other language and content resources in the contexts of multilingual communication and cultural diversity”. Detailed data related to the scope of TC 37 can be found on the ISO web site under ISO Standards Development, and further under its technical committees.

2 basic standard: standard which includes fundamental concepts, principles, and requirements with regard to general aspects applicable to a wide range of products, processes, or services (ISO/TR 16142:2006); basic standard: standard that has a wide-ranging coverage or contains general provisions for one particular field; NOTE A basic standard may function as a standard for direct application or as a basis for other standards (ISO/IEC Guide 2:2004, 5.1).

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Standardization With a view of approximating terminology and standardization, the ISO/IEC Guide 2:2004 Standardization and related activities — General vocabulary seemed a justified reference work within the scope of this article. This guide “provides general terms and definitions concerning standardization and related activities”, and intends to contribute “fundamentally towards mutual understanding amongst the members of ISO and IEC and the various governmental and non-governmental agencies involved in standardization at international, regional and national levels” (p. 1). Moreover, the guide aims at providing an insight in basic theoretical and practical principles of standardization, certification and laboratory accreditation. The ISO Guide defines standardization as follows: standardization activity of establishing, with regard to actual or potential problems, provisions for common and repeated use, aimed at the achievement of the optimum degree of order in a given context. NOTE 1 In particular, the activity consists of the processes of formulating, issuing and implementing standards. NOTE 2 Important benefits of standardization are improvement of the suitability of products, processes and services for their intended purposes, prevention of barriers to trade and facilitation of technological cooperation (ISO/IEC Guide 2:2004, 1.1).

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When we refer to the NATO Glossary of terms and definitions, standardization is defined as follows: standardization development and implementation of concepts, doctrines and procedures to achieve and maintain the required levels of compatibility, interchangeability or commonality needed to achieve interoperability3. This complements the above ISO definition by insisting on interoperability and interchangeability, two key activities in standards development and implementation (de Vries, 2008:13; ISO/IEC 2004: 9-10). According to InfoTerm, “standards make an enormous and positive contribution to most aspects of our lives. They contribute to the three dimensions of sustainable development – economic, environmental and social. Standards ensure desirable characteristics of products and services, such as quality, environmental impact, user friendliness, safety, reliability, efficiency and interchangeability – and at an economical cost. Today‖s technical standards largely refer to methods, such as management, documentation, translation and localization, terminology work etc.”. (http://www.infoterm.info/standardization/) But, there is no use of defining standardization without defining standards too. For this purpose, we refer to the main ISO definitions of a standard and a basic standard: A standard is a “document, established by consensus and approved by a recognized body, that provides, for common and repeated use, rules,

3 http://www.nato.int/cps/en/natolive/topics_69269.htm

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guidelines or characteristics for activities or their results, aimed at the achievement of the optimum degree of order in a given context; NOTE Standards should be based on the consolidated results of science, technology and experience, and aimed at the promotion of optimum community benefits (ISO/IEC Guide 2:2004, 3.2 ). A basic standard is defined as a (1) “standard which includes fundamental concepts, principles, and requirements with regard to general aspects applicable to a wide range of products, processes, or services (ISO/TR 16142:2006), and as a (2) standard that has a wide-ranging coverage or contains general provisions for one particular field; NOTE A basic standard may function as a standard for direct application or as a basis for other standards (ISO/IEC Guide 2:2004, 5.1). We decided to keep both ISO definitions of a basic standard, although this may seem contradictory to the ISO 704: 2009 principles and methods (see below). Both definitions indeed cover all the aspects of what a basic standard is. Next to basic standards, we have technical standards which ISO/IEC/IEEE 24765:2010 defines as being a standard that describes the characteristics of applying accumulated technical or management skills and methods in the creation of a product or performing a service. In the line with the definition of a basic standard in ISO/IEC Guide 2:2004, we define a technical standard as a basic standard because of its fundamental impact and wide-ranging coverage in technical fields. We follow de Vries (2008:13) in that “[technical standards] are a means to achieve control and to regulate or coordinate the production and uses of technology. Proportional to the increase of complexity, [technical] standards are a prerequisite for enabling the (international) interlinking of technical components and systems” and “enable the interoperability of socio-technical systems.” (de Vries, 2008:25).

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Although technical standards do not seem to be directly linked to terminology, we thought it useful to insist on defining technical standards, because this type of basic standards is often confused. We do need to keep technical standards in specifically technical areas, and basic standards related to services, products and methods in all areas. In the same vein, it seems also noteworthy to prefer the term basic standard to fundamental standard (de Vries, 2008). What is more, it will also become clear, further below in this article, to what extent technical standards are linked to terminology management. Let us now connect standards and standardization to terminology and define a few useful concepts in this context. A terminology standard is a [basic] standard that is concerned with terms accompanied by their definitions, and sometimes by explanatory notes, illustrations, examples, etc. (ISO 10241-1:2011, 3.1.1; ISO/IEC Guide 2:2004, 5.2). Apart from stand-alone terminology standards, each basic standard includes terminology standards in Clause 3 “Terms and definitions” (See also in ISO standards: Terms and definitions “For the purposes of this document, the following terms and definitions apply.”). Clause 3 in basic standards serves as a terminology standard within a basic standard and yields a foundation for the negotiations in technical committees. The purpose of Clause 3 is to support the standardization work of all technical committees by providing them with adequate terminology in order to draft linguistically and conceptually consistent standards or documents.

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A standardizing body4 is a “ [...] legal or administrative entity which is responsible for standards and regulations that has specific tasks and composition) that has recognized activities in standardization” (ISO 10241-2:2012, 2.2). A standardizing body needs to standardize its terminology. ISO technical committees (TCs) participate in the development of International Standards within particular fields of technical activity. The ISO/TC 37 “Terminology and other language and content resources” is evidently the most relevant TC for terminology management5. In addition, many corporate organizations, such as car manufacturers, software developers, etc., which are not standardizing bodies, pay the effort of harmonizing their terminologies. InfoTerm rightly insists on the fact that such organizations are highly authoritative in their expert domain. What is more, they develop sustainable networks with domain specific counterpart organizations at international, regional and national levels6. In a similar vein, the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), in its “Data and metadata reporting and presentation handbook” states the following: “Terminology management is an essential element of an organization‖s metadata management system …”. This is of utmost importance in the field of public statistics”. It is in this context that we equally refer to de Vries (2008:21), who groups such standards under the umbrella category of company standards. The ISO

4 ISO/CD 10241-2 provides different terms: standardizing organization, standards developing organization, and the acronym: SDO.

5 Link to ISO/TC 37: http://www.iso.org/iso/home/standards_development/list_of_iso_technical_committees/iso_technical_committee.htm?commid=48104

6 Link to InfoTerm: http://www.infoterm.info/standardization/standardization_of_terminologies.php

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IEC Guide 2 defines a company standard as “a standard that is the result of standardization on a company level in industry and in individual factories, workshops and offices” (ISO IEC Guide 2:2004, 6). Next to company-based standardization, standards can be grouped geographically, economically and politically. Let us have a glimpse at the major geographically categorized standards. We first refer to the international standard, which is a standard that is adopted by an international standards organization and made available to the public (ISO/IEC Guide 2:2004, 3.2.1.1). An international standard is not necessarily an International Standard, which is an international standard developed by an international standards organization (ISO or IEC) (ISO/IEC Directives, Part 2, 2004, 3.3). An international standards organization is a standards organization whose membership is open to the relevant national body from every country (ISO/IEC Guide 2:2004, 4.4.3). ISO is a legal association, the members of which are the national standards bodies (NSBs)7 of 114 countries supported by a Central Secretariat based in Geneva, Switzerland. International Standards, the principal deliverable of ISO, are developed by experts from industry, academia and business who have been nominated as expert delegates by their national standards bodies or any other organization in liaison (representatives from organizations with a liaison membership to the TC 37 subcommittees, which include ISO committees, and organizations8).

7 National standards body: standards body recognized at the national level, that is eligible to be the national member of the corresponding international and regional standards organizations (ISO/IEC Guide 2, 4.4.1). 8 AILA, CERN, EAFT, EC, ETSI, FAO, FIT, GALA, GTW, IFLA, IIF, ISKO, ITU, IUPAC, Infoterm, KPI, LAS, LSA, OASIS, OMG, OMG, REALITER, RIFAL, TermNet, UATI, UEA, UIC, UN, UNECE, UNESCO, UPU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, eCl@ss e.V.

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Involvement, therefore, is open to numerous stakeholders. Like all ISO standards, the TC 37 terminology standards are based on a consensus among the national standards bodies that collaborate in the respective committee by way of membership. “The foremost aim of international standardization is to facilitate the exchange of goods and services through the elimination of technical barriers to trade” (ISO/TC 37 Business Plan9: 3). Three standardizing bodies are responsible for the planning, development and adoption of International Standards: (1) ISO (International Organization for Standardization), which is responsible for all sectors excluding Electrotechnical, (2) IEC (International Electrotechnical Committee), and (3) ITU (International Telecommunication Union) which is responsible for most of the Telecommunications Technologies. An International Standard embodies the essential principles of global openness and transparency, consensus and technical coherence. These are safeguarded through its development in an ISO Technical Committee (ISO/TC), representative of all interested parties, supported by a public comment phase (the ISO Technical Enquiry). ISO and its Technical Committees are also able to offer the ISO Technical Specification (ISO/TS), the ISO Public Available Specification (ISO/PAS) and the ISO Technical Report (ISO/TR) as solutions to market needs. These ISO products represent lower levels of consensus and have therefore not the same status as an International Standard (ISO/TC 37 Business Plan: 3).

9 http://isotc.iso.org/livelink/livelink/fetch/2000/2122/687806/ISO_TC_037__Terminology_and_other_ language_resources_.pdf?nodeid=1160801&vernum=-2

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A national standard is a standard that is adopted by a national standards body and made available to the public (ISO/IEC Guide 2:2004, 3.2.1.3). National standardization takes place at the level of one specific country, and is developed by its national standards body. In addition to representing their national standards bodies, TC representatives actively participate in regional standards organizations whose membership is open to the relevant national body from each country within one geographical, political or economic area (ISO/IEC Guide 2:2004, 4.4.2), such as CEN (European Committee for Standardization), PASC (Pacific Area Standards Congress), ARSO (African Organization for Standardisation), and SARSO (South Asia Regional Standards Organization). A regional standard is a standard that is adopted by a regional standardizing/standards organization and made available to the public (ISO/IEC Guide 2:2004, 3.2.1.2). Next, we have provincial standardization (for example Ontario Provincial Standards (OPS)), which takes place at the level of a territorial division of a country (ISO/IEC Guide 2:2004, 1.6.4). A provincial standard is adopted at the level of a territorial division of a country and made available to the public (ISO/IEC Guide 2:2004, 3.2.1.4). In addition, we have standardization bodies which are not developed at geographical or economic levels, but at a political level, such as the NATO Standardization Organization (NSO). Legal impact of standards A question that often arises is the following: Are standards legally binding? The answer is straightforward: They are not.

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International standards and standards developed by national and/or regional standards bodies/standards organizations are standards that are based on a voluntary consensus. Technically, consensus-based standardization delivers standards built on a general agreement, “characterized by the absence of sustained opposition to substantial issues by any important part of the concerned interests and by a process that involves seeking to take into account the views of all parties concerned and to reconcile any conflicting arguments” without implying unanimity (ISO IEC Guide 2:2004, 1.7). Standards developed at company levels in industry and in individual factories, workshops and offices, for example the Safe Quality Food (SQF) Institute, are standards which are equally voluntary. However, when they are applied by the majority of suppliers, “reflecting the economic advantage associated with standardization and/or market requirements” (Henson, 2008: 63-81) in their sector, they become de facto mandatory standards. De facto10 mandatory standards “arise from an uncoordinated process of market-based competition between private firms” (Henson, 2008: 63-81). Although corporate-based standards are not legally binding, they may become mandatory in practice because of their market. Standards can be considered as de facto mandatory, because they are implemented on a common and a well established practice. Turning to terminology standardization, the use of data base development and mining worldwide and nationally, led to a standardization of terminologies in order to communicate effectively.

10 De facto: The term de facto may be used when there is no relevant law or standard, but a common practice is well established, although perhaps not quite universal.

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Standards become indirectly legally binding, when they are used as legislative references. “A governmental body may issue legislation based on the implementation of certain standards or actions fulfilling the intentions of certain standards. If legislation refers to a standard, the use of the standard might become mandatory in the fields which are covered by the standard” (Paasch, 2008: 121). Therefore, when service providers or manufacturers claim to deliver their services or products according to a standard (for example ISO 9001), the standard is embedded in each contract with their customers: in this way a standard becomes legally binding at a second level, or indirectly. When a language service provider claims to work according to the EN 15038 standard, and does not revise translations, the client may lodge a case at court, because the contract that stipulates EN 15038 compliance, is not respected in such a case. It becomes clear that when a standard is part of a contract or is referred to as an authoritative document, this standard has become indirectly legally mandatory. Terminology standardization is the establishment of terminology standards or of terminology sections in technical standards, and their approval by an authoritative body (ISO 1087-1:1990, 8.3; ISO/TR 22134:2007, 3.9). This ISO definition rightly refers both to actual terminology standards and as to terminology sections in terminology standards (Clause 3 in basic and technical standards). ISO makes its terminology available through the ISO Online Browsing Platform which provides information about ISO prescriptive terminology and guarantees consistency among the different fields of knowledge (https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#home). Terminological standardization is the selection, approval and dissemination of one or more terms by a standardizing body, after careful study of detailed

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terminological research findings, for the purpose of promoting preferred usage. These two activities are part of the responsibilities of the TC 37 TCG (Cossette, 1983; Terminology Coordination Group). The main aspect this article aims at developing is terminology standardization in the meaning of standardizing scientific-technical concepts and the technical terms representing them. ISO/TC 37 was established in order to standardize terminologies and terminological principles and methods11. It is known that matters can be difficult to regulate, if their key concepts are not appropriately defined – i.e. if they are open to different interpretations or misunderstanding. Therefore, terminology standardization emerged as a supplementary type of standardization. These two aspects of terminology standardization prove useful in virtually all harmonization and standardization activities. Terminological harmonization is the process by which terminological differences between standards are made compatible or at least interoperable. More specifically, terminological harmonization involves (1) concept harmonization and (2) term harmonization. Concept harmonization is the activity leading to the establishment of a correspondence between two or more closely related or overlapping concepts having professional, technical, scientific, social, economic, linguistic, cultural or other differences, in order to eliminate or reduce minor differences between them (ISO 860:2007, 3.1). Term harmonization is the activity leading to the designation of one concept in different languages by terms which reflect the same or similar characteristics or have the same or slightly different forms (ISO 1087-1:2000, 3.6.6; Effenberger, 1995:134).

11 In the first half of the 20th century, increasing terminology standardization activities necessitated the formulation of principles and methods for terminology work. The American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM), for instance, started to unify principles and methods of terminology standardization as early as 1928.

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Later in this article, it will be made clear to what extent harmonized concepts and terms safeguard an efficient communication by reducing ambiguity risks based on polysemy and synonymy. Standardization of terminologies After this general introduction covering different standards and standardization activities, we zoom in on the most frequently used terminology standards published by ISO TC 37. ISO 10241-1:2011 Terminological entries in standards The overall ISO 10241 is a terminology standard that consists of the following parts, under the general title Terminological entries in standards: Part 1: General requirements and examples of presentation (10241-1) Part 2: Adoption of standardized terminological entries (10241-2) ISO 10241-1:2011 Terminological entries in standards — Part 1: General requirements and examples of presentation ISO 10241-1 is published by ISO/TC 37, Terminology and other language and content resources, Subcommittee SC 2 (Terminographical and lexicographical working methods). Part 1 of ISO 10241 proves useful in that it caters standardizing bodies that need to standardize terms and definitions and to publish terminological entries in standards. ISO 10241-1 provides rules for drafting and structuring such terminological entries in standards, and is based on the principles and methods given in ISO 704:2009.

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ISO 10241-1 specifies the “requirements for the drafting and structuring of terminological entries in standards, exemplified by terminological entries in ISO and IEC documents. Terms and other designations occurring in terminological entries can include letters, numerals, mathematical symbols, typographical signs and syntactic signs (for example punctuation marks, hyphens, parentheses, square brackets and other connectors or delimiters), sometimes in character styles (i.e. fonts and bold, italic, bold italic or other style conventions) governed by language-, domain- or subject-specific conventions. Terms can also include standardized symbols (which can be language independent or internationally harmonized, such as symbols for quantities and units as well as graphical symbols) which are under the responsibility of different committees in ISO and IEC” (ISO TC 37)12. This first edition of ISO 10241-1:2011 cancels and replaces ISO 10241:1992. The 2011 standard results from a regular systematic review, which is common policy for updating International Standards, and comprises the following main changes: Broadening the scope of the cancelled ISO 10241 in order to cover terminological entries in all types of standards, taking into account the fact that terminology work is increasingly carried out using computers; Updating and adapting data processing for multilingual terminological entries in standards (including those residing in distributed data bases);

12 Since presentation and layout rules by nature are very much tied to the script and to the publishing rules of the standardizing body, they are dealt with only on an abstract level in ISO 10241-1:2011.

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Developing a more comprehensive and explicit structure of the individual terminological entries; Limiting the normative technical content of this part of ISO 10241 to cover the drafting and structuring of terminological entries and not their layout and presentation. Being a terminology standard, ISO 10241-1:2011 is based on the principles and methods given in ISO 704:2009 and provides rules for developing monolingual and multilingual terminological entries in basic and technical standards. The requirements of ISO 10241-1:2011 can be used in all standards that contain terminological entries and/or have a terminological section, most frequently accommodated in Clause 3. ISO 10241-2:2011 Terminological entries in standards — Part 2: Adoption of standardized terminological entries Part 2 of ISO 10241 addresses the introduction of a standardized terminological entry (terminological entry) which contains terminological data related to one concept standardized by a standardizing body (ISO 10241-2:2011, 3.2) into other cultural and linguistic environments, with emphasis on the adoption of internationally standardized terminological entries by regional or national standardizing bodies. It also establishes guidelines for dealing with certain issues to be considered in this process (ISO/CD 10241-2: 2011:1). This standard can be seen as the terminology standard that connects with “localization” issues when it comes to adopting and adapting internationally standardized terminological entries in a new locale (national, regional and provincial standards). It provides examples for and solutions to problems that occur when a local standardizing body adopts internationally standardized terminological entries, aligns its concept systems with internationally

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standardized concept systems, prepares standardized terminological entries as additions or supplements to internationally standardized terminological entries. The impact of ISO 10241 consists in supplementing the guidelines concerning large-scale terminological project management, leading to terminology standards, which are given in the following International Standard: ISO 15188:2001 Project management guidelines for terminology standardization, whose review has been confirmed in 2011. It is without doubt that ISO 10241 contributes to communicating efficiently in a particular domain and to minimizing difficulties in cross-cultural understanding. It is essential that interoperable concepts and concept representations are used. The standardization of terms and definitions is thus fundamental to all standardization activities. In a first phase, the immediate results of standardization efforts are monolingual terminological entries, to facilitate domain-specific communication between all stakeholders involved, such as experts and policymakers. In a second phase, cross-cultural communication and cross-border exchange of goods and services can only be corroborated by means of formulating policies and strategies at national, regional, provincial and international levels, which leads unavoidably to multilingual terminology work. Even in countries with only one official national language, standardizing bodies sometimes prepare multilingual terminological entries for the purposes mentioned above. It is in this localization context that ISO 10241 proves useful and up-to-date.

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In the Rules for the structure and drafting of International Standards13, the normative Annex D provides the drafting and presentation rules of terms and definitions in all ISO standards. This document is based on the ISO 704:2009 principles (Effenberger, 1995). Annex D provides a synthesis of the rules and examples given in ISO 10241-1:2011, and is intended to cover those rules applicable to the forms of terms and definitions most commonly present in ISO and IEC standards. For the complete set of rules and examples, we refer to ISO 10241-1:2011. Standardization of terminological principles and methods Rules for terminology development Within ISO, the standardization of principles and methods for the preparation of terminological data primarily referring to concepts and terms is under the responsibility of ISO/TC 37. The principles and methods for terminology work are specified in ISO 704:2009, which establishes the basic principles and methods for preparing and compiling terminologies both inside and outside the framework of standardization, and describes the links between objects, concepts, and their terminological representations. It also establishes general principles governing the formation of designations (for example terms and names) and the formulation of terminological definitions (intensional, extensional and partitive). This International Standard is applicable to terminology work in scientific, technological, industrial, administrative and other fields of knowledge.

13 ISO/IEC Directives, Part 2, Rules for the structure and drafting of International Standards (2011, 6th edition).

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Based on both ISO 704:2009 and ISO 10241-1:2011, Annex D of ISO/IEC Directives, Part 2 — Rules for the structure and drafting of International Standards is a normative annex and provides the general rules for drafting and presenting terms and definitions in all International Standards, and more in particular which and how concepts are to be defined. Any designation14 which is not self-explanatory or commonly used and which can be differently interpreted due to domain specificity are to be clarified by defining the relevant concept. General language expressions and commonly used terms are to be included only if they are used with a domain specific meaning, avoiding in this way that the designation causes misunderstanding if not defined. Annex D 1.4 stipulates further that in case of more occurrences of a preferred term, an admitted term or a deprecated term, “among all term candidates only one term be selected as the preferred term. If there is only one term representing the concept in a terminological entry of a standard, this term is automatically the preferred term. If there is more than one preferred term, admitted term or deprecated term, the terms shall be given according to their order of preference” (Annex D 1.4:53). For terms for which both a full form and an abbreviated form exist, either form may be selected as preferred, admitted or deprecated term. If considered useful, an explanation of the reasons for selecting the abbreviated form as preferred term shall be given in a “Note to entry” (Annex D.4.8:59).

14 Designation is defined as follows in ISO 1087-1 (under review): representation of a concept by a sign which denotes it. It is noted that in terminology work three types of designations are distinguished: symbols, names and terms.

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A terminology standard may only define concepts that are relevant to the scope of the document. In standards that include Clause 3 “only such concepts shall be defined as are used in those documents, apart from any additional concepts and their terms that may be deemed necessary for the understanding of these definitions” (Annex D 1.4:53). Forms of publication As has been mentioned above, the results of terminology work may be published in the form of an independent mono- or multilingual terminology standard or be included in Clause 3: “Terms and definitions” in basic and technical standards. Terminology will also be published in a data base format, as will be the case for the reviewed version of ISO 1087-1. Current projects: introduction or scope of published standards In the paragraphs below we give an overview of the main currently active TC 37 terminology standards and their web pages in the ISO web site. ISO/TR 22134:2007 Practical guidelines for socioterminology15 In its introduction, ISO/TR 22134 specifies that terminology standardization has always been the prerogative of experts in terminology , the latter dealing exclusively with technolects. In this context, the principles, methods and vocabularies drawn up by terminologists are not always suitable for the speakers' communities which are heterogeneous. This situation does not lend itself to permitting mutual understanding between these linguistic communities.

15 (http://www.iso.org/iso/catalogue_detail.htm?csnumber=36143)

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Socioterminology, which is linked to localization, facilitates communication between different socioprofessional groups. It studies terminologies, placing them within the social context where the concepts appear, are defined and are named. It unites the specialized concepts with a community of speakers. In this way, socioterminology enables terminological practices to be adapted to the target languages and linguistic communities addressed by the linguistic work. The drafting of practical guidelines for socioterminology is an attempt to match what is said and what is done in the daily life of speakers. Although the methodological principles drawn up by planning terminologists seem to have a relatively universal spread, the ensuing practices on the other hand shall be adapted to the targeted linguistic communities. It is in this context that this Technical Report will be used for the interpretation and usage of the other TC 37 documents within the perspective of cultural and linguistic diversity and, therefore, within the meaning of terminology planning practice on the world scale. This Technical Report will also be used as a basis for future work within TC 37/SC 1. In 2007, this subcommittee intends to undertake the preparation of a series of practical guidelines derived from ISO 704:2009 and ISO 860 in order to facilitate the implementation of these International Standards in the terminology practice. ISO 22128:2008 Terminology products and services — Overview and guidance16

16 https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#iso:std:iso:22128:ed-1:v1:en

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The scope of this International Standard identifies and describes a wide range of terminology products and services so that suppliers of these products and services and their clients can have a common understanding as well as shared expectations in their delivery. This International Standard outlines some of the generally-accepted terminology practices to be followed in the development and delivery of terminology products and services as well as some of the desired quality features that should characterize the products and services produced. This International Standard is intended as guidance for work contracts in the field of terminology. This International Standard focuses on terminology in specialized language as opposed to general language resources. ISO 29383:2010 Terminology policies — Development and implementation17 This International Standard provides policy makers in governments, administration, non-profit and commercial organizations with guidelines and a methodology for the development and implementation of a comprehensive policy or strategy concerning the planning and management of terminology. It defines key concepts and describes scenarios and environments which may require different kinds of terminology policies. It also places terminology policies in the broader context of institutional strategic frameworks. ISO 1087-1: 2000 Terminology work — Vocabulary — Part 1: Theory and application The main purpose of this international terminology standard is to provide a systemic description of the concepts in the field of terminology and to clarify the use of the terms in this field. The compilation of this vocabulary provides a

17 https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#iso:std:iso:29383:ed-1:v1:en

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forum for analysing, discussing and coordinating key concepts found in ISO/TC 37 standards. It addresses not only standardizers and terminologists, but anyone involved in terminology work. This ISO standard is a terminology (meta)standard under review and will be available in a data base format. ISO 12616: 2002 Translation-oriented terminography18 This standard has been reviewed and then confirmed in 2012, and provides guidelines to enable translators and translation support staff to record, maintain and quickly and easily retrieve terminological information in connection with translation work. The quality of a translation can be measured partly in terms of linguistic elements, such as style and grammar, and partly in terms of the accurate use of the terminology involved. The guidelines in this International Standard provide the necessary elements for quality control of terminological information in translations. The guidelines can also be adapted to provide a basis for the administration of source-language texts, parallel texts, translations, and other information (for example bibliographies, references) in the target language. This International Standard is applicable to the work of an individual translator as well as the work of a team or a department. It also lays down guidelines that are essential for the interchange of terminological data. ISO 12615:2004 Bibliographic references and source identifiers for terminology work19

18 http://www.iso.org/iso/catalogue_detail.htm?csnumber=35360 19 http://www.iso.org/iso/home/store/catalogue_tc/catalogue_detail.htm?csnumber=40359&commid=48104

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This standard applies to the recording, storing and exchange of information on bibliographic sources for terminological work and terminography. It specifies the data elements to be included in bibliographic references for terminology work. These references can be used as data categories in computer applications in terminology or in presenting bibliographies and lists of references accompanying other textual matter, and citations in journal articles. ISO 12615:2004 does not apply to bibliographic descriptions that record and identify documents and are used by librarians, bibliographers and indexers. ISO 12615:2004 also describes source identifiers for different types of bibliographical references and their use. It indicates how the data elements from the bibliographic reference can be reflected in a source identifier, and how its constituent parts can be assembled to provide a unique identifier. This International Standard will facilitate the following: (1) identifying, tracing and validating terminological data and other language resources, (2) cross-referencing to documents containing terminological data, (3) data flow management in networking and other cooperative work in terminology documentation and terminography, (4) exchange of terminological data, (5) preparation of technical documents, and (6) carrying out of individual projects of terminology and terminography. ISO 22274:2013 Systems to manage terminology, knowledge and content — Concept-related aspects for developing and internationalizing classification systems20 ISO 22274:2013 establishes basic principles and requirements for ensuring that classification systems are suitable for worldwide application, considering

20 http://www.iso.org/iso/catalogue_detail.htm?csnumber=36173

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such aspects as cultural and linguistic diversity as well as market requirements. By applying principles relating to terminology work, ISO 22274:2013 provides guidelines for creating, handling, and using classification systems for international environments. It addresses the need in many domains for classification systems that are concept based to ensure that they are suitable for worldwide use and can be adapted to specific user communities. It provides information about the design, development, and use of classification systems that are fully enabled for diverse linguistic, cultural, and market-based environments. It primarily specifies the factors that need to be considered when creating and populating a classification system for use in diverse linguistic environments. These factors include the specification of principles for incorporating internationalization aspects into classification systems, and maintaining and using those aspects for the structuring of activities, products, services, agents, and other entities of a company or organization. The following are within the scope of ISO 22274:2013: a) guidelines on information content to support internationalization of classification systems and their underlying concept systems; b) terminological principles applicable to classification systems; c) requirements for internationalization of classification systems; d) considerations on workflow and administration of classification system content to support worldwide use. The following are outside the scope of ISO 22274:2013: 1) providing formal data models for representing classification systems in machine-readable form; 2) prescribing classification system content for specific business domains or products; 3) harmonization of classification systems.

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ISO 22274:2013 is intended for those who develop content for classification systems. This includes terminologists and content managers who are called upon to apply the principles of terminology work to ensure that cultural and linguistic diversity are appropriately reflected in classification systems. It is also relevant for people who design and model appropriate IT tools. ISO 23185:2009 Assessment and benchmarking of terminological resources — General concepts, principles and requirements21 ISO 23185:2009 describes fundamental concepts related to the effective use of terminological data. It provides general principles for a model applicable to a variety of terminological resources. It clarifies the usability attributes that constitute the model and provides guidelines for the overall assessment of terminological resources by taking the user's objectives into account. Global society is undergoing an accelerated development towards becoming a science- and technology-driven multilingual information and knowledge society characterized by the all-pervading influence of information and communication technology (ICT). Reliable language resources (such as text and speech corpora, terminologies, computational lexicons, etc.) are essential to support the emerging knowledge and content industries. Terminology information is thus becoming a key element in all regulatory activities, as seen, for example, in technical standardization, quality management and regulation of intellectual property rights. In the emerging semantic web, dedicated and non-dedicated browsers or web services search web-based data bases and portals containing structured content (i.e. collections of content items at the level of lexical semantics). The

21 https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#iso:std:iso:23185:ed-1:v1:en)

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user increasingly does not want to be overburdened with non-evaluated information, but to receive the most pertinent and reliable information for his/her purpose without missing important information. The results of automatic or semi-automatic searches, therefore, will increasingly have to be compounded and condensed by semantic analyses in order to meet user requirements. If seemingly relevant information is found in a multitude of collections of structured content, systematic syntactic and semantic filtering, selection and evaluation processes take place. At some stage of these processes, browsers or web services have to globally distinguish between more or less pertinent and reliable terminological data as it is being collected for the sake of prioritization and optimization. Terminological data can have many functions, the most prominent of which are knowledge representation (concept), knowledge ordering (concept classification), access to other kinds of structured or unstructured content, and means or elements of communication and knowledge transfer. For uses and reuses such as translation, localization and content management, a systematic approach to automatic or semi-automatic assessment and benchmarking of resources or containing terminological data becomes necessary. ISO 15188:2001 Project management guidelines for terminology standardization22 This standard specifies guidelines setting out the phases and procedures to be followed in terminology standardization projects, as well as harmonization and

22 http://www.nen.nl/NEN-Shop/Norm/NENISO-151882001-en.htm

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uniformity projects, both inside and outside the framework of international standardization. The use of consistent terminology upon which users publicly agree reflects the quality of the final version of a document in technical subjects. The objective of terminology standardization, which is the unification and harmonization of concepts, concept systems, terms and definitions, is to obtain a normative vocabulary in which only one term corresponds to one concept and only one concept corresponds to one term (ISO 10241), thus reducing ambiguity caused by polysemy, synonymy or homonymy and allowing for the creation of new terms in accordance with the principles and methods of terminology (ISO 704:2009). Standardized terminology, which results from the process of terminology standardization, consists of sets of single concept designations belonging to special languages (ISO 1087-1) used in the various subject-fields of human knowledge. It improves communication and provides better access to and management of information. There are economic benefits to be derived when general consensus is achieved on the meaning of terms. This in turn contributes to the harmonization of concepts and terms (ISO 860), which facilitates trade and improves national productivity and access to international markets. Inconsistent use of terminology may lead to misunderstandings and potential economic losses. The aim of standardization in terminology project management is to facilitate terminology standardization and to avoid the cost that would result from reworking proposed or existing standardized terminologies, and also from producing a terminology that lacks uniformity or fails to meet the requirements of the user. The ultimate objective is to keep the project productive and cost-efficient.

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ISO 24156-1:2014 Graphic notations for concept modelling in terminology work and its relationship with UML — Part 1: Guidelines for using UML and mind-mapping notation in terminology work23 This International Standard describes the application of UML symbols by creating a user-defined UML profile for presenting the results of concept analysis. This UML profile re-uses UML symbols to represent the terminological principles of ISO 1087-1 and ISO 704:2009. This International Standard is meant to promote the use of concept analysis when developing concept diagrams or concept models, information models and data models. ISO 30042 2008 Systems to manage terminology, knowledge and content — TermBase eXchange (TBX)24 The TBX framework defined by ISO 30042:2008 is designed to support various types of processes involving terminological data, including analysis, descriptive representation, dissemination, and interchange (exchange), in various computer environments. The primary purpose of TBX is for interchange of terminological data. It is limited in its ability to represent presentational mark-up. Intended application areas include translation and authoring. TBX is modular in order to support the varying types of terminological data, or data-categories, that are included in different terminological data bases (term bases). TBX includes two modules: a core structure, and formalism for

23 http://www.iso.org/iso/catalogue_detail.htm?csnumber=57420 24 http://www.gala-global.org/oscarStandards/tbx/tbx_oscar.pdf

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identifying a set of data-categories and their constraints, both expressed in XML. The term TBX, when used alone, refers to the framework consisting of these two interacting modules. To maximize interoperability of the actual terminological data, TBX also provides a default set of data-categories that are commonly used in terminological data bases. However, subsets or supersets of the default set of data-categories can be used within the TBX framework to support specific user requirements. The impact of TC 37 standards First of all, it is within the ISO/IEC community that the general terminological principles established by ISO 704:2009 and 1087-1 have been implemented during the revisions of the ISO/IEC Guide 2:2004 Standardization and related activities — General vocabulary, a key document in standards development. Among the numerous areas where the principles of terminology standards have had an impact, we first highlight in what way these principles can be positively applied to the domain of railway safety. Obviously, observing and implementing the obligatory safety measures is crucial in using the railway infrastructure and trains. We refer in particular to Schnieder, Schnieder & Ständer (2009), who demonstrate to what extent ISO 704:2009 and ISO 24156-1:2014 can prove crucial in avoiding the usual pitfalls in communication: ambiguity, inconsistency, and semantic vagueness. At the same time they refer to the unavoidable context dependence of each term. It is therefore essential to understand that terms are always embedded in a linguistic, and most often non-linguistic – domain-specific – context. For example, in railway infrastructure, a switch can refer to a “junction between multiple railroad tracks” or to a “computer device

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that connects network segments in computer technology”, a device that is also used in railroad tracks. (Schnieder, Schnieder & Ständer 2009:1-2). In the same vein, the Dictionary of public transport (1981) defines switch as follows: “device that moves rails laterally to permit the movement of a vehicle or train from one track to another” and “the mechanism that is mounted either on a vehicle or guideway or both,and causes the vehicle to be transferred from one path to another”. One term used to define different entities is usually referred to as a homonym (one of a set of identical terms that refer to different entities) and may cause confusion when it comes to debating safety issues in for example insurance negotiations linked to railway accidents. What is more, this case of ambiguity has also been registered in technical standards (ISO 2148:1974, 2.21.083.8), where Clause 3 has switch or junction as a term. Semantic vagueness is another pitfall: when insurance negotiations use minor and major injuries in for example railway accidents, no one knows precisely what minor is compared to major: It is however crucial to rely on unambiguous definitions of both concepts with a view of compensating rightly the victims of such injuries, based on an appropriate insurance policy and/or court decisions. Further in this article, it will be demonstrated to what extent clear and unambiguous definitions are instrumental in legal documents. Schnieder, Schnieder & Ständer (2009:1) insist on the fact that unambiguous definitions lead to a clear understanding which “facilitates communication of all persons involved in the development of safety-critical railway applications”. Context dependence can be seen as a case of homonymy, not within one domain, but across different domains. Communication in language for special purposes (LSP) is unavoidably interdisciplinary, each technological and

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scientific innovation being discussed across different disciplines. For example, in the domain of electronics, the term signal refers to a “disturbance variation of a physical quantity used to convey information” (ISO/TR 230-8:2010, 3.69), whereas in water and railway transport it refers to a “mechanical or electrical device beside the railway line to transmit information relating to the state of the line ahead to the train driver” Schnieder, Schnieder & Ständer (2009:2). It needs to be stressed here that homonymy unavoidably occurs, especially across different expert areas. It is therefore necessary to advocate clear definitions of the different concepts, especially when they are labelled by the same term, in order to avoid misunderstanding. Stated otherwise, it should be made clear when switch refers to the railway infrastructure (outside the train) or to a device mounted in the train, when liability or responsiblity issues are at stake. Secondly, it is in the area of health informatics that the TC 37 terminology standards have proven to be a useful means to help manage successfully terminology. De Keizer, Abu-Hanna, and Zwetsloot-Schonk (2000) claim that the CEN and ISO terminology standards are beneficial within the field of medical informatics by advocating a uniform terminology, based on concept-oriented definitions, following the main principles of ISO 704:2009. In another domain, ISO 17115:2007 Health informatics — Vocabulary for terminological systems defines a set of basic concepts required to describe formal concept representation systems, especially for health sciences, and describes representation of concepts and characteristics, for use especially in formal computer-based concept representation systems. A main motivation is to make it possible to precisely describe content models described in other International Standards.

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The related ISO/TS 17117:2002 Health informatics — Controlled health terminology — Structure and high-level indicators is a Technical Specification that specifies the principal ideas which are necessary and sufficient to assign value to a controlled health terminology. It identifies a number of criteria which health terminologies should adopt in order to guarantee effective communication in nursing practice. Hardiker & Coenen (2007) tested whether this TS is fit for terminology management in the International Classification for Nursing Practice (ICNP®) (2005). They developed a table that demonstrates the degree of conformance of ICNP® and ISO/TS 17117, in which, among others, the following criteria are listed: concept-orientation, non-redundancy, non-ambiguity, non-vagueness, and internal consistency. These criteria are basic principles that are advocated by the terminological International Standards, such as ISO 704:2009 and ISO 24156-1:2014. It would bring us beyond the scope of this article to add an exhaustive list of domains, where the ISO terminological principles have proven to have a positive impact on terminology management in order to enhance efficient communication, both internally as across different expert domains. When it comes to yet another discipline, related this time to computer-mediated communication, more in particular Search Engine Optimization (SEO) and Search Engine Results Pages, Hargittai (2007) advances that, in addition to data source challenges, users of search engines are confronted with terminology issues, when too many varying terms are used to refer to similar search results. It has been observed that terms that are merged in a consolidated, i.e. harmonised, way, generate consistency and favour comprehension across the plethora of SERPs (Hargittai, 2007:773). Future activities and research

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The objective of clear cross-domain communication can be achieved by making an appeal to formalizing the ISO 704:2009 principles by means of a modelling language such as for example the Unified Modeling Language. The use of a user-defined profile of the UML has been proposed in ISO 24156-1:2014 providing the means of representing terminological definitions, and generic and partitive relations between concepts25. Another attempt is the GRAIL concept modelling language for medical terminology (Rector et al., 1997). which is used to create concept models in order to visualize concepts and their characteristics, and relations between the concepts, such as is adhered to in the TC 37 terminological standards. As a conclusion, we argue that it has become clear that terminological ISO standards bring a positive contribution to disentangle the legendary Babylonian confusion when it comes to using terms and describing concepts in (interdisciplinary) domain-specific communication. It is in this vein that for example Schnieder, Schnieder & Ständer (2009), Manz & Schnieder (2009), Hargittai (2007) and Hardiker & Coenen (2007) adopt ISO terminological principles with a view of clear and “safe” communication. Bibliography Cossette, M. (1983). A Collection of terms and their definitions used in the Terminology Directorate, Translation Bureau, Secretary of State. In R. A.

25 In the margin of intensional and partitive definitions, we briefly refer to Manz & Schnieder (2009:473) who use Petrinets to complement the exclusive use of hierarchical concept relations using UML.

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Strehlow, & S. E. Wright, Standardizing Terminology for Better Communication: Practice, Applied Theory and Results. de Keizer, N. F., Abu-Hanna, A., & Zwetsloot-Schonk, J. H. (2000). Understanding Terminological Systems I: Terminology and Typology. Methods of Information in Medicine(39), 16–21. de Vries, H. J. (2008). Standardization: a Business Science Perspective. In J. Schueler, A. Fickers, & A. Hommels, Bargaining Norms, Arguing Standards. STT: The Hague. (pp. 18-33). The Hague: STT. Effenberger, D. (1995). Fundamentals of Terminology Work. Computer Standards & Interfaces, 131–137. Hardiker, N., & Coenen, A. (2007). Standards to support the ongoing development and maintenance of nursing terminologies. In N. Oud, F. Sheerin, M. Ehnfors, & S. W (Ed.), 6th European Conference of ACENDIO (pp. 39-43). Amsterdam: Oud Consultancy. Hardiker, N., & Coenen, A. (2007). Standards to support the ongoing development and maintenance of nursing terminologies. In N. Oud, F. Sheerin, M. Ehnfors, & V. Sermeus (Ed.), 6th European Conference of ACENDIO, (pp. 39-43). Amsterdam. Hargittai, E. (2007). The Social, Political, Economic, and Cultural Dimensions of Search Engines: An Introduction. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 12, 769–777. Henson, S. (2008). The Role of Public and Private Standards in Regulating International Food Markets. Journal of International Agricultural Trade and Development, 4(1), 63-81. Manz, H., & Schnieder, L. (2009). Bridging the gap between railway safety and the specification of satellite based localisation systems. 9th International Conference on Intelligent Transport System-Telecommunication - ITS-T, (pp. 471-476). Lille.

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Paasch, J. (2008). Standardization within the Legal Domain. In T. Doganoglu, M. Holler, & J. Tiedemann, Euras Yearbook of Standardization (Vol. 6, pp. 105-130). Rector, A. L., Bechhofer, S., Goble, C. A., Horrocks, I., Nowlan, W. A., & Solomon, W. D. (1997). The GRAIL Concept Modelling Language for Medical Terminology. Artificial Intelligence in Medicine, 9(2), 139-171. Schnieder, L., Schnieder, E., & Ständer, T. (2009). Railway Safety and Security – Two Sides of theSame Coin ? ! International Railway Safety Conference. Båstad.

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Contextualized Ethics in Interpreter-mediated Police Questioning and Awareness Raising through Joint Training

Heidi Salaets KU Leuven & University of the Free State of Bloemfontein

It is obvious that equal access to justice starts with the pre-trial phase. Police interviews (be it the questioning of a suspect, witness or victim) are therefore a key factor in information gathering. These interviews are the starting point to collect evidence, possibly leading to a trial. Semi-structured interviews reveal how police officers in Antwerp (Belgium) manage to work with interpreters when interpreter-mediated questioning is necessary, but also show that they often do not employ professional interpreters. When policemen appoint interpreters they do so in a fairly personal and arbitrary manner and the Antwerp list of sworn interpreters is not always consulted. Police officers are not aware of a specific legal interpreting training program in the same city (Antwerp) as a necessary condition for being included in the local list of sworn interpreters. During interpreter-mediated interviews the interpretation allows equal access to justice to people who do not speak the language of the proceedings (Directive 2010/64/EU). This raises both ethical and quality-related issues: the interpreters' self-awareness of professional norms in this socio-cultural context requires contextualized ethics. The interpreter is not alone in the triad: the police officer leads the questioning and therefore the concept of shared responsibility must be introduced. Moreover, the police officers‖ lack of awareness about qualitative interpreting should be overcome by training sessions on how to look for professional interpreters and subsequently on how to efficiently work with them in an ethically correct way. The most efficient way to do so is to organize joint training sessions with interpreters and police officers in the same classroom.

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Keywords: 2010/64/EU - interpreter-mediated police questioning (ImPQ) – professional interpreters – ad hoc interpreters – joint training Introduction In the first chapter of this contribution, we will highlight the most important constraints of the 2010/64/EU-directive on the right to interpretation and translation in criminal proceedings that member states had to bring into force from October 2013. We will also briefly discuss the transposition in Belgian law. Secondly, we will present the part of the Belgian police force structure that is relevant for our research and subsequently explain how Antwerp police officers are trained to work with an interpreter (chapters 2 and 3). This is necessary because in our contribution we will focus on the right to interpretation in the pre-trial phase as a key factor in information gathering, more specifically during interpreter-mediated police questioning (ImPQ). We will then give a brief overview of the literature and the position of ImPQ therein (chapter 4). In chapter 5 we will briefly describe the evolution of immigration flows in order to identify the need for ImPQ. In the following two chapters we will present the methodology (chapter 6) and the results of a small-scale qualitative investigation at the Antwerp police force in Belgium, carried out by Liesbeth Joossen as part of her Master dissertation written under our supervision (2011) (cf. chapter 7). Results will be discussed in chapter 8. In our conclusion, we will argue that dissemination of these findings and the findings of the ImPLI-project in 2012 (Improving Police and Legal Interpreting- JLS/2010/JPEN/AG call) have led to more awareness raising and training. This way police officers will avoid employing nonprofessional interpreters and are trained to adapt to the specific communicative requirements of an ImPQ, which ultimately leads to a shared responsibility in the ImPQ-triad so that every person‖s right to be

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heard in criminal proceedings is respected, no matter what language they speak. 2010/64/EU The 2010/64/EU Directive is known as the Directive on the right to interpretation and translation in criminal proceedings26. Of course, this is not the first text in which the right to interpretation is mentioned (see: the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, article 7 and the European Convention on Human Rights, article 6, 3, e), but since we are based in Europe, we want to focus on this relatively recent Directive that promises radical changes in the member states concerning access to justice. Article 9 of the Directive states that transposition is due by 27 October 2013. However, in Belgium a first step towards the transposition was only taken in December 2014 with the enactment of a law on the creation of a national register for sworn interpreters, translators and translators/interpreters.27 Although this is not the appropriate forum to discuss the law as such, we nevertheless want to mention that the creation of a national register for interpreters/translators is only one of the many suggestions made in the Directive itself in article 5(2): In order to promote the adequacy of interpretation and translation and efficient access thereto, Member States shall endeavor to establish a register or registers of independent translators and interpreters who

26 http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2010:280:0001:0007:en:PDF 27A French version (next to the Dutch one) can be found here: http://www.ejustice.just.fgov.be/cgi_loi/loi_a.pl?N=&=&sql=%28text+contains+%28%27%27%29%29&rech=1&language=nl&tri=dd+AS+RANK&numero=1&table_name=wet&cn=2014041090&caller=image_a1&fromtab=wet&la=N&pdf_page=9&pdf_file=http://www.ejustice.just.fgov.be/mopdf/2014/12/19_2.pdf

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are appropriately qualified. Once established, such register or registers shall, where appropriate, be made available to legal counsel and relevant authorities. Article 5 as a whole refers to the responsibility of the member states to ensure the quality of interpretation and translation, but remains relatively vague on how to guarantee this quality and quality control– except for the reference to the register. It also states that every member state should have a procedure or mechanism to ensure that the suspected or accused person speaks and understands the language of the criminal proceedings and to ascertain whether they need an interpreter (article 2(4)). Moreover, an entire article is devoted to the training of judges, prosecutors and judicial staff because special attention must be paid to the “particularities of communicating with the assistance of an interpreter so as to ensure efficient and effective communication” (article 6). None of these elements can be found in the current version of the Belgian legislation. Belgian police force structure To better understand the specific training programs of police inspectors and chief inspectors (chapter 3) and later on the population of respondents in our small-scale research (chapter 6), we need to know what section of the police we are dealing with. We will therefore only present that part of the structure that is interesting for our research, since discussing the overall structure of the Belgian police force would lead us beyond the scope of the current article. The semi-structured interviews covered the following three groups: - Reception: CALog-staff (Logistics and Administration Management) and inspectors (often the first point of contact between citizens and the police) - Section “Intervention”: inspectors - Section “Guard services”: inspectors and chief inspectors

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CALog-staff are civilian employees without any specific police training for the job at the reception desk, but there is a selection procedure that takes four months, consisting of cognitive ability and personality tests and an internship. The tests correspond to the job level one is applying for: level A (Master), level B (Bachelor), level C (High school degree), and level D (no degree)28. The different levels within the police structure consist of a lower management/level (police inspector), middle management/level (chief inspector) and officer‖s management/officer level (chief constables).29 At the level of inspectors and chief inspectors, trainees get information about questioning techniques, but little or no attention is paid to ImPQ as will be explained in the next paragraph. ImPQ in Antwerp: are police officers prepared to work with an interpreter? Police forces in Antwerp are hardly trained to work with interpreters. This information is confirmed by an interview with two trainers of the Provincial Police School in Antwerp: Eric Broeckx (current trainer) and Dirk Rombouts (former trainer, retired). If future generations of inspectors and chief inspectors (cf. section 2) receive any information at all on ImPQ, it is part of more general subjects such as “questioning techniques” (for chief inspectors) or “working in a multicultural society” (for inspectors), and is thus combined with other elements of the curriculum. Both trainers confirmed that about half an hour of the training is dedicated to the questioning of foreigners. The trainers provide an explanation about the

28 http://www.jobpol.be/home/administratie/ 29 http://www.policelocale.be/5340/nl/vacatures/informatie-over-politiepersoneel.html

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three possible ways of working. The first option is that non-native speakers write down their own declaration in the foreign language – this of course means that they should be able to write and that a written form of their language exists. It also means that a translation of these records in the language of the proceedings will be necessary. The second possibility consists in police officers writing down declarations in the foreign language themselves: this means they must master the language very well and be sure about the wording. The third possibility is to employ an interpreter. The current trainer (Broeckx) only presents this as a possible solution. The other trainer (Rombouts) tried to explain to the trainee police officers that it is best to appoint professional interpreters because they have to adhere to an ethical code and very well understand the boundaries of their professional role (impartiality and professional secrecy). He also taught them that the interviewer should address the interviewee directly instead of asking questions through the interpreter in an indirect way (“ask him where he was the other day…”) and that - regarding seating arrangement - it is best to seat the interpreter in a neutral position, not too close to either of the parties. Still, there was and is no room for exercises or role-plays. The interview with the current trainer even revealed that the above-mentioned explanation about working with an interpreter is not provided anymore. However, it is interesting to note that the opposite is true for the candidate legal interpreters in Antwerp. In the legal interpreting course, they have the opportunity to work with police officers (Rombouts and Martens) who take part in role-plays to familiarize the interpreter trainees with police interviews. Students play the role of the interpreter and the interaction is filmed and analyzed afterwards. That is why the position of Mr. Rombouts was unique: he was teaching in both training courses (interpreter training and police training) and was therefore best placed to provide information to one group of students (police or interpreters) based on his experiences in the other group.

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Unfortunately, this unbalance still exists in Belgium, even though things are slowly changing: it very much depends on individuals whether information on ImPQ is integrated in the course curriculum. When taking into account that Antwerp is the only “island” in Flanders and even in Belgium as a whole where a specialized course on legal interpreting is organized in collaboration with the Court of Antwerp, the Antwerp Bar Association and the Antwerp police30 , we can assume that other police schools are probably paying little or no attention at all to interpreter-mediated questioning. One could argue that in an international and multicultural city like Brussels, police officers will most probably receive some training on interpreter-mediated questioning, but we have had no confirmation of this so far. A counter-argument could be that Antwerp is at least as multicultural as Brussels and that - despite the presence of the training program for interpreters at KU Leuven, Campus Antwerp - , users of interpreters are not informed about how to communicate through an interpreter. Later on, we will see that they are even not aware about the existence of the training program for legal interpreters and translators. How could this even be possible, if no information is given on interpreters in general, or on efficient communication through an interpreter, to the users of interpreters (police officers, but also other legal actors, such as judges and lawyers)? ImPQ in the literature In the literature much can be found on the court interpreters, both academic publications on definition, role or research methodology (Hale 2007, 2008,

30See: https://www.arts.kuleuven.be/home/opleidingen/manamas/gerechtsvertalen_tolken This site is only available in Dutch since the training is offered in Dutch only. Entrance exams (written and oral) test the language level for Dutch and the foreign language before students are admitted to the course.

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Mikkelson 2008, 2014, Berg-Seligson, Russel) and course books on court interpreting and its daily practice (Edwards, de Jongh), to name just a few. Right from the beginning when we started carrying out research projects on legal interpreting (commissioned by DG Justice of the European Commission) at KU Leuven, Antwerp Campus (formerly Lessius) (for a complete overview, see: http://www.eulita.eu/european-projects ), it was recognized that Competent legal interpreting and translation make important contributions to the legal process and to the quality of administration in the multicultural society of the European Union. Levels of linguistic competence which legal interpreters and translators require for their professional activities are not at present standardized amongst the member states of the European Union. Such standards are not even mutually recognized by all member states, nor does each country have its own mandatory or recommended standards for all their legal interpreters and translators. (Ostarhild, 2001: 41) However, seven years later a survey on the actual practice of court interpreting in all EU member states by Hertog & van Gucht (2008) revealed that legal interpreting and translation structures still remained “work in progress”: The core conclusion of this survey on the provision of legal interpreting and translation in all Member States is twofold. Firstly, the survey shows that sufficient legal interpreting and translation skills and structures are not yet in place to meet these goals. Secondly, it shows a process of development to do so is in progress across the EU, albeit still variable in coherence, quality and quantity. (Hertog & van Gucht, 2008: 189). If these problems regarding the creation of sufficient structures for legal interpreting services still persist, this is also due to a lack of literature focusing on the actual cooperation between the interpreting working field and different

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bodies in legal settings, viz. police forces and legal actors in and outside the courtroom (solicitors, lawyers, prosecutors, (investigating) judges and so on). Thanks to a rather unique survey conducted by Baistow (2000), we learn more about the emotional and psychological consequences (bad mood, stress, behavior changes) that interpreters in general (i.e. all kinds of community interpreters) experience while doing their job. It appears that out of 17 circumstances which cause “mood or behavior changes”, “dealing with service providers” is the fifth most important cause (after distress of clients, hearing about suffering/misery, not being able to help clients and worries about future employment). This kind of survey clearly shows that the research community must take into account the opinions, meanings and feelings of the interpreters themselves and should not only talk about interpreters but also listen to their voice. “Dealing with service providers” causes mood and/or behavior changes because interpreters often experience a lack of awareness and acknowledgement from service users, more specifically little awareness “that community interpreting work can often be emotionally difficult and sometimes distressing” (Baistow, 2000:42). Similar results can be found in a small-scale study by Salaets & van Gucht (2008), where most interpreters identify the following point of improvement: the need for “more appreciation” and “training of social workers to work with interpreters” (Salaets & van Gucht, 2008: 282), which can easily be extended to all users of interpreting services, including legal actors. The statement below by Corsellis (1989) obviously also applies to legal interpreting: To provide an effective service across language and culture, more is required than the provision of suitably qualified interpreters and translators. Public service personnel must also be trained and qualified to communicate fully through linguists, to adapt and deliver their service to meet the needs of clients

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from different backgrounds and to create the management structures which will facilitate and support appropriate responses. (Corsellis, 1998: 89) A few years later, she indeed extends these principles to the legal sector in an article meaningfully entitled Inter disciplinary conventions & toolkits for legal services and explains which elements authorities and legal actors should take into account when working with interpreters/translators (Corsellis, 2005: 122-134). In a reflection on this article Wiersinga, in his position as a judge, remarks that the reality appears to be quite different in all stages of the legal procedure, and also during the phase of the police interview: In the criminal justice process, from detection to sentencing and enforcement, a number of moments may be identified in which conflicting interests can collide and do collide in practice. (Wiersinga, 2005: 135). The next article in the same publication is written by Rombouts (2005, 143-153), who specifically focuses on ImPQ and describes how the police can make effective use of interpreters. Even before that time, Wølch Rasmussen & Martinsen explained that it is important to have good guidelines for working with a legal interpreter, from contacting and appropriately briefing the interpreter up to respecting the role of the interpreter. They also reflect upon how performance may be improved after the questioning is finished (Wølch Rasmussen & Martinsen, 2001:177-186). Martonova stresses that interpreters must be trained “to work in legal settings and the legal profession on how to work with interpreters” (Martonova, 2003: 128) so that the quality of the interpreter-mediated interaction is guaranteed and thus becomes “a shared responsibility” (Ozolins & Hale, 2009: 9). Fowler states that questionings become an incoherent mess from the moment police officers realize that the interviewing or questioning techniques they learned cannot be applied in the same way in interpreter-mediated questioning (Fowler, 2003: 197).

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These are all nice statements, but it would also be interesting to see how these theories are applied in daily practice 10 to 15 years later, and more specifically in police questionings? One could sit down and wait until the problems are solved automatically: people of foreign origin who want to integrate themselves in the host society, will eventually (have to) learn the language. The idea that immigrants are expected to learn the language of the host society - is not necessarily a bad one, but unfortunately it is also closely linked to an idea of ―indebtedness‖ to the host society, an idea that is becoming increasingly stronger in a more right-wing oriented Europe. We should not forget, however, that not everybody has the talent (combined with age, intelligence and educational background) to learn a language quickly, and certainly not the language of court that one can hardly understand in his mother tongue! (Ricoy, Perez & Wilson, 2009: 45). We will now give a few concrete examples concerning awareness raising among legal interpreters and legal actors from different geographical areas, such as Europe (Belgium, the UK), Australia and Canada. We would like to emphasize, however ,that this is a mere selection, but not an exhaustive overview of all possible initiatives! In Belgium, as indicated above , concrete cooperation until now only took place in the legal interpreter training, with the police explaining questioning techniques and doing role-plays with candidate interpreters. The opposite – with interpreters explaining their role and way of working to police officers - is not yet the case. Fortunately things are changing, as we will see in the conclusion. In the UK, more specifically in Scotland, Perez and Wilson stress that an interpreter cannot do his job properly if the police officer does not know how to handle an ImPQ:

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[…] no matter how well-trained and competent an interpreter may be, if a police officer does not “allow” him/her to “do his/her job”, the interpreter‖s performance will not be satisfactory. (Perez & Wilson, 2007: 81) Consequently, they started organizing workshops with Scottish police officers on how to work efficiently with interpreters. In 2011, they reported extensively on this Interlinked Approach to Training for Interpreter Mediated Police Settings in a chapter meaningfully entitled “Linking theory and practice” (Perez & Wilson, 2011: 242-262) In 1997 Roberts already pointed out the existence of workshops for all services which need the assistance of an interpreter in Australia (Roberts, 1997:22). Meanwhile fact sheets are permanently available on, for instance, the New South Wales governmental website: http://www.crc.nsw.gov.au/services/language_services/fact_sheets Finally, the Critical Link and all its seven conferences over the years have emphasized the importance of good cooperation between interpreters and the users of their services, regardless of who these users are (social workers, police officers, judges etc.) Although some research has been done and concrete initiatives have been taken regarding ImPQ, it is not yet highly visible in the working field, as will be shown in the next paragraphs. Immigration numbers in Belgium/Antwerp To be able to make statements about legal interpreting needs, we first have to look at the migration flows and the number of immigrants in Belgium. The next

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graph shows the evolution of immigration (black line), emigration (grey line) and the migration balance (grey dotted line):

Chart 1: Evolution of the number of immigrants and emigrants, 1948-2011 Source: http://www.diversiteit.be/sites/default/files/documents/publication/statistisch_en_demografisch_verslag.pdf (p. 31) When looking at the specific situation in Antwerp – the area of our research –, it becomes clear that more and more foreigners are becoming part of the Antwerp society, but also that this trend is slightly slowing down. Within the limited scope of this contribution it is not possible to explain in detail the possible causes, but the political atmosphere in the city is likely to be at the origin of this decrease.

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Chart 2: Immigration from foreign countries to Antwerp (2003-2013) Left columns: from abroad from waiting list renewed registration total Source: http://aps.vlaanderen.be/lokaal/pdf/gemeente-2014/Antwerpen.pdf (p. 17) More recent figures (limited to children and youth) published by the “Stedelijke Studiedienst Stadsobservatie” [Research section on urban phenomena] in 2010 foresee an increasing share of foreigners among the young population. In 2010, 56 % of the children in Antwerp were of foreign origin and it is estimated that by 2020, 2 out of 3 young people in Antwerp will be of foreign origin (http://www.demorgen.be/binnenland/56-van-de-kinderen-in-antwerpen-van-allochtone-afkomst-a1064424/ ) Of course, these numbers as such do not allow us to predict the exact number of people who would possibly need a legal interpreter. Foreigners – especially young people – may learn the language of the host country or may never come in contact with justice and so on. On the basis of these numbers, however, we can at least confirm that our multicultural and global society is still evolving and that most probably interpreters will be needed in all layers of society. Qualitative research at the Antwerp police force (zone North) : methodology Why qualitative research? A qualitative research method was applied precisely because we wanted to explore a specific domain (Boeije, 2009: 254) and subsequently wanted to

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“identify trends and themes, describe and interpret them, to discovery [sic] and explore and speculate on relationships” (Hale & Napier, 2014: 11). Data are “naturally occurring” and found through “unstructured elicitation techniques (interviews, observations, focus groups […]” (Hale & Napier, 2014: 11). Design We conducted semi-structured interviews with a set of “prompt questions to guide the discussion” that would allow for “some probing and a rapport with the interviewee” (Hale & Napier, 2014: 97, 98). Questions were asked about how the staff at the police station deals with people who do not speak Dutch (in this case the official language of the city of Antwerp). The semi-structured interview also allowed us to omit certain questions that were not suitable for a specific group, e.g. asking the intervention team “With what kind of interpreter do people come to the police station?” is useless. The same goes for questions about the recruitment of interpreters: only chief inspectors are authorized to appoint an interpreter. Twenty questions were asked in total. For obvious reasons, not all these questions can be treated in this contribution. We therefore only selected the ones that deal with ethics or shared responsibility of police officer and interpreter to reach a common goal: a well-structured questioning that leads to satisfactory results, answers or solutions to a problem for both parties (police officer and suspect/witness/victim). The exact questions will be mentioned in section 7 (Results). Respondents All interviews were held on the shop floor, with employees at the reception desk, members of the intervention team and the guard team, representing all kinds of staff: civilian employees, inspectors and chief inspectors (see § 2). All

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respondents voluntarily participated in the research, after having signed an informed consent in which anonymity was guaranteed. To select the interviewees, we have used the snowball method (Boeije, 2009: 263 and Hale & Napier, 2014: 73) meaning that, after having selected a first respondent, every respondent in his turn suggested another (or some other) respondent(s) that would (in his/her opinion) be well placed to answer the questions as well. We held 6 interviews with members of the reception staff (3 CALog and 3 inspectors), 6 with inspectors of the intervention team and 10 with people of the guard team (4 inspectors and 6 chief inspectors), which makes a total of 22 interviews. With regard to their gender distribution, we can keep it short: only 2 of the interviewees were female. More than half of the interviewees were older than 40 and almost 50 % of the interviewees had between 30 and 40 years of experience. Most of the questions and answers discussed in section 7 concern (chief) inspectors because CALog staff is not authorized to appoint an interpreter and as a result, at the reception desk they are confronted with a problem for which there does not seem to be a real solution at hand. Analysis All interviews were transcribed, the answers were coded and divided into categories. To avoid researcher bias, the process of coding and categorizing was repeated by another researcher to triangulate the results and merge them in clear schemes. These results were then compared to the “theoretical part”, i.e. to what the two police instructors (Rombouts and Broeckx) reported about the training of future police officers in ImPQ.

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Results Q1: From which moment on do you recruit an interpreter?

Degree

Total Inspector

Chief inspector

From which moment recruiting an interpreter

when the facts are serious enough

Number 4 6 10 % column 100,0

% 100,0%

100,0%

when communication is impossible

Number 1 1 2 % column 25,0% 16,7%

20,0% Total Total 4 6 10 Normally this question can be answered only by chief inspectors, but here we can see that both inspectors and chief inspectors recruit interpreters. This can be explained as follows: inspectors suggest the chief inspector to contact an interpreter for one main reason, i.e. the facts are serious. Two police officers provide an additional reason: the impossibility of communication. What do we understand by “serious facts”? In this regard, respondents indicated the following: deliberate assault and battery, a judicial inquiry, an arrest (in contrast with loss of documents, small accidents, theft, and neighbours‖ quarrels, which are apparently not “serious” enough to ask for the assistance of an interpreter according to the police). Of course, this is only a very small selection of incidents that can be reported at the police station.

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Q2: Where do you find the interpreter, in other words, on which register/list?

Degree

Total Chief inspectors

Recruiting the interpreter

From the offical list with sworn interpreters, I make my own list with interpreters with whom I had good experiences

Number 5 5 % column 83,3% 83,3%

At random from official list with sworn interpreters

Number 1 1 % column 16,7% 16,7%

Total Number 6 6 % column 100,0% 100,0%

Here again only the chief inspectors can answer this question because they are the only ones authorized to recruit interpreters. It must be stressed that the “official list with sworn interpreters” refers to the local list of Antwerp, since

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there is no national register. Already in 2001, interpreters obtained the legal interpreting and translation (LIT, in Dutch GVT, see section 3) certificate of KU Leuven, Antwerp campus and were subsequently sworn in. Unfortunately, we cannot say that all sworn interpreters on the Antwerp list are certified or have received training, because there are still many interpreters who were sworn in before 2000 (the year the training started) and who are still working in the field without any form of training or quality control (linguistic knowledge, interpreting skills, knowledge of the ethical code or legal knowledge). Surprisingly, 5 out of 6 chief inspectors say they have their own personal list of interpreters they like to work with. This means we are dealing with a rather unprofessional way of working: the police officer appoints his “favorite interpreters”. First of all, this means that there is a certain relationship of confidence between the interpreter and the police officer, which may hinder the interpreter‖s impartiality. Secondly, this also means that it is the police officer who decides which interpreter is doing a good job, based on his own criteria. We should stress, though, that the police officer is not in a position to evaluate the interpreter‖s competence because it is not his expertise. By means of the next question, we specifically want to find out whether the police officers know that a formal training for legal interpreters actually does exist in Antwerp. Q3: Do you know that you should preferably recruit sworn interpreters with a LIT-certificate?

Degree

Total Chief inspector

LIT-certificate

No, I didn‖t know

Number 6 6 % column 100,0% 100,0%

Total Number 6 6

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Degree

Total Chief inspector

LIT-certificate

No, I didn‖t know

Number 6 6 % column 100,0% 100,0%

Total Number 6 6 % column 100,0% 100,0%

In this case, our comments can be short. None of the inspectors knew about the training and the different types of “sworn” interpreters in Antwerp, i.e. the ones who were sworn in before 2000 and the ones who were only sworn in after having obtained the LIT-certificate. Q4: Do you brief the interpreter?

Degree

Total Inspector Chief inspector Brief the interpreter

yes Number 4 6 10 % column 100,0% 100,0% 100,0%

Total Number 4 6 10 % column 100,0% 100,0% 100,0%

Here again, we can be short: all (chief) inspectors brief the interpreter. One of the respondents added that this briefing is not always easy and that police officers must avoid giving a subjective account of the story (e.g. “she is an irritating woman” or “it seems to me that this guy is lying all the time”! It is, however, a good sign that the police seem to be aware of this risk.

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Q5: Do you introduce the interpreter or does the interpreter do that himself?

Degree

Total Inspector Chief inspector

Introduce the interpreter

I do Number 0 1 1 % column ,0% 16,7% 10,0%

The interpreter does

Number 4 5 9 % column 100,0% 83,3% 90,0%

Total Number 4 6 10 % column 100,0% 100,0% 100,0%

It is a very good sign that all (chief) inspectors, except for one, leave it up to the interpreters to introduce themselves because he knows best what to mention in this introduction, including for instance his ethical code, as we will see in the next question. From this answer it is, however, not clear whether the interpreter introduces himself to both parties in two languages, or only to the interviewee. Q6: Does the interpreter explain his ethical code?

Degree

Total Inspector

Chief inspector

Ethical code I don‖t know Number 1 3 4 % column 25,0% 50,0% 40,0%

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Yes, to the interviewee

Number 2 1 3 % Number 50,0% 16,7% 30,0%

Sometimes he does, sometimes not

Number 1 1 2 % Number 25,0% 16,7% 20,0%

No Number 0 1 1 % Number ,0% 16,7% 10,0%

Total Number 4 6 10 % Number 100,0% 100,0% 100,0%

Here it becomes clearer that the interpreter mainly introduces himself to the interviewee only. The answers are less uniform: the four (chief) inspectors who answered “I don‖t know” explained that they do not understand what the interpreter is saying in the foreign language. How are the others then able to give a more concrete answer (“sometimes, no, yes to the interviewee”), since theoretically they are all in the same position of not understanding the introduction of the interpreter in the foreign language? The answer “yes, to the interviewee” is particularly interesting in this respect, because from the comments, it appears that the interpreter introduces himself to the foreigner rather than to the police officer. This seems logical since the police officers use their own personal lists, and so, with interpreters “they know”, there is no need any more to be introduced. This again raises questions about impartiality and about the exact role boundaries of the interpreter. As the ancient Latin saying goes: Repetitio mater scientiae est. (Repetition is the mother of knowledge). The lack of knowledge of the ethical code and the way of working of the interpreters – despite (or maybe as a result) of frequent collaboration within teams of (chief) inspectors with the same interpreters – becomes clear in the next questions and answers.

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Q7: How is the seating arrangement: where does the interpreter sit?

Degree

Total Inspector

Chief inspector

Seating arrangement

Triangle Number 1 1 2 % column 25,0% 16,7% 20,0%

Interpreter chooses

Number 0 2 2 % column ,0% 33,3% 20,0%

Next to the interviewee

Number 4 4 8 % column 100,0% 66,7% 80,0%

Next to me Number 0 1 1 % column ,0% 16,7% 10,0%

Total Number 4 6 10 Only one chief inspector and one inspector give the “right” answer, which is to sit in a triangle, with the interpreter at an equal distance from the interviewer and the interviewee. This position allows both the interviewee and interviewer to see each other clearly. For the police officer this is important to be able to detect body language. It is also the best position to guarantee the impartiality of the interpreter. The explanations of the respondents show why only two of them gave this answer: in practice, the size of the room does not always allow to sit in a triangle. Only one chief inspector lets the interpreter sit next to him, but he adds in his comment that he actually does not like to have that person so close to him. Two others let the interpreter decide, so we do not know what the actual position will be. Most of the police officers let the interpreter sit next to the interviewee, probably without realizing that this might suggest to the

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interviewee that the interpreter is an ―ally‖. Moreover, the interviewee will more easily look at the interpreter when speaking, which prevents the police officer from observing the body language. When the interpreter is sitting in a triangle, he is able to clearly see both parties, which prevents him first of all from ending up with a stiff neck. More importantly, it also allows him to observe body language, which may be highly significant in some cultures, and to emphasize his impartiality by his position in the triad Q8: Do you directly address the interviewee or the interpreter?

Degree

Total Inspector Chief inspector

Direct or indirect Speech

indirect Number 1 1 2 % column 25,0% 16,7% 20,0%

sometimes direct, sometimes indirect

Number 2 4 6 % column 50,0% 66,7% 60,0%

Direct Number 1 1 2 % column 25,0% 16,7% 20,0%

Total Number 4 6 10 % column 100,0% 100,0% 100,0%

This question is closely linked to the previous one: a triangle seating arrangement makes it easier to address the interviewee directly, instead of through the interpreter. When questions are asked through the interpreter, the interviewer will more easily turn to the indirect speech (“Ask him/her where (s)he was yesterday evening”). Only 2 police officers use direct speech.

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This situation could be avoided if interpreters would not only introduce themselves to the interviewee, but also to the interviewer, by saying: I am the interpreter X/Y, I will translate everything that is being said without adding or omitting anything. I am impartial (which means I‖m not a helper of either of you and I am not allowed to have private conversations with either of you). I am bound to professional secrecy (so everything that will be said here is confidential).You can address each other directly and I will translate by using the first person “I”. When I speak on my own behalf, I will introduce this explicitly by saying “The interpreter (would like to ask for clarification)”. This way it is also clear for the police – even if they already know or think they know – how interpreters are supposed to behave professionally. We want to conclude this part with two other questions put to the entire group of respondents about their training. We asked them whether they had received any training on working with an interpreter. If their answer was “no”, they were asked whether they would have preferred to have it included in their training program. The answers of the respondents working at the reception desk are particularly interesting because they normally are the first point of contact with foreigners. It would lead us too far to show all the related charts, but we can summarize them as follows: 15 out of 20 interviewees learned to work with an interpreter “on the job”, in daily practice, without any prior education, training or rules whatsoever. Only 5 respondents stated they had received some, but limited, information about ImPQ. We asked those 15 respondents without any training on ImPQ whether it would have been useful. 13 of them answered positively. _ It It is particularly striking that all (8) chief inspectors who “learned by doing” would have preferred training in ImPQ. This phenomenon can be explained (easily) / logically because they are very often the ones who actually do the questioning and probably they are also the ones who are most frequently confronted with problems in this regard. The reception staff‖s answer (was) / is

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also surprising: 50 % stated that training would have been useful (3 people); one person answered that it would be “impossible”, two others replied that “foreigners have to speak Dutch”, which is a rather bizarre answer since not everybody can (instantly) speak another language instantly, especially when they are in distress or have suffered an unpleasant experience. Discussion When we look at the literature review and all the observations that have been made in the last 20 years about teamwork between interpreters and the users of their services, and compare this to the evolutions in the working field – at least at the Antwerp police – we do not see much awareness of quality control and ethics. Of course, it must be stressed that this observation only applies to the police zone of the north of Antwerp. Nevertheless, it is exactly in this city that more attention is paid to the work of interpreters thanks to the presence of two interpreting and translation departments, of which KU Leuven in Antwerp has a 15-year-old tradition of offering a specialized training in legal interpreting and translation. Even then, Antwerp police officers do not seem to know that the best way of working is to only – or preferably – appoint accredited legal interpreters who have obtained the LIT certificate of KU Leuven. These legal interpreters have passed entrance exams that test their linguistic knowledge of 2 or more languages (including Dutch), completed 5 course modules (legal knowledge, legal terminology, interpreting techniques, ethics and police module) and also passed the final exams, consisting of written exams on legal knowledge and terminology and an oral exam, which is a lifelike role-play in which their legal knowledge and terminology, interpreting competences and knowledge of ethical code are tested in a practical way. Police officers in Antwerp, however, still prefer to make their own lists of – fortunately mostly professional - interpreters they “like to work with” instead of making a more random selection from an official list of professional

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interpreters. The current habit may put the interpreter‖s impartiality at risk. Police officers do not really know whether the interviewee is actually informed about the interpreter‖s role and ethics (because they do not understand what the interpreter is saying in the foreign language) and do not seem to find it necessary that the interpreter introduces himself to them. This is logical, because – again – they work with interpreters “they know” and consider this a superfluous introduction. Consequently, the ethical code of the interpreter is not repeated in the introduction for the police and as a result, it is more likely that the police officers are not really aware of the interpreter‖s code and its precise rules, such as seating arrangements and the use of direct speech during the interview. It is positive, however, that all interviewers brief the interpreter. This is not at all surprising if we compare the training program for the police to the daily experience in the working field: in training modules hardly any concrete information is conveyed on working with interpreters, let alone that there is a specific module on ImPQ which also includes exercises (role-plays). If any information is given at all, it is embedded in general modules on the “intercultural society” or “questioning techniques” and it does not take up much more than half an hour. It is encouraging to see that police officers believe that it would be interesting to have such a module on ImPQ as part of their training program and that all chief inspectors – who actually do the questioning- are convinced this would be a good idea. That is why we decided to offer this knowledge in various ways, since current police training does not yet include it. Conclusion From our small scale research in Antwerp –the only city in Belgium where explicit attention is paid to legal interpreting through LIT training in collaboration with court, police and bar associations - it became clear that there is a big gap between what is published by academics or demonstrated by different research projects and what is actually going on in the working field.

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The ImPLI-project – which focused exactly on improving police interpreting - aimed at developing a concrete tool to show police officers the preferred way of working in an ImPQ. One deliverable of the project is the final report, which is unfortunately only available in English and Spanish and should be translated in many other languages to allow for wider dissemination among stakeholders (http://www.isitinternational.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/IMPLI_Final_Report.pdf ). Another deliverable are six educational films focusing on the collaboration between police officers and interpreters. Every partner of the consortium made a movie in its own language (i.e. Czech, Dutch, English, French, German and Italian) and subtitled it in English. Every scenario corresponds to a different situation: a rape case (Belgium), a violence case (Italy), theft with a Deaf person as a witness (Czech Republic), a case of aggression (France) and the joint training (with role-plays) of the police school of Saxony-Anhalt in Germany and the interpreting students of the Fachhochschule Magdeburg-Stendal (see: https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLx15JSWFqoqCm5ycG6CKzxAQHE-YfrgIj ) Together with Dirk Rombouts and Katalin Balogh, practicing court interpreter and head of the LIT-course in Antwerp, we decided to write a manual on how to work with legal interpreters. A lawyer and a judge also offered to collaborate, and reviewed the whole book and provided comments from their professional legal background. Since the direct stakeholders are Dutch-speaking legal actors and police officers, this publication is currently only available in Dutch: https://www.arts.kuleuven.be/tolkwetenschap/in_de_kijker/handboek-gerechtstolken. As we are writing this contribution, we are also considering a French version for the French- speaking part of Belgium. The book contains an introductory part on interpreting and the figure of the interpreter, and on interpreting modes and techniques, just to show the users of interpreters that interpreting is too important a task to leave up to anybody who speaks a bit of

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a (foreign) language, even not to an expert bilingual, exactly because interpreting is a matter of technique and practice. The stakes are even higher in legal interpreting, where the language is even more complicated (because of the specific register and terminology used). Special attention is also paid to working with Deaf people and a signed language interpreter. Subsequently, the ways to work efficiently with an interpreter are described in three different contexts: the police station, the courtroom and in different settings with a lawyer (who is involved in most cases), from the moment the interpreter is appointed (who?, how? , where? etc.) until the moment he leaves the room. These chapters are followed by a concrete case in which all previous contexts and situations are merged: the case is based on the educational film that KU Leuven, Antwerp campus made for the ImPLI project. It adds an interactive aspect to the book by linking back to a concrete deliverable of a research project. This is important in terms of dissemination to the direct stakeholders who are, as indicated above, legal actors and police officers. The aim is to have the manual introduced as course material in Faculties of Law and Criminology and in police schools all over Flanders and the Netherlands so that future lawyers, judges and police officers already know what an interpreter does for a living, how he learned his profession and how they can cooperate with them in the most efficient but also ethically correct way. In response to the great interest generated by this book, brand new and exciting initiatives are taking place in 2015 for the first time. The first one is an interpreted mock trial, an event that takes place for the first time in Belgium and consists of a role-play in Dutch with interpretation in three languages: French, Hungarian and Flemish Sign Language (to draw special attention to this particular form of communication). All role players are professional judges, prosecutors and lawyers; the suspects and victims are native speakers, and the interpreters are legal interpreting students. Every role-play will be analyzed extensively from a communicative point of view and a professional interpreting perspective.

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The second initiative is a joint training for police forces and interpreters. Students of the police schools will come to Antwerp to learn from and work with the legal interpreting students. This way, both professions will really learn from each other: interpreters will learn more about questioning techniques and police officers about interpreting techniques. If we manage to organize this on a regular basis, we hope to repeat this small-scale research on a larger scale in a few years. The results will then hopefully reveal that police officers and legal actors know how to work efficiently with an interpreter. References Baistow, K. (2000). The psychological and emotional effects of community interpreting. Londen: Babelea. Berk-Seligson, S. (1990, 2002). The Bilingual Courtroom: Court Interpreters in the Judicial Process (With a New Chapter). Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Boeije, H.R., 't Hart, H. & Hox, J.J. (Red.). (2009). Onderzoeksmethoden. Amsterdam: Boom. Corsellis, A. (2005). Inter disciplinary conventions & toolkits for legal services. In H. Keijzer-Lambooy, & W.J. Gasille, (Eds.), Aequilibrium: instruments for lifting language barriers in intercultural proceedings. (pp. 122-134). Utrecht: ITV Hogeschool, (JAI/2003/AGIS/048). Corsellis, A. (1998). Turning good intentions into good practice: enabling the public service to fulfil their responsabilities. In R.P. Roberts, S.E. Carr, D. Abraham & A. Dufour (Eds.), The Critical Link 2: Interpreters in the Community. (pp. 89-99). Amsterdam/Philadelphia: J. Benjamins. Edwards, A.B. (1995). The Practice of Court Interpreting. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: J. Benjamins.

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Fowler, Y. (2003). Taking an interpreted witness statement at the police station: what did the witness actually say? In L. Brunette, G.L. Bastin, I. Hemlin, & H. Clarke, (Eds.), The Critical Link 3: Interpreters in the Community (pp. 195-209). Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins. Hale, S. and Napier, J. (2014). Research Methods in Interpreting. A Practical Resource. London, New Delhi, New York, Sydney: Bloomsbury. Hale, S. (2008). Controversies over the role of the court interpreter. In C. Valero-Garcés, & A., Martin, A. (2008). Crossing borders in community interpreting: definitions and dilemmas. (pp. 99-121). Amsterdam/Philadelphia: J. Benjamins Hale, S. B. (2007). Community interpreting. Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan. Hertog, E. (Ed.), (2001). Aequitas: equal access to justice across language and culture in the EU. Antwerpen: Lessius, (GROTIUS Project 98/GR/131). Hertog, E. (Ed.). (2003). Aequalitas: equal access to justice across language and culture in the EU. (pp. 53-59). Antwerpen: Lessius, (GROTIUS Project 2001/GRP/015). Hertog, E. & Gucht, J. van (Eds.). (2008). Status Quaestionis: the provision of legal interpreting and translation in the EU. Antwerp-Oxford-Portland: Intersentia, (AGIS Project JLS/2006/AGIS/052). Jongh, E.M. de (2012). From the Classroom to the Courtroom: A guide to interpreting in the U.S. justice system, ATA Series (American Translators Association Scholarly Monograph Series XVII). Amsterdam/Philadelphia: J. Benjamins, Keijzer-Lambooy, H. & Gasille, W.J. (Eds.). (2005). Aequilibrium: instruments for lifting language barriers in intercultural proceedings. Utrecht: ITV Hogeschool, (JAI/2003/AGIS/048). Krikke, A, & Besiktaslian, M. (2005). Effective use of interpreters. In H. Keijzer-Lambooy & W.J. Gasille, (Eds.), Aequilibrium: instruments for lifting

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language barriers in intercultural proceedings. (pp. 155-171). Utrecht: ITV Hogeschool, (JAI/2003/AGIS/048). Martonova, K. (2003). Establishing complementary skills and structures between the legal and language professions. In E. Hertog, (Ed.). Aequalitas: equal access to justice across language and culture in the EU. (pp. 123-132). Antwerpen: Lessius, (GROTIUS Project 2001/GRP/015). Mikkelson, H. (2014). Introduction to Court Interpreting (Translation Practices Explained). London & New York: Routledge. Mikkelson, H. (2008). Evolving views of the court interpreter‖s role. Between Scylla and Charybdis. In C. Valero-Garcés, & A., Martin, A. (2008). Crossing borders in community interpreting: definitions and dilemmas. (pp. 81-97). Amsterdam/Philadelphia: J. Benjamins Ostarhild, E. (2001). Linguistic standards for legal interpreters and translators at diploma or first degree level and at MA level. In E. Hertog (Ed.), Aequitas: equal access to justice across language and culture in the EU. (pp. 41-87). Antwerpen: Lessius, (GROTIUS Project 98/GR/131). Ozolins, U. & Hale, S. (2009). Quality in interpreting: a shared responsibility. In U. Ozolins, & L. Stern (Eds.), The critical link 5: quality in interpreting – a shared responsibility. (pp. 1-10). Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins. Pedro Ricoy, R. de, Perez, I. & Wilson, C. (2009). Interpreting and translation in public service settings: policy, practice, pedagogy. Manchester, UK & Kinderhook (NY), USA: St. Jerome Publishing. Perez, I. & Wilson, C. (2007). Interpreter-mediated police interviews: working as a professional team. In C. Wadensjö, B. Englund Dimitrova & A.-L. Nilsson (Eds.), The Critical Link 4: Professionalisation of Interpreting. (pp. 79-93). Amsterdam/Philadelphia: J. Benjamins. Perez, I, & Wilson, C. (2011). The Interlinked Approach to Training for Interpreter Mediated Police Settings. In C. Kainz, E. Prunc, R. Schögler (Eds.), bookseries: Representation - Transformation, vol: 6, Modelling the field of

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community interpreting : Questions of methodology in research and training.(pp. 242-262). Berlin: LIT-Verlag. Roberts, R. P. (1997). Community interpreting today and tomorrow. In S.E. Carr, R. Roberts, A. Dufour & D. Steyn (Eds.), The Critical Link 2: Interpreters in the Community (pp. 7-26). Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins. Rombouts, D. (2005). Police interviews with the assistance of a court interpreter. Critical thoughts based on practical experience. In Keijzer-Lambooy, H. & Gasille, W.J. (Eds.), Aequilibrium: instruments for lifting language barriers in intercultural proceedings. (pp. 143-153). Utrecht: ITV Hogeschool, (JAI/2003/AGIS/048). Russel, D. (2012). Court/Legal Interpreting. In: Handbook of Translation Studies, Volume 3 (pp. 17–20). Amsterdam/Philadelphia: J. Benjamins | DOI: 10.1075/hts.3.cou1 Salaets, H. & van Gucht, J. (2008). Perceptions of a profession. In C. Valero-Garcés, & A., Martin, A. (2008). Crossing borders in community interpreting: definitions and dilemmas. (pp. 267-287). Amsterdam/Philadelphia: J. Benjamins. Wiersinga, H. (2005). ―Interdisciplinary conventions & Toolkits for legal services‖. Reflection on the article by Ann Corsellis‖ In Keijzer-Lambooy, H. & Gasille, W.J. (Eds.), Aequilibrium: instruments for lifting language barriers in intercultural proceedings. (pp. 135-142). Utrecht: ITV Hogeschool, (JAI/2003/AGIS/048). Wølch Rasmussen, K. & Martinsen, B. (2001). Interdisciplinary conventions with the legal services. In E. Hertog, (Ed.), Aequitas: equal access to justice across language and culture in the EU. (pp. 177-192). Antwerpen: Lessius, (GROTIUS Project 98/GR/131). Websites Eulita http://www.eulita.eu/european-projects

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Immigration numbers in Belgium/Antwerp (Dutch) http://www.diversiteit.be/sites/default/files/documents/publication/statistisch_en_demografisch_verslag.pdf http://aps.vlaanderen.be/lokaal/pdf/gemeente-2014/Antwerpen.pdf http://www.demorgen.be/binnenland/56-van-de-kinderen-in-antwerpen-van-allochtone-afkomst-a1064424/ 2010/64/EU http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2010:280:0001:0007:en:PDF Belgian Law on the Register for sworn Interpreters, Translators and Translators-Interpreters http://www.ejustice.just.fgov.be/cgi_loi/loi_a.pl?N=&=&sql=%28text+contains+%28%27%27%29%29&rech=1&language=nl&tri=dd+AS+RANK&numero=1&table_name=wet&cn=2014041090&caller=image_a1&fromtab=wet&la=N&pdf_page=9&pdf_file=http://www.ejustice.just.fgov.be/mopdf/2014/12/19_2.pdf Police schools and organization (Dutch) http://www.jobpol.be/home/administratie/ http://www.policelocale.be/5340/nl/vacatures/informatie-over-politiepersoneel.html ImPLI Final report

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http://www.isitinternational.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/IMPLI_Final_Report.pdf ImPLI instruction movies https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLx15JSWFqoqCm5ycG6CKzxAQHE-YfrgIj Legal Interpreting and Translation (LIT) course in Antwerp, Belgium (Dutch) https://www.arts.kuleuven.be/home/opleidingen/manamas/gerechtsvertalen_tolken Factsheets for users of legal interpreters in Australia http://www.crc.nsw.gov.au/services/language_services/fact_sheets Manual for the users of legal interpreters: police and legal actors (Dutch) https://www.arts.kuleuven.be/tolkwetenschap/in_de_kijker/handboek-gerechtstolken

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The limits of notes in literary translation Chuanmao Tian1

School of Foreign Studies, Yangtze University, Hubei, 434023 P. R. China

Intercultural Studies Group, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, 43002 Tarragona, Spain

Abstract: Use of strategies should be the freedom for translators to deal with various difficulties in transfer operations. As one of the strategies, annotation, remains an issue in literary translation. Specifically, whether a translator is allowed to use notes or not, and how many notes can be used, so far, have not been fully discussed in Translation Studies. Therefore, based on the Chinese translation of a few classics, mainly Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen and The Personal History of David Copperfield by Charles Dickens, this article has first sought the reasons for use of notes. Secondly, it divides notes into several categories and discusses the proper number for each of them. Keywords: note; literary translation; reason; limit Introduction It has been idealistically argued that a good translation can help target readers deeply understand the ideological content and artistic features of the source text without use of any note (Wu 1985: 33). Literary translation practices, however, have witnessed that notes are extensively and frequently employed in works of various forms of literature, as in Nabokov‖s English translation of Pushkin‖s Eugene Onegin. As far as their place in the target text is concerned, notes may be arranged in the text proper, at the foot of the page, or at the end of the text proper. They are labeled intratextual note, footnote and endnote respectively. This article is mainly aimed at two questions: Are notes necessary

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in literary translation? And how many notes are deemed proper? They will be discussed with reference to the Chinese versions of a few world classics. Research on notes in literary translation is seldom seen in Translation Studies. Only a few writers have transformed their interest in notes into published works or articles. Yuan (1984: 91-97), a veteran Chinese translator, raises three issues on annotation, namely necessity, accuracy and style of notes. He claims that notes should focus on the author‖s intention and the reader‖s needs; the language should be flowing and clear and the number of words should be controlled; the annotation marker should be eye-catching and the place of notes should be arranged properly. Luo (1985) summarizes the preconditions for using notes: (1) sociocultural background, customs and habits, oral literature, geography, important people; (2) metaphor, allusion and religious problems in the source text; (3) foreign languages in the source text. Pym (1992: 89) argues that “[n]otes are expansion by another name”. He strongly opposes use of notes that is a sign of insulting target readers‖ intelligence. The translator can resort to a large number of other methods to handle the content of notes. Henry (2000) links difficulties in translating with annotation. He discusses the characteristics and types of notes, raising the issue of the translator‟s position between the author and the reader in explicitating the implicit in the original. Varney (2005) examines the functions, especially ideological functions of notes with regard to taboos in the Italian translations of Anglo-American fiction during the period 1945–2005. She sees notes as “mapping the boundaries of intercultural exchange, often highlighting instances in which meaning has not been reproduced within the translation proper”. Her findings indicate that a gradual loss of cultural specificity in the source text gradually gets lost in the target culture and a tendency appears towards increased target-culture receptivity and intercultural homogeneity. Miao and Salem (2008) make a textometrical and quantitative analysis of the footnotes in Fu Lei‖s translation of Jean-Christophe by Romain Rolland, focusing on the style of the translator. They see addition of notes as Fu‖s

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intervention in his translation process. Their study shows that Fu does not use the notes as a predominant medium to overcome problems of untranslatability, but as a tool to introduce Western culture and his own view on history to the target readers. Xu (2009) raises two principles for using notes to deal with allusions on the basis of the three Chinese versions of Ulysses by James Joyce: (1) appropriateness of annotation including the total number of notes and the number of words in each note; (2) introduction of the source of allusions as well as their meanings. The relevant literatures available fall into two categories: theoretical reflections and empirical studies. There is a controversy on whether notes should be used in translating. The reasons, conditions and functions of notes have been analyzed and explored from different angles. Based on them, this article will make a further discussion of the questions formulated above. Reasons for use of notes As for the necessity of notes in translating, it is claimed that notes should not be used and in-text explanations can well replace them (Pym 1992). Pym believes that use of notes is “insulting the implied receiver‖s intelligence” and “there are several hundred more cunning ways of directing the receiver‖s attention” (ibid.: 90). According to him, a remarkable advantage of in-text explanations is to ensure a flowing, uninterrupted reading, which is the Achilles‖ heel of notes. Use of intext explanations to substitute for notes involves the conception of translation. Are we supposed to translate the source text as it is, neither more nor less, or could we use additions and omissions in translating to overcome linguistic and cultural difficulties? Additions and omissions are regarded as kinds of translation error (Delisle et al. 1999). The holder of this viewpoint obviously insists that translators should reproduce in the target text what exactly is in the original. In-text explanations, on the other

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hand, may be seen as a form of addition and thus may be labeled a kind of translation error in the eyes of some Translation Studies writers. Although they may interrupt readers‖ reading and partition the target text to make it structurally complex, notes that can be arranged as footnotes at the bottom of a page or endnotes at the end of a chapter or a book, can justify themselves with regard to linguistic-translational or cultural-translational factors. Linguistic and cultural difficulties in the process of translating force translators to seek translation strategies and techniques to surmount them. What target readers see is the translation outcome instead of the translating procedures and processes. Innocent and average readers will take it for granted that the target text remains the same as the source text. In this case, translators are responsible for clarifying what has happened in the translating process if shifts are produced in the target text. It is clearly impossible for them to do it in the target text proper. Translation practices indicate that only general descriptions or sporadic remarks on the translation process are sometimes offered in fore-words or afterwords of a translation. Notes endow translators with the freedom to introduce how they cope with the difficulties in the original in the actual operation of the source text. Target texts with notes, in some sense, are more reader-friendly than those without them. Readers choose to decide whether they read the notes when they encounter a difficulty, although note-reading will interrupt the flow of their reading. As far as translation notes are concerned, we may describe translators‖ obligation and readers‖ freedom like this: translators propose; readers dispose. Therefore, clarification of gains or losses resulting from employment of various translation strategies seems a necessary reason for use of notes. Let us look at an example in the three Chinese versions of David Copperfield by Dickens (2007).

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Example 1 He went to India with his capital, and there, according to a wild legend in our family, he was once seen riding on an elephant, in company with a Baboon; but I think it must have been a Baboo - or a Begum. (Chapter 1, p.2) Dong Qiusi‖s version: 他带着他的资本去了印度。据我们家中一种荒诞的传说,一次有人见他在

那里跟一个大狒狒骑在一头象上;但是我想,那应当是一个贵人,或是一

个公主。 (My back translation: He went to India with his capital. According to an absurd rumor in our family, someone once saw him riding on an elephant with a big Baboon. But I think it should be a nobleman or a princess.) Footnote (p.5) : 狒狒在英文为Baboon,印度人称有教养的体面人为Baboo, 称回族公主为Begum,三字读音相近似。 (狒狒 corresponds to Baboon in English; a well-bred gentleman is called Baboo; an Islamic princess is called Begum. The three words have a similar pronunciation.) Zhang Guruo‖s version: 他带着姨婆给他的这笔钱,到印度去了。据我们家里一种荒乎其唐的传闻

,说在印度,有一次有人看见他和一个马猴,一块儿骑在大象身上。不过

据我想,和他一块儿骑在大象身上的,绝不会是马猴,而一定是公侯之类

,再不就是母后什么的。 (My back translation: He went to India with the money my greataunt gave him. According to a very absurd rumor in our family, it was said that in India some saw him riding on an elephant with a horse-monkey. But I think it must be something like a duke or marquis but absolutely not a horse-monkey, or it may be something like a mother queen.) Footnote (p.6): “马猴”,原文baboon,通常译作“狒狒”;“公侯” 原文baboo,为印度人的尊敬称呼;“母后”原文begum,用以称呼印度的后或公主。原文这几个字以音近而误传,译文改用“马猴”、“公侯”、“母后”,以求双关。 (“马猴” corresponds to “baboon” in the source text. “Baboon” is usually rendered into Chinese as “狒狒”. “公侯” corresponds to “baboo” in the ST. “Baboo” is a term of address to show respect among Indians. “母后” corresponds to “begum” in the source text. “Begum” is used to address an Indian queen or

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princess. The words in the source text were wrongly spread due to their similar pronunciations. The target text uses “马猴”, “公侯” and “母后” in order to achieve punning.) Li Peng‖en‖s version: 他带着这笔钱去了印度。据我们家里的一种荒诞无稽的传闻,曾有人在那

里看见他和一只大公猴共骑一头大象。不过,依我愚见,因为“猴子”之“猴”与“公侯”之“侯”同音,传闻系以讹传讹。和他同骑一头大象的,绝不会是一只公猴,而是一位公侯,或许是一位公主呢。 (My back translation: He went to India with the sum of money. According to a wild legend in our family, he was once seen there riding on an elephant, in company with a male monkey. But I think the erroneous rumor was produced due to the identical sound of “猴” in “猴子” [hou zi] and “侯” in “公侯” [gong hou]. What was riding on the elephant with him must not have been a male monkey but a duke-marquis or a princess.) Footnote: No note is provided by the translator. “Baboon”, “Baboo” and “Begum” in the example above are a pun on homonymy, namely words with different meanings but similar sounds. Dong Qiusi focuses on their meanings “狒狒”, “贵人” and “公主”, with no consideration of reproducing their sound features. Zhang Guruo uses “马猴” (ma hou, horse monkey), “公侯” (gong hou, duke and marquis) and “母后” (mu hou, mother queen) to render them. The Chinese versions are similar to their originals not only in sense but also in sound because they have the same sound /hou/. Li Peng‖en also pays attention to the phonetic association between the words and explains the association between “Baboon” and “Baboo”. Anyhow, both Zhang Guruo and Li Peng‖en have distorted the semantic content of the homonymic pun in order to retain the figure of speech in the target text. Both translators change “baboon” into “female monkey” and “baboo”

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(gentleman in Indian) into “duke and marquis”. As for “begum” (princess or woman of high rank), Zhang renders it into “mother queen” and Li into “princess”. Zhang uses a footnote to explain the kind of figurative language in the source and the specific translation method, but Li does not. In such cases a responsible translator is supposed and entitled to offer a note to make clear the difficulty or uniqueness in the original and their considerations and actual operations in dealing with it. Besides translators‖ major operations of translating, use of notes is also related to cultural recontextualization. Translation, as an intercultural communication, cannot avoid de-contextualization, namely loss of the original cultural context in the target culture in varying degrees. It is generally a universal that target readers do not share the same cultural background as original readers, as in the case of translation between Chinese and English. People in a culture are familiar with the shared cultural presuppositions that are usually not made clear in daily oral or written communication. Just as George Steiner points out, “Meaning” resides “inside” the words of the source text, but to the native reader it is evidently “far more than” the sum of dictionary definitions. The translator must actualize the implicit “sense”, the denotative, connotative, illative, intentional, associative range of significations which are implicit in the original, but which it leaves undeclared or only partly declared simply because the native auditor or reader has an immediate understanding of them. The native speakers at-homeness, largely subconscious because inherited and cultural-specific, in his native tongue, his long-conditioned immersion in the appropriate context of the spoken or written utterance, make possible the economy, the essential implicitness of customary speech and writing. In the transference process of translation, the inherence of meanings, the compression through context of plural, even contradictory significations “into” the original words, get lost in a greater or lesser degree. (After Babel, 2001: 291)

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What is implicit in the source text, in many cases, is cultural message and remains unknown to target readers, which is the very case when source and target cultures are of no kinship. It can be explicitated in notes. The target reader‖s intelligence, or in Pym‖s terminology, the implied receiver‖s intelligence, is of varying degree. We cannot equate the intelligence with that of the most knowledgeable receiver. Even an average receiver‖s intelligence is difficult to fathom. Therefore, we could just suppose that the implied receiver knows little about the source culture. Use of notes to introduce cultural presuppositions shared by common readers from the source culture is thus a necessary task for translators to undertake. For example, a dialogue between David Copperfield and Mr. Peggotty in David Copperfield is concerned with the Anglican Catechism, which goes as follows: “Mr. Peggotty!” says I. “Sir,” says he. “Did you give your son the name of Ham, because you lived in a sort of ark?” Mr. Peggotty seemed to think it a deep idea, but answered: “No, sir. I never give him no name.” “Who gave him that name, then?” said I, putting question number two of the catechism to Mr. Peggotty. (Chapter 3, p.28) Chinese readers may be puzzled about “question number two of the catechism”, but English and American readers are familiar with the catechism that typically contains questions and answers and whose first two questions and answers are like this: Catechist: What is your Name? Answer: N. or M. Catechist: Who gave you this Name?

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Answer: My Godfathers and Godmothers in my Baptism; wherein I was made a member of Christ, the child of God, and an inheritor of the kingdom of heaven.31 In order to re-contextualize the shared implicit cultural knowledge of Christian Westerners in the original, it seems an imperative to offer a note to introduce the above questions and answers. Dong‖s version provides a footnote to introduce the first two questions (Chapter 3, p.39) while the footnote of Zhang‖s version introduces both questions and answers (chapter 3, p.40). But no note is seen in Li‖s version. In a word, high-register language (i.e. one-to-many language), implicit common cultural information and use of translation strategies and techniques that cause remarkable shifts in translating, make it a necessity to use notes in literary translation. Limits in use of notes Translators‖ freedom in use of notes does not mean that they can use them in an uncontrollable way. An examination of the four Chinese versions of Pride and Prejudice by Wang Keyi, Sun Zhili, Zhang Ling and Zhang Yang, and Lei Limei, indicates that the number of their notes is 63, 56, 68 and 24 respectively. The distribution of the numbers seems rational if we consider Austen‖s (2003) novel is a masterpiece only with 288 pages and a limited number of linguistic and cultural difficulties. The above three translations of David Copperfield present extremities in use of notes: Zhang uses as many as 624 notes; Dong provides 245 notes; Li offers no notes. Li‖s rejection of notes seems the product of the publisher‖s “translation brief” (Nord 2001: 30) that translators are expected to use no notes or as few notes as possible in order

31 See the entry of “catechism” on http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catechism.

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to control the publishing cost because their target readers are lower-class consumers. Nabokov (1955: 512) objects to the constraint on use of notes by calling for “translations with copious footnotes, reaching up like skyscrapers to the top of this or that page” (see Pym 1992: 90). As a matter of fact, we can see some translations with a great number of notes, as in Chinese versions of James Joyce‖s Ulysses and T. S. Eliot‖s The Waste Land. For example, the Chinese version of Ulysses, co-translated by the couple Xiao Qian and Wen Jieruo, contains totally 1,252 pages with 5,988 notes arranged after each chapter and constituting 335 pages.322 In other words, more than one-fourth of the translation is devoted to endnotes. Xiao Qian, the husband translator as well as a famous writer in modern China, strongly opposes use of notes in both literary creation and translation because it will disturb readers‖ reading (Li 2010). Therefore, his use of so many notes in his translation seems a kind of necessity. This makes us think of two relations: the relation between the number of pages of the source text and that of notes in the target text and the relation between the number of linguistic and cultural difficulties in the source text and that of notes in the target text. In my view, it is not the book length but the difficulties in the book that determine the number of notes in translating it. A big book with few difficulties may contain fewer notes than a small book with many difficulties. Translation shifts often involve linguistic and cultural difficulties in the source text that force the translator to employ various translation strategies to surmount them. The right for translators to use notes, however, cannot be abused. The above example shows that Zhang‖s annotation seems

32 See Li Ling‖s MA thesis “Research on the notes in Xiao Qian and Wen Jieruo‖s translation of Ulysses” on http://cdmd.cnki.com.cn/Article/CDMD-10532-2010238177.htm.

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redundant while Dong‖s is concise. Let us look at another example of this kind, which deals with “caul” in chapter 1 of David Copperfield. Example 2 Dong‖s note for “caul” (p.4): 这是过去英国人的一种迷信。初生婴儿头上带有一层胎膜,算是一种吉兆

。保存这胎膜的人,可以终生不致淹死。 (This was a superstition of English people in the past. There is a caul on the head of the newly-born baby. The one who keeps it will not be drowned all his life.) Zhang‖s note for “caul” (p.4): 胎膜是缘子宫内生长的一层坚韧纤维薄膜,头膜是胎膜的一部分,为有的

婴儿生时所带(北京叫戴“白帽子”,主不吉祥)。英国民俗认为,头膜是吉祥之物,能使人免灾难,尤其能使人免遭淹死。当时报上常刊登广告,

出卖头膜,1779 年在伦敦《晨邮报》上曾有卖头膜的广告,索价20 几尼。所以这里说15 几尼是廉价。 (Caul is a layer of tough and tensile fiber membrane that grows in the womb. The head-caul is part of caul that is carried by some babies when they were born [it is called “wearing the white cap” in Beijing; it is a sign of unluckiness]. According to the English custom, the head-caul is a sign of luckiness and it can help people to avoid disasters, especially drowning. Caul-selling advertisements were often seen in newspapers at that time. A caul-selling advertisement was published in Morning Post in London in 1779, offering the price of more than 20 guineas. Therefore, the price of 15 guineas is a low price here in the novel.) Zhang‖s note doubles Dong‖s with regard to use of characters. It seems that Zhang is not “tightfisted” in use of words, but Dong pays much attention to the economy in this regard. Brevity is often seen in Dong‖s notes that use merely several characters to introduce or explain cultural items in the original. Zhang‟s

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lengthy note for “caul” raises the question regarding one function of notes: do notes re-contextualize the cultural background shared by contemporary readers of the original or that by the readers of Dickens‖s day? Reconstruction of the original cultural context in the target text is closely related to the times. The original readers of different times share different background knowledge. It can be argued that 20th-cetnury English readers will inscribe their interpretations into the novel that may be quite different from those by Dickens‖s contemporaries. Then, if they are designed for contemporary readers, Zhang‖s note seems unnecessary with regard to the recontextualization of the original because 20th-century or 21th-century readers of the source text generally do not know the background information introduced in the note. This kind of annotation is also seen in the Chinese versions of Pride and Prejudice. For example, Wang Keyi‖s association of the novel with The Vicar of Wakefield in translating “it was the only honorable provision for well-educated young women of small fortune” (chapter 22, p.93) and Zhang Ling and Zhang Yang‖s link of the novel with the Bible in rendering “a most unfortunate affair” (chapter 47, p.212) are nothing but the translators‖ making a show of erudition. These notes are fairly tenuous. It is unlikely for contemporary readers to produce such associations in the process of reading the original. It may be safe to assert that translators can offer the background information in their notes that naturally arises in the minds of their contemporaries in reading the original rather than that shared by the author‖s contemporaries. Even if notes on intercultural differences are necessary, they should be brief and to-the-point. Translators are supposed to make every possible effort to avoid redundant notes. Detailed notes seem to be friendly because they provide enough information for target readers and require much time and energy from translators. In fact, they are not reader-friendly because they interrupt the linearity of the reading process. Short notes, in some sense, can shorten the time of such interruption and thus reduce the degree of the

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“unfriendliness”. Limits in use of notes are related not only to the economy of language, but also to types of notes. In light of their functions, notes may be roughly categorized into informative notes, expository notes, critical notes and mixed notes. Informative notes are those that focus on the introduction of the linguistic or cultural information observed in the source text. Linguistic information includes various kinds of figurative language, especially those absent in the target language, dialects or special kinds of language, such as a drunkard‖s language, or something from another language. Cultural information covers a wide range of things, such as names of people and places, historical events, religious or literary allusions, intertextual relations and folk customs. These notes are somewhat necessary if translating is viewed as a kind of inter-lingual and intercultural communication activity. But they should be concise. Expository notes are intended for expounding use of translation methods or strategies. Therefore, they are also called translation strategic notes. Gains, losses or alterations are common in translating. Faithful and conscientious translators may honestly tell their readers how and what they have done in the transfer operation. These notes help readers know the translational truth which they cannot see in the target text without the aid of notes. In my opinion, translation strategies concerning drastic shifts may be introduced, but conventional translating operations should not waste notes of this kind. Notes on translators‖ uncertainties in understanding the source text may be placed within expository notes. For example, there is such a sentence in David Copperfield: Example 3 “The very thing we say!” cried Traddles. “You see, my dear Copperfield,” falling again into the low confidential tone, “after I had delivered my argument in DOE dem. JIPES versus WIGZIELL, which did me great service with the profession,

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I went down into Devonshire, and had some serious conversation in private with the Reverend Horace. I dwelt upon the fact that Sophy - who I do assure you, Copperfield, is the dearest girl! –” (chapter 59, p.719) Zhang does not understand what “DOE dem. JIPES versus WIGZIELL” exactly means. Therefore, he uses a footnote to express his doubts and uncertainties on it. The note (p.898) goes as follows: 原文Doe dem. Jipes versus Wigziell。Jipes versus Wigziell 为捷普斯控威格泽,一个讼案;Doe 可能是John Doe,法庭假设人名。这儿的辩护,可能是候补律师要进行的表演之一。未能确定,留此待查。 (The source text is Doe dem. Jipes versus Wigziell. Jipes versus Wigziell means that Jipes accused Wigziell. It was a case in court. Doe might refer to John Doe, a person‖s name assumed by the court. The defense here might be one of the performances by the candidate lawyer. It cannot be determined and leaves to be investigated.) Zhang suspects that “Jipes” and “Wigziell” are the fictitious names in the case and therefore the defense might be a simulation one. Anyhow, the translator cannot make sure of it and claims that “it leaves to be investigated later”. Dong points out in his note (p.953) that they are assumed names and were often used in the circles of law. In other words, he does not think that there is any problem in understanding the source text. Li‖s version does not offer any note about it. Notes of this kind are seldom seen in translations. Translators who choose to offer such notes do not make a spectacle of themselves at all. They are brave and respectable intercultural mediators. They deserve higher esteem than those translators who display their erudition by notes. In principle, any rendering based on translators‖ uncertainties should be annotated, which may be seen as an obligation of translators to readers. This obligation can be fulfilled by notes and these notes seem quite necessary.

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Critical notes are those by virtue of which translators express their views on the author or something in the source text. Some translators cannot refrain from expressing their attitude or opinion toward a person, an event or an idea in the original. But they cannot do it in the translation proper. So, they resort to notes. As Jennifer Varney (2005: 47) points out, “[t]he translator‖s note is seen as mapping the boundaries of intercultural exchange, often highlighting instances in which meaning has not been reproduced within the translation proper”. Ideological notes constitute both attack and defense (ibid.: 57). They directly address the target culture and indirectly the source culture, functioning as a distancing tool between source and target cultures. This goes against the basic tenet of translating as an intercultural communication medium. Thus, such notes should be avoided through translators‟ self-constraint in translating. Translators are not allowed to use notes as a platform to make comments. A good case in point is Zhang‖s lengthy paragraph that is a commentary on a minor information placed in parentheses in the original. Let us look at the example: Example 4 We went to bed on our arrival (I observed a pair of dirty shoes and gaiters in connexion with my old friend the Dolphin as we passed that door), and breakfasted late in the morning. (21: 262) Footnote ((p.330): 英美习惯,客人住在旅馆里,夜间就寝前,把靴、鞋等换下,放在房间门外,旅馆仆役,擦净上油,第二天早晨再穿。狄更斯对

于放在房间的赃靴、鞋,似乎非常感到好玩儿。他给友人一封信里,说到

他游美时,住于旅馆,夜间欢迎他的人,在房间外给他唱夜曲,他非常感

动。但在感动时,“忽然一种念头起于心中,使我大笑难禁,因此只有以被毯蒙首。我对凯特(他太太)说,„天哪,门外我那双靴子,看着有多极情尽致地可笑,有多极情尽致地庸俗啊!‟我一生之中,从来没有象那一次

那样,让靴子引得起那样荒谬可笑的感觉。”同时,他有时把他突然想到的事物,插到与前后上下文都无关系的中间。他在《游美札记》里,写到在

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蛎黄食堂里吃蛎黄,突然插了一句说:“也并非为的你,希腊文教授啊!”是他突然想起那位教授来而写入该文中,和这儿正是一类情况。(A custom in Britain and America. The guest will take off his shoes or boots and puts them outside the door before going to bed when he stays for the night in a hotel. The servant of the hole will clean and polish them for the guest to have on the next morning. It seems that Dickens (1980/2007) felt the dirty shoes and boots in the guest-room were very funny. In a letter to his friend, he told a story about his travel in America. When he stayed in a hotel for the night, the receptionist sang some nocturne outside the room and he was quite moved. At the same time he “suddenly thought of an idea that made me unable to help laughing and I had to cover my head with the carpet. I said to Catherine (his wife): „Oh, my God, the boots outside the door were awfully funny and vulgar!‟ Nothing made me feel so ridiculous like that all my life”. Meanwhile, he sometimes puts what he suddenly thinks of into his writing that seems to have nothing to do with the context. For example, in his American Notes, he suddenly put in a sentence when he was eating oysters in the Oyster Canteen: “It is not for you, my Greek professor!” It is because he suddenly thought of that professor and put it into the text. The same is true with the case here in the source text.) The note is used to make a comment on “I observed a pair of dirty shoes and gaiters”. The translator first introduces the relevant convention in British and American hotels and then discussing Dickens‖s anecdote in this regard. This kind of note has no place in the target text because it has nothing to do with the original. Translators are supposed to leave everything in the source text to be judged by target readers themselves. Their intervention in this aspect is not desirable. Mixed notes are a combination of the above two or three notes. They can be seen in the above translations. For example, in the note on “Baboon”, “Baboo” and “Begum”, Zhang first explains the meanings of the words. Then, he

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comments that they are rumored due to their similar pronunciations. Finally, he introduces his translation method. Therefore, this note is a heterogeneous one of informative, critical and expository notes. Notes, in many cases, are intimately linked with linguistic, cultural or intertextual difficulties with regard to both understanding and expression. In some sense, they may be seen as “indicators of difficulty” (Dragsted 2012). Thus, notes can serve as an elaboration of the whole problem-solving process in translating. Translators need a place outside the translation proper where they can explain how they handle the problems encountered in translating. Such notes, to a varying extent, are necessary, especially for readers and researchers who are interested in the actual translation process that leads to the production of the target text. Conclusion Cultural and linguistic differences determine that decontextualization is inherent in translating which, in some cases, is a kind of essentializing activity reproducing only the essence or the basic story of the source text. This is quite true in rendering ancient texts, such as classical Chinese poetry or the Four Books and Five Classics. In order to ensure a functional equivalence that the target reader understands and appreciates the target text in essentially the same way as the original reader did (Nida 1993: 118), notes seem a compromising tool for translators to construct the source context in the process of recontextualization. Notes help retain the cultural truth to some extent, but they cannot reconstruct all the associations, direct or indirect, produced by the original author and readers in creating and reading the source text. Only those explicit difficulties in the original can resort to annotation.

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Acknowledgement Research for this article was funded by the National Planning Office of Philosophy and Social Science, P. R. China (grant no. 12BYY023). References Austen, J. (2003). Pride and Prejudice. Shanghai: Shanghai Century Book Publishing Company. Austen, J. (1958/1980/2008). Pride and Prejudice (trans. Wang Keyi). Shanghai: Shanghai Translation Publishing House. Austen, J. (1990/2008). Pride and Prejudice (trans. Sun Zhili). Nanjing: Yilin Publishing House. Austen J (1993/2008). Pride and Prejudice (trans. Zhang Ling and Zhang Yang). Beijing: People‟s Literature Publishing House. Austen J (1995/2007). Pride and Prejudice (trans. Lei Limei). Beijing: Beijing Yanshan Publishing House. Delisle, J., Hannelore Lee-Jahnke, C. and Monique, C. (1999). Translation Terminology. Amsterdam: Benjamins. Dickens, C. (1958/1980). David Copperfield (trans. Dong Qiusi). Beijing: People‖s Literature Publishing House. Dickens, C. (2007). David Copperfield. Shanghai: Shanghai Century Book Publishing Company. Dickens, C. (1980/2007). David Copperfield (trans. Zhang Guruo). Shanghai: Shanghai Translation Publishing House. Dragsted, B. (2012). “Indicators of difficulty in transaltion – Correlating product and process data”. Across Languages and Cultures 1: 81-98. Henry, J. (2000). “De l'erudition a i'echec: la note du traducteur”. Meta XIV: 228-240.

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Li, N. (2010). Research on the Notes in Xiao Qian and Wen Jieruo‖s Translation of Ulysses. MA thesis. Changsha: Hunan University. Luo, X. (1985). Selected Papers on Translation. Beijing: The Commercial Press. Miao, J. and André, S (2008). The Specificity of Translator‖s Notes: Textometrical Analysis of the Footnotes in Fu Lei‖s Translation of Jean-Christophe by Romain Rolland. MA thesis. Hangzhou: Zhejiang University. Nabokov, V. (1955). “Problems of Translation: Onegin into English”. Partisan Review 4: 496-512. Nida, E. A. (1993). Language, Culture, and Translating. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. Nord, C. (2001). Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Theories Explained. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. Pym, A. (1992). Translation and Text Transfer. Berlin: Peter Lang. Varney, J. (2005). “Taboo and the translator: A survey of translators‖ notes in Italian translations of Anglo-American fiction, 1945-2005”. In Anthony Pym (ed.), New Research in Translation and Interpreting Studies. Tarragona: Intercultural Studies Group. 47-57. Wu, J. (1985). “On the annotation work in literary translation”. Chinese Translators Journal 2: 33-36. Xu, H. (2009). “The annotation of allusions with a case study of Ulysses”. Journal of PLA University of Foreign Languages 1: 78-83. Yuan, K. (1984). “On notes and principles for annotation”. In the Chinese Translators Journal Editorial Department (ed.), Selected Papers on Translation. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press. 91-97. Correspondence Any correspondence should be directed to Tian Chuanmao, School of Foreign Studies, Yangtze University, Jingzhou City, Hubei Province, 434023 P. R. China ([email protected]).

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Author‖s bionote Chuanmao Tian is Professor of English at Yangtze University, Jingzhou, Hubei, P. R. China, with a PhD degree in Translation and Intercultural Studies. He is also a director of the Hubei Provincial Translators Association and an advanced member of the Translators Association of China (TAC). His area of interest is translation theory and practice. He has published a number of articles concerning translation in major scholarly journals at home and abroad, such as Chinese Translators Journal (2000/2012), Across Languages and Cultures (2010/2014), Perspectives: Studies in Translatology (2008/2010), Critical Arts: South-North Cultural and Media Studies (2013), and Continuum: Journal of Media and Cultural Studies (2013).

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The Question of Identity in the Business World: Call Centres Located in Morocco as a Case Study.

Mohamed Adli Mohamed I University- Oujda

Abstract: In the last few years, the word identity seems to have become a very difficult and ambiguous concept. Its difficulty lies in its changeability and transience. As a matter of fact, identity, be it social, cultural, religious or whatsoever, can be quickly shaped and changed by sociopolitical, economic, ideological and most importantly cultural forces. Nowadays, it is generally acknowledged that the construction of identity is dramatically increasing in almost every part of the world. Therefore, identity should be dealt with from different perspectives, both locally and globally. The present paper generally tends to question the concept of identity in the world of business, and inside call centres which are located in Morocco in particular. Certainly, call centres are an increasingly important part of today‖s business world. They create new work opportunities for millions of agents across the globe and they serve as a primary customer-facing channel for firms in different countries. Their main aim is to conduct business and provide their customers with a sense of satisfaction before and after sales. However, these centres seem to impose some identity imperatives on their agents, which make most of them, if not all, suffer from this type of work. Key Words: Identity definitions, Types of identities, Call Centres Definition, Identity Crisis inside Call Centres.

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In recent years, the concept of identity seems to have become an ambiguous and slippery term that has been often used, or perhaps overused, in many different contexts and for many different purposes. Many researchers and theorists, especially those who are interested in the field of social sciences and humanities, have been raising important questions about the concept of identity. Their main aim is to add some diverse assumptions and theories to what identity is, and to its relevance for human beings in general. However, despite this vastly increased interest in identity, the concept itself still remains debatable. Definitely, the meaning of identity, as it is generally used, seems not to be well understood as it should be. In fact, even though everyone feels that he or she is aware of how to use the word properly in his or her everyday interactions, it is still very difficult to give a clear and adequate definition for the word. This difficulty is due to the fact that identity has multiple meanings and it is dealt with from different perspectives such as sociology, sociolinguistic, psychology, anthropology and ethnology. In line with this fact, Stella Ting Toomey asserts that: Individuals acquire their identities via interaction with others‖ and several perspectives from the disciplines of psychology; sociology and linguistics have been influential in exploring the links between social interaction and the formation and maintenance of self-identity.33 Moreover, the concept of identity is also very difficult and complex, because it is closely connected to many other social aspects such as culture, race, gender and social nationalism. Since identities are very important in societies, all

33 Qtd in Ann, Hill and James, Watson,. et al. Key Themes in Interpersonal Communication: Cultures, Identities and Performances. (England: Open University Press, 2007.) p.48

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individuals all over the world tend to value them because they are considered as important means for measuring the sense of self-worth. The more positive the value of an identity, the more an individual can benefit from it and vice versa. Besides, identity is of paramount importance because it helps individuals to belong to a specific social category. In other words, identity helps individuals to belong to a set of people characterized by their distinguished rules, specific features, values and characteristics. In this regard, the social psychologist Henry Tajfel considers identity as “that part of an individual‖s self concept which derives from his knowledge of his membership in a social group (Or groups), together with the values and emotional significance attached to that membership.”34 Before exploring the concept of identity and showing the extent to which it is very important for individuals and for their core sense of self, one can start by giving brief definitions and clarifications for the term. Generally, it is noticed that the majority of people knows how to employ the word properly and understand it when used by others. However in fact, the concept is still ambiguous for many others. In popular discourses, for instance, we find that identity is often treated as something valuable while in academy, it is believed that identity is still complex and difficult to achieve. It should be noted that a huge number of psychologists have contributed to the analysis of this concept due to its importance. One of the best examples to start with are Hogg and Dominic who have tried to study identity in connection to how individuals define themselves and how they belong to other groups of people. The two psychologists point out that identity refers to “people‖s

34 Quoted in Moha Ennaji. Multilingualism, Cultural Identity, and Education in Morocco. (New York: Springer, 2005), p.22

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concepts of which they are, of what sort of people they are, and how they relate to others.” 35 Another sociologist called Richard Jenkins confirms that identity should be dealt with from another perspective. For him, identity takes into account the social relations that try to distinguish between individuals and collectivities of one group and another. This is why; he refers to identity as “the ways in which individuals and collectivities are distinguished in their social relations with other individuals and collectivities.” 36 A third example is Charles Taylor whose contributions to the field of identity are also of paramount importance. In fact, Taylor tends to study identity in a specific way. He believes that this concept should be taken as a model that allows individuals to take decisions of what can be good, acceptable and valuable for them and what cannot be. This is why, we find him arguing that “my identity is defined by the commitments and identifications which provide the framework or horizon within which I can try to determine from case to case what is good, or valuable, or what ought to be done, or what I endorse or oppose.”37 The last definition I would like to provide is what the psychologist Josselson states. For him, identity is part of the individual‖s ego and each ego has its own specificities that make it different from the others. Josselson puts it as follows Identity is neither a structure nor a context but a property of the ego that organizes experience. It is an amalgam of constitutional givens, idiosyncratic

35 Hogg, Micheal and Dominic, Abrams. Social Identifications: A Social Psychology of Intergroup Relations and Group Processes. (London: Routledge: 1998) p2. 36 Jenkins, Richard. Social Identity. (London : Routledge. 1996) p.4. 37 Taylor, Charles. The Sources of the Self: The Making of the Modern Identity. (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. 1989) p.27.

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libidinal needs, psychological defenses against inner conflict, significant identifications with important other interests and social roles. In a sense, we might think of identity formation as the assembling of jigsaw puzzle in which each person has somewhat different pieces to fit together.38 Obviously, the variations, complexity and differences among these definitions are clearly shown because they all seem to refer to a common underlying concept. This is to be expected because it would be quite difficult and strange to offer a good definition for identity far from what we already understand by it. Generally, it is acknowledged that the concept of identity has been pondered since the days of Socrates, Plato and Aristotle39. Nevertheless nowadays, very important questions like who I am ? As well as who do I want to be? And who do I want others to think I am? 40seem to heavily impose themselves in all societies and it can be safely mentioned that most scholars still find it very difficult to appropriately respond to such questions because the concept of identity is very diverse and problematic. In an attempt to show the extent to which identities can impact people‖s everyday interactions, Ting-Toomey proposes that “two sources of identity typically influence an individual‖s everyday interaction: Group based-identity and person based-identity.”41 In other words, the writer believes that it is possible to differentiate between two

38 Qtd in Moha Ennaji. Multilingualism, Cultural Identity, and Education in Morocco, p.22 39 Guoia, D.A. From Individual to Organizational Identity. In D.A. Whetten and Godfrey

(Eds.), Identity in Organizations: Building theory through Conversations.1998.Oaks,Ca,Sage, (pp,17-31)

40 Sveningsson. S. and Alvesson. M. Managing Material Identities: Organizational fragmentation, discourse and identity struggle. Human Relations. 56. 2003, pp. 1163- 1193

41 Qtd in Ann, Hill and James, Watson,. et al. Key Themes in Interpersonal Communication, p.48

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different types of identities, which might be termed social identities and personal identities. Both of them are closely connected and developed through the webs of culture as Ting-Toomey also points out when she mentions that “no individual person develops a sense of identity in a vacuum…Both social identity and personal identity are acquired and developed within the larger webs of culture.” 42 As for social identities, they refer simply to a social category, or a set of people marked and distinguished by their own rules, deciding membership and characteristics. Once joining these groups, either voluntary or involuntary, a big change in the way people tend to judge themselves occur and, as a consequence, a relative impact will surely shape their identity and vary according to each situation. In support of this fact, Rupert Brown confirms that Our social identity-our sense of who we arise intimately bound up with our group member- ship. Thus, one of the first consequences of becoming a member of a group is a change in the way we see ourselves. Joining a group often requires us to redefine who we are which, in turn, may have implications for our self-esteem.43 However in the second sense, personal identity is looked at from a different view. Numerous studies show that this type of identity can be regarded as a set of distinguishing characteristics that a person holds in order to specify himself or herself and be distinguished from the other groups of people. Moreover, the personal behavior, experiences as well as performances are also of paramount importance because they help in reflecting people‖s sense of identity. In trying to clarify this idea, Hill and Watson argue that

42 Qtd in Ann, Hill and James, Watson,. et al. Key Themes in Interpersonal Communication, p.49.

43 Brown, Rupert. Group Processes. (Oxford: Massachsetts Blackwell, 2000) p.28

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In contrast personal identities stem from the aspects of our self-concept that we use to differentiate ourselves from others and provide a sense of uniqueness. Personal experiences and personal traits may, for example, contribute to the notion of a personal identity. Our interaction with others also helps shape our sense of identity.44 Accordingly, a big number of theorists have stressed the importance of not only social interactions in the development of the self, but also focused on the type of work and workplaces of individuals. So, given the fact that individuals are increasingly spending most of their time at work, it is no wonder, then, to claim that work and workplace interactions may exercise a big influence on the ways one comes to understand and define the self. 45In line with this fact, Amy Gini, for example, makes reference to this idea when he argues that “where we work, how we work, what we do at work, and the general climate and culture of the workplace indelibly mark us for life.”46 Moreover, it is generally believed that one‖s sense of self is not always stable; it keeps changing as one moves from one relationship to another. Identity can easily shape or be shaped by differences in environments and workplaces. In other words, all individuals may, for a variety of reasons, find themselves put in situations where they realize that their self-identities are really far away from their performances and discourses. In the same vein, A. Giddens points out

44 Ann Hill, and James Watson,.et al. Key Themes in Interpersonal Communication: Cultures, Identities and Performances. (England: Open University Press, 2007) p.49. 45 Ciulla. J. B. The Working Life: The promise and betrayal of modern work.(New York:

Crown: 2000) p.48. 46 Gini, Amy Job. Work and the Creation of the Modern Individual.( New York: Routledge. 2001). p.2

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that “all human beings, in all cultures, preserve a division between their self-identities and the performances they put on in specific social context.” 47 In fact, identity not only defines who one is, but also provides a set of rules and assumptions about people‖s experiences and their social interactions. Therefore, one may safely claim that each identity embodies particular ways of talking and interacting according to each situation. As a matter of fact, this variety of discourses produces “different senses of self and identity.”48 M. Alvesson For instance, it is quite possible to talk about a man who works in a company and who seems to hold a particular identity at work in terms of his language and behavior. However, this identity is completely different from the one he enacts at home with his wife and children. This idea is clearly shown by A.J. Godley who states that “we can see ourselves and can be seen in a variety of ways depending on where we are, what we are doing, and with whom we are speaking”.49 In the present paper, I am trying to question the idea of identity in the world of business in general, and in call centres located in Morocco in particular. However, before doing so, I would like first to give an idea about what we exactly mean by a call centre. The latter seems to be an important way of doing business across the world. It has emerged as a new form that has really changed the way businesses are conducted. In short, a call centre has become the point of entry for all customer communications because it is the place where all customers can make any type of inquiry and expect a quick and

47Giddens. A.. Modernity and Self Identity: Self and Society in the late Modern Age . (London: Routledge, 1991) p.58.

48 Alvesson, M. ―Talking in Organizations: Managing Identity and Impressions in an Advertising Agency‖ Organization Studies, 15, 535-563. 1994. P.552.

49A. J. Godley. “Literacy Learning as Gendered Identity unk. Communication Education”, 52, 273-285( 2003 .p, 275).

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appropriate response. The components, technology and people with the required skills, training and motivation all exist to serve this relationship. Once these components are available, a company can start getting in touch with customers for doing business or solving their problems. Brad Cleveland, who is an expert in customer strategy and management, argues that the call centre or contact centre can be defined as A coordinated system of people, processes, technologies, and strategies that provide access to information, resources and expertise, through appropriate channels of communication, enabling interactions that create value for the customer and the organization.50 The creation of the first call centre dates back to 1973. It was created “as a joint venture between what is now Rockwell Electronic and Continental Airlines”51. Airlines companies were the first ones to deal with call centres because they were interested in selling airplane tickets. Later on, many other firms began to realize the big role of call centres in helping customers do business transactions with them. Nowadays, call centres and the services they provide have been created in different parts of the globe, because they play a central role in meeting the needs of their customers. In trying to confirm this fact, Natalie Calvert confesses that: Indeed, customer service is now a global proposition that can be delivered anywhere and many organizations require advice around realizing the investment in their contact centre in terms of enhanced customer service.52

50 Cleverland, Brad. Call Center Management: Succeeding in the New Era of Customer Relationships. (New York: ICMI, 2012). P.16. 51 Durr, William. Navigating the Customer Contact Center in the 21st Century: A Technology and Management Guide. (New York: Advantar Communication Inc, 2001) p.11 52 Calvert, Natalie. Gower Handbook of Call and Contact Centre Management. (England: Gower Publishing Limited, 2004) p. xx

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However, when we try to shed some light on call centres located in Morocco, we realize that there are some important points at which one has to stop. Generally, it is believed that work “provides a means of discovering and creating oneself.”53 Nevertheless, this idea seems to be debatable with the case of the French call centres located in Morocco. The latter tend to make some specific identity imperatives and demands on their employees who are required to reduce their own accents and adopt the customer‖s ones, pretend to be located in the customer‖s country, change their native names and replace them by western ones that resemble those of their customers. In short, the French call centre located in Morocco tends to impose a French setting to the extent that most Moroccan agents often believe that they live abroad when at work. Consequently, this type of work seems to negatively affect both Moroccans who do not have strong national identity and even those who have it. In turn, French customers also seem not to be happy with this situation. This is very clear because most of them, if not all, do not deal adequately with the Moroccan agents. Furthermore, they always show their dismay and disappointment towards the bad quality and low type of Moroccan interactions. Numerous questionnaires and interviews, which focused mainly on a number of Moroccan agents who work inside call centres located in different Moroccan cities like Oujda, Rabat and Casablanca, have made reference to the nasty responses and insults received by Moroccan agents, especially when French customers discover that they are not really served by real French operators. As a result, most Moroccan agents, if not all, find themselves torn between two concepts of identities or selves: a Moroccan self, which is hidden due to some external factors and under certain circumstances of marketing, and another

53 Ciulla. J. B. The Working Life: The Promise and Betrayal of Modern Work. (New York: Grown, 2000) p.51

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French self which is neither truly felt, nor it is able to do the job appropriately. In this regard, Cooley states that An important influence on the development of the self is the responses that others make to us and to our behavior. These responses serve as a looking-glass from which we learn to see ourselves as we imagine others see us. This feedback aids us in understanding who we are.54 Interestingly, since identity is a very broad concept, it is possible to claim that identity can be divided into many different types. However, because my focus is to shed light on the question of identity inside call centres, I believe that the following types of identity are the most important ones to be put under scrutiny. The types are National identity, Religious identity, Organizational identity and Occupational identity. The first type to start with is that of national identity. The latter is believed to be one of the most important types of social identities. Das and Dharwakdar et al., define it as “the extent by which individuals define themselves by their citizenship or the subjective importance of one‖s national identity in the hierarchy of social identities.”55 Accordingly, several studies have focused on the importance of one‖s national identity and the extent to which it differs from one person to another because it seems to shape their attitudes and behaviors in different ways. In the same time, many other studies have tried to link national identity to conditions of contemporary globalization. In the world of business, the problem of national identity seems to have become more serious,

54 Qtd in Hill and Watson,. et al. Key Themes in Interpersonal Communication: Cultures, Identities and Performances, p.50.

55 Das, Diya ; Dharwadkar, Ravi, et al., The Importance of Being Something : Identity Centrality and Work Outcomes in Off-Shored Call Centers in India. Brandes, Pamela. Academy of Management Annual Meeting Proceedings. 2007, p1-6. 6p. DOI: 10.5465/AMBPP.2007.26520196.p.3

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especially with some foreign organizations such as call centres, which aim at outsourcing some of their functions overseas. A close looking at the French call centres located in Morocco offers insight into how these centres try to impose on Moroccan operators the adoption of different identities and the neglect of their national ones. This is why; it is argued that this type of work would certainly have different bad implications on Moroccan individuals because they will perceive a sort of threat to their identity. In other words, people with high degrees of national identity would find call centre work as uncomfortable and, therefore, they would suffer from high degrees of stress and depression, especially when there are no alternatives. The second type is religious identity. It is interesting to mention that this type has become an important component in the types of social identities because it has proven to be very significant for global businesses across the world in general, and in the Islamic countries in particular. Many studies have focused on the role of religion in organizational life and how it is able to shape people‖s attitudes and behaviors. In the context of Moroccan call centres located in Morocco, religion also seems to play a crucial role. It is regarded as a social category around which people can define their identities. As a matter of fact, many Moroccan agents who work inside these centres and who have a high degree of religious identity react differently to the identity modifications that are imposed by the work. For instance, most questionnaires and interviews addressed to Moroccan agents who work inside call centres, reveal that more than 80 per cent of Moroccans show their anger towards assuming different sets of identities that involve masking their real religious identities during the process of interaction with French customers. This is clearly shown when we look at many Moroccan operators whose names are Mohammed, Ibrahim or Ahmed, but they have to turn their names into western ones like Jack or François for the sake of satisfying French customers. Clearly, names of Mohamed or Ahmed are names of the prophet Mohamed, peace be upon him, and the fact of changing them by other western names which are far from the

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Islamic religion, as well as faking other new identities will, no doubt, make Moroccan agents live a very difficult experience since it is something unethical and unaccepted. As a result of this religious identity crisis, it is believed that working inside these centres will be associated with lower performance, high stress and great turnover intentions. As for the third type, which is occupational identity, it has also proved to be an important part of identification at work. It can be defined as “the relatively stable and enduring constellation of attributes, beliefs, values, motives and experiences in terms of which people define themselves in their professional roles.”56 Interestingly, it is generally acknowledged that one of the most important reasons behind the implementation of these centres in Morocco is the creation of new work opportunities for young Moroccans. This fact leads us to think that these centres do not have only negative sides, but also many positive ones and, as a result, one would like to question the extent to which young Moroccan employees feel happy to cope with and identify themselves with the conditions of work within the confines of these centres. It should be mentioned that the level of occupational identity would differ from one person to another depending on people‖s goals and objectives. This idea becomes very obvious when we look at the example of some employees who believe that working in a call centre is a long-term career that should be preserved. In this case, many Moroccan agents, especially those with high degrees of occupational identity would have a strong motivation to work inside these centres because they would derive a great pleasure from it. In addition to this, this category of employees would experience less feelings of stress and have relatively lower levels of turnover intentions since they are happy with the type of work they exercise.

56 Diya, Ravi, et al., The Importance of Being Something : Identity Centrality and Work Outcomes in Off-Shored Call Centers in India Brandes, Pamela. Academy of Management Annual Meeting Proceedings, 2007, p.03

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The last type to mention is called organizational identity. The latter refers to “the process by which the membership in an organization becomes a defining aspect of an individual‖s aspect concept.”57 Many studies have also shown that organizational identity is closely related to one‖s job. It is even argued that this type can have very positive implications and correlations with job satisfaction. However, studies also show that this type may be associated with negative implications. Since the call centre is a case study in this paper, we would like to claim that organizational identity in this case seems to be associated with very negative implications. For instance, many scholars and researchers have assumed that it is quite difficult and rare for a person to go on working in an organization such as the call centre, enacting a different behavior, personality, culture and language for almost six days a week and eight hours a day without being negatively impacted on his or her definition of the self. In other words, it is claimed that organizational identity in the case of call centres is closely connected to negative implications since the majority of Moroccan agents always have intentions to leave these centres because they are not satisfied with the working conditions imposed on them. The general claim that I want to inquire for this paper, is whether, as stated by many academicians, scholars and policymaking experts, identity imperatives that are imposed on Moroccan agents who work inside call centres located in Morocco, such as assuming a different western name or alias that resembles the names of their French customers, undergoing an intensive voice aiming at reducing their native accents while developing the French one as well as the adoption of some life-style of their overseas customers, can lead, in the future, to an identity crisis under conditions of contemporary globalization.

57 Diya, Ravi, et al., The Importance of Being Something: Identity Centrality and Work Outcomes in Off-Shored Call Centers in India Brandes, Pamela. Academy of Management Annual Meeting Proceedings, 2007.p.03

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Bibliography Alvesson,M. ―Talking in Organizations: Managing Identity and Impressions in an Advertising Agency‖ Organization Studies, 15, 535-563. 1994. Print Ann Hill, James Watson,.et al. Key Themes in Interpersonal Communication: Cultures, Identities and Performances. England: Open University Press, McGrow-Hill House, 2007. Brown, Rupert. Group Processes. Oxford: Blackwell 2000. Print Calvert, Natalie. Gower Handbook of Call and Contact Centre Management. England: Gower Publishing Limited, 2004. Print Ciulla, J. B. The Working Life: The Promise and Betrayal of modern work. New York: Grown, 2000. Print Cleverland, Brad. Call Center Management: Succeeding in the New Era of Customer Relationships. New York: ICMI, 2012. Print Das, Diya ; Dharwadkar, Ravi and Brandes, Pamela. The Importance of Being Something: Identity Centrality and Work Outcomes in Off-Shored Call Centers in India. Brandes, Pamela. Academy of Management Annual Meeting Proceedings. 2007, p.1-6. 6p. DOI: 10.5465/AMBPP.2007.26520196 Durr, William. Navigating the Customer Contact Center in the 21st Century: A Technology and Management Guide. New York: Advantar Communication Inc, 2001. Print D.A, Guoia. From Individual to Organizational Identity. In D.A. Whetten and Godfrey (Eds.), Identity in Organizations: Building theory through Conversations.1998.Oaks, Ca, Sage, (pp, 17-31) Gini, Amy Job. Work and the Creation of the modern individual. New York: Routledge. 2001: p,

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Godley, A. J. 2003. ―Literacy Learning as Gendered Identity unk. Communication Education‖, 52. 2003, p.273-285. Print Hogg, Micheal and Dominic Abrams. Social Identifications: A social Psychology of Intergroup Relations and Group Processes. London: Routledge: 1998. Print Jenkins, Richard. Social Identity. London : Routledge. 1996. Print S, Sveningsson and M, Alvesson. Managing Material Identities: Organizational fragmentation, discourse and identity struggle. Human Relations. 56. 2003, pp. 1163- 1193 Taylor, Charles. The Sources of the Self: The Making of the Modern Identity. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. 1989. Print

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ير الغزل في الجاهمشع أحمد الميثي

ولية لمترجمي العربيةدة اليالجمعرئيس و جامعي أستاذ

ألػػكاؿ كػػاف العػػرب فػػى الجاىميػػة يسػػتيمكف لصػػا دىـ اػػالكلكؼ ءمػػى ارطػػالؿ كاكػػا الػػديار كلػػد نػػرل مػػفف لـ يعدلكا ءنيا إلى غيرىا يقكؿ امرؤ القيس: –اعضيـ أنيـ س مكا ىذه الطريقة كا

59ناكى الديار كما اكى اافي خزىاـ 58ءكىجان إلى الطمىؿ المىحيؿ رننا -كيقكؿ زىير :

ا أىرىانىا نىقيكؿي إال ميعىارنا كرىا مى 60أىك ميعىادنا مف لىفظنىا مىكري -ءنترة : كيقكؿ

دـ ـ ىىؿ ءىرىفتى الدارى اىعدى تىكىىـ ىىؿ غىادىرى الشعىرىا ي مف ميتىرى أى -كيقكؿ لايد :

ـي كفى الناطقيكفى أىرىاىي مييىميىؿ كىالشاءري مىكيكا طىريؽى ميرىلشو كى سىكمػا يقكلػو زىيػر مػف أف الشػػعرا كمػا يقكلػو أمػرؤ القػيس مػف أنػو يريػد أف ياكػى كمػػا اكػى ااػف خػذىاـ

ياد كف كيعيدكف فى ألفاظيـ كما يقكلو ءنترة مف أف نيج الشعرا فى لصػا دىـ مطػرد ءمػى كتيػرة كاحػدة كما يذكده لايد مف أف المػرلش كالميميػؿ لػد سػاقكا الشػعرا فػي زمانػو فيػـ ءمػى نيجيػـ يسػيركف كػؿ ذلػؾ

61كرسـك كثيرة فى المفظ كالمكضكع كالنيج العاـ دليؿ ءمى أف الشاءر القديـ كاف يأخذ اقيكدفالثاات أف "شعرا الجاىمية كانكا لد كصمكا إلى حالة جعمتيـ يقمدكف مف ساقيـ في الشعر كيحاككف طػػرليـ فػػي الػػنظـ فيػػـ يعيػػدكف كيكػػرركف مػػا لالػػو الشػػعرا لػػاميـ كىػػك كػػالـ يؤيػػده لػػكؿ ءممػػا الشػػعر فػػي

ءمػى ىػدم الشػعرا السػااقيف فػي نظميػا مػف اػد اػذكر الػديار كالاكػا ءمػى القصيدة مف أنيا كانت تسػير ارحاة كارطالؿ إلى غير ذلؾ مػف كصػؼ حتػى صػارت ىػذه الجػادة جػادة يسػير ءمييػا كػؿ شػاءر ممػا أثر ءمى الاراءة كاالاتكار كجعؿ الشعر لكالب معركفة معينة يختار الشاءر لالانا منيا ليعار او ءما يريد

إاراىيـ محمد أاك الفضؿ ديكاف امرئ القيس انظر كفى ركاية: رننا 58 كيركل: "ااف حذاـ" ك "ااف حماـ" 59ميعادان مف لىكلنا كعب اف زىير افكينسب كذلؾ إلى 60 أاي سممى كفي ركاية كعب: ما أىرانا نىقكؿي إال رىجيعان *** كى

مىكركرا 18الفف كمذاىاو فى الشعر العراى ص ضيؼ شكلي 61

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ػػا "أف يق فيصػػؼ الشػػاءر الجػػاىمى محاكاتػػو كمػػا يمقػػاه منيػػا كمػػا دار اينيمػػا مػػف أحاديػػث كمػػا 62كلػػو نظمنأشاو كىك فى ذلػؾ يتنقػؿ تػارة اػيف مػا ىػك جميػؿ نظيػؼ نممػس فيػو نكءػان مػف العفػة كصػدؽ الحػب كاػيف

ف كاف ارخير ىك الذل يمثؿ الكثرة الغالا ة كما سنتايف النماذج الحية الصارخة التى تخدش الحيا كا كتضػـ المعمقػات ءنصػريف أساسػييف ىمػا جسػد المػرأة منظػكر إليػو مػف الخػارج كءاللػة الرجػؿ اػالمرأة مف حيث ىى الشؽ اآلخػر لمكجػكد الاشػرل فكػؿ منيمػا فػى حاجػة إلػى اآلخػر كلنأخػذ مػثالن ىػذا ارنمػكذج

: ايت مف مطمع القصيدة 18فيك يقكؿ فى معمقتو اعد حكالى 63المرئ القيسـى مىيالن اىعضى ىىذىا التدىلػؿ رمي فىأىجممي* أفاطػ ف كينت لىد أزمىعت صى كا

ا تىأميرم القىمبى يىفعىػؿ اػؾ لىاتمػي * كأنػؾ مىيمى ػرؾ منػي أف حي أغىمػي ثيىػااي م ميقىػةه * فىسي ف تىؾي لىد سىػا ىتؾ مني خى ف ثيىااؾ تىنسيػؿ كا

ينىاؾ إال لتىضراػي فىػت ءى مىا ذىرى يؾ في أءشىار لىمبو ميقىتػؿ 64كى * اسىيمىػؿ يرى ميعجى ـي خاىاؤيىىػا * تىمىتعتي مف لىيكو ايىا غى ػة خدرو الى ييرىا كاىيضى

مىعشىػران * اكىزتي أحرىاسان إلىييىا كى قتىمػي.تىجى كفى مى مي حرىاصان لىك ييسر ءىػؿ ت * تىعىػرضى أىثنىا ى الكشىاح الميفىص ا تىعىرضى يا في السمى ا الثرى إذىا مىػؿ ت لنىكـو ثيىااىيىػا * لىػدىل الستر إال لاسىةى الميتىفىض لىد نىض فىج تي كى

مػيفىقىالػىت : يىميفى ا نؾى الغىكىايىةى تىنجى ا إف أىرىل ءى مى ا لىؾى حيمىةه * كى 65هلل مى

كيسػػتطرد امػػرؤ القػػيس فػػى سػػػرد القصػػة كمػػا دار اينيمػػا مػػف حػػػكار ككأننػػا أمػػاـ مشػػيد مسػػرحى أك درامػػػا نجػػػػده يتنقػػػػؿ اػػػػيف ءػػػػدد مػػػػف –صػػػػراءية كنظػػػػران لكحػػػػدة الايػػػػت فػػػػى القصػػػػيدة الجاىميػػػػة كمػػػػا ىػػػػك معػػػػركؼ

ف كانت كميػا تجتمػع تحػت "ىػك كىػى" المكضكءات كػؿ ىػذا لاػؿ أف نصػؿ إلػى كصػفو الميػؿ كالفػرس –كا كالصيد إلخ

ذا ما تسألنا: أيف نجد طالة التعاير ءف حب المرأة فى الجاىمية؟ فى الكالع إننا سنجد التعاير ءف كا

كمػا دمنػا مػع 66المػرأة كطريقتيػا فػى ممارسػة العشػؽ ءنػد الرجػؿ أكثػر ممػا ىػك مكجػكد ءنػد ءشؽ المػرأة امرئ القيس فإننا نراه يقكؿ فى ىذا المكضكع:

146 الفصؿ 4المفصؿ فى تاريخ العرب لاؿ اإلسالـ ججكاد ءمي 62 208 ص 1987 ءاـ 2 العدد 18ءالـ الفكر المجمد انظر 63 كفى ركاية: لتقدحى 64 انظر التاريزل الخطيب شرح القصا د العشر 65

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ط تمثىاؿ لىيمىة * اآنسىة و كىأنيىا خى يىا ريب يىكـو لىد ليىكتي كى كى كأف ءمى لااتيا جمرى ميصطؿ * أصاب غضى جزالن ككؼ اأجذاؿ

* لعكبو تينىسيني إذا ليمتي سراالي كمثمؾ اىيضا العكارض طىفمة ومىيو ىيكنىة ن غىيرى مجااؿ إذا ما الضجيعي ااتزىا مف ثياايا * تىميؿي ءى* إذىا انفىتىمىت ميرتجة ن غىيرى مثقاؿ ة و لىطيفىة ي طىي الكىشح غيري ميفىاضىياؿ ديثى كىأىسمىحىت * ىىصىرتي اغيصفو ذم شىماريخى مى فىمىما تىنازىءنا الحىعاىةه أىم إذالؿ صرنا إلى الحيسنى كىرىؽ كىالمينا * كىريضتي فىذىلت صى كى

ذا ما أخذنا أنمكذجان أخر لمقضية نفسيا كجدنا الشنفرل ارزدل يقكؿ : -كا

لت دءىت جيرانىيا إذ تىكى ما كى أىال أىـ ءىمرك أىجمىعىت فىاستىقىمت * كىاىتني ال سىقكطان لناءييا * إذا ما مىشىت كىال اذات تىمىفت لىقىد أىءجى

تيا إذا اليىديةي لىمت تىايتي ايعىيدى النىكـ تييدم غىاكلىيا * لجارىينو * مىآبى السىعيد لىـ يىسىؿ أىيفى ظىمت إذا ىيكى أىمسى آبى ليرةى ءى

ف مت كىاساىكىرت كىأيكممىت * فىمىك جي نت فىدىلت كىجى إنسافه مفى الحيسف جيطىمت يحانىةو ريحىت ءشا ن كى رى فىكلىنا * ارى ج فىاتنا كىأىف الاىيتى حي

كلىيا غىيري ميسنت ميىةى نىكرىت * لىيا أىرىجه ما حى يحانىةو مف اىطف حى ارى

ذا كاف ىذا ىك ما تعطيو الحاياة كالزكج فإف ىناؾ ما تعطيػو العشػيقة كطريقتيػا فػى العطػا ءمػى حػد كا -ما نعرؼ مف مغامرات سحيـ ءاد انى الحسحاس الكثيرة فيك يقكؿ فى كاحدة منيف :

أككف رجماؿ أـ أيمف راءيا فياليتنى مف غير امكل تصيانى يقكلكف غاؽ يا ءيسؼ العذاريا كفى الشرط أنى ال أااع كأنيـ كالمممكؾ الماللياإلى الصدر فأسند كسمى ازىا النـك ثكايا ترل الحسف منيا كالمالحة ااديا فمك أات ال تستقؿ ضممتيا كحقؼ تياداه الرياح تياديا كاتنا كسادانا إلى ءمجانة ءمى كتحكل رجميا مف كرا يا تكسدنى كفا كتثنى امعصػـ

كال ثػػكب إال اردىا كردا يا كىات لنا ريح الشماؿ اقرة كءشريف منيا اصاعا مف كرا يا يتيا كأشيد ءند اهلل أف لد رأ

209 ص 1987 ءاـ 2 العدد 18ءالـ الفكر المجمد انظر 66

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فإذا تركنا ىذه النماذج الصارخة فى ءالـ الحس كذىانا إلى الذيف دخمكا فى دا رة ما يسمى االشعر -العفيؼ كءرفكا اكاحدة فقط كعاد اهلل اف ءمقمة الذل يقكؿ فى حاياتو :

ىكاؾ ليـ منى سكل غمة الصدر فإف تقتمكنى يا حايش فمـ يدع كءظمى كأسامت الدمكع ءمى نحرل التى أخميت لحمى مف دمىكأنت

-ككالمرلش اركار الذل يقكؿ فى أسما :

ديفى اكرو * مينىعمىةو ليا فىرعه كجيدي كريب أىسيمة الخىكدي كذيك أيشيرو شىتيتي النات ءىذبه * نىقي المكف اىراؽه اىري

تيا النجا بي كالقىصيدي لىيكتي ايا زىمانان م ف شىاااي * كزىارىكمف ىذيف ارنمكذجيف كغيرىما نالحظ أف ما اصطمح ءمػى تسػميتو االشػعر العفيػؼ لػـ يكػف يخمػك تمامان مف الجسد فعممية اإللغا ال تستقيـ مع كالع الصمة ايف العكاطؼ كالغرا ز فػى الطايعػة الاشػرية كمػا

الجاىمى لدـ ىذا النكع مف الينػا ات التػى كػاف يسػتدءييا الحػب كلػد صػكر ييمنا مف ىذا كمو أف الشاءر المرأة مشاركة فى ىذا الجانب كمستمتعة كالرجؿ كأكثر مع مالحظة أف أكثر ما تأتي او يتـ مف خاللػو

67مع مالحظة أنو سيدكر أكثر ما يدكر فى دا رة الغزؿ ال دا رة الحب

ذا ما ءدنا إلى ساحة المعمقا ت ثانية نجد أنفسنا أماـ كاحد مف أىـ فحكؿ الشعرا اجتمعػت فيػو كا كػػؿ صػػفات الاطػػؿ امػػا تحكيػػو ىػػذه الكممػػة مػػف معػػاف كلػػك ظيػػر ىػػذا الاطػػؿ فػػى أكراػػا مػػثالن لقرأنػػا ءنػػو مػػف المالحػػـ الاطكليػػة المطكلػػة الكثيػػر كالكثيػػر كلػػيس معنػػى ىػػذا أف الشػػعر العراػػى كػػاف لاصػػران أك ءػػاجزان ءػػف

فػػى ىػػذا النػػكع مػػف مكضػػكءات الشػػعر اػػؿ إف ءػػدـ ظيػػكر الممحمػػة ءنػػد العػػرب يرجػػع إلػػى أسػػااب الكتااػػةمتعػػددة لػػيس منيػػا ءمػػى القطػػع "لصػػكر المغػػة العرايػػة أكلصػػكر أكزاف العػػركض فييػػا أك لصػػكر الخيػػاؿ فػػى

68السميقة السامية ءمى التعميـ كمنيا السميقة العراية

الاطكلة إلى جانب نكع مف رلة المشاءر كدلة ارلفاظ مع صعكاتيا إف ذلؾ الاطؿ الذل جمع كؿ صفات كخشكنتيا ىك ءنترة اف شداد الذل شغؼ احػب اانػة ءمػو كلػاؿ فييػا العديػد مػف القصػا د مسػتعطفان تػارة كمترفعػػا أخػػرل كنػػراه يتحػػدث ءنيػػا كىػػى تمػػر ءميػػو اػػيف صػػكاحايا الال ػػى يشػػايف اػػأنيف كالشػػمكس حسػػنا

-الظاا فيقكؿ:كءيكنيف كعيكف رمت الفؤادى مميحة ه ءذرا ي * اسياـ لحظو ما ليف دكا ي

211 - 210 ص 1987 ءاـ 2 العدد 18ءالـ الفكر المجمد انظر 67 8راجع العقاد ءااس أشتات مجتمعات فى المغة كاردب ص 68

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اظيييف ظاىا ي مىرت أكىافى العيد اىيفى نىكىاىدو * مثؿ الشميكس لحى فاغتالني سقمى الذم في ااطني * أخفيتوي فأذاءوي اإلخفا ي

اىا ي خطرت فقمتي لضيبي اافو حركت * أءطىافىو ي اى نيكب صى عدى الجى* لد راءيىا كسطى الفالة اال ي كرنت فقمتي غزالة ه مذءكرة هكزىا ي كمىيىا الجى اىدىت فىقيمتي الاىدري ليمىة ى تمو * لد لمدىتوي نيجي كى اسمت فالحى ضيا ي لؤلؤ ثغرىا * فيو لدىا العىاشقيفى شفىا ي

ـي رى دىت تيعىظ ايا فىتىمايمىت * لجالليا أرااانا العظما ي سىجى يىا ءىاؿى مثؿي ىىكاؾ أىك أىضعىافيوي * ءندم إذا كلعى اإلياسي رجا ي

69إف كىافى ييسعديني الزمىافي فإنني * في ىمتي لصركفو أرزا ي

المعػارؾ كأءمالػو فػى كءنترة فى حاو ال ينسى أنو فارس الميداف فيك ال يفتر ءف ذكر اطكالتو فى 70سػاحات الػكغى ككػأف ىػذا النػكع مػػف الفخػار ىػك الػذل يقػرب محاػػك اتػو منػو فػالمرأة "لضػعفيا ارصػػيؿ"

تحب أف ترل فى رجميا مف القكة ما تستطيع أف تحتمػى ايػا سػاءة الشػدا د كلعػؿ ىػذا يػذكرنى اقػكؿ ءمػى اه أف أحسػف صػفاتيا صػفتاف ىمػا أسػكأ اف أاى طالب كـر اهلل كجػو ءػف أحسػف صػفات المػرأة فقػاؿ مػا معنػ

صفات الرجؿ إف كجدا فيو أال كىما الجاف كالاخؿ كىذا القكؿ صا ب إلى حد اعيد؛ فإف المػرأة إف شػعرت اػػالخكؼ احتمػػت االرجػػؿ فكأنػػو ليػػا امثااػػة الثػػكب أك الغطػػا أك السػػتر إف نزءتػػو ءنيػػا تطمعػػت إلييػػا كػػؿ

ف اخمت فيى تحرص ءمى ماؿ الرج -ؿ كتحافظ ءميو كيقكؿ ءنترة محدثان ءامتو:العيكف كا إف كنت جاىمة اما لـ تعممى يا انة مالؾ 71ىال سألت الخيؿ

نيد تعاكره الكماة مكمـ إذا ال أزاؿ ءمى رحالة سااح يأكل إلى حصد القسى ءرمـر طكرا يجرد لمطعاف كتارة أغشى الكغى كأءؼ ءند المغنـ أننى 72يخارؾ مف شيد الكليعة

منى كايض اليند تقطر مف دمى ذكرتؾ كالرماح نكاىؿ كلقد لمعت كاارؽ ثغرؾ الماتسـ فكددت تقايؿ السيكؼ رنيا

ال ممعف ىراا كال مستسمـ كمدجج كره الكماة نزالو

3-2ديكاف ءنترة ص شرح 69 6ىذه الشجرة ص العقاد ءااس 70 كفى ركاية: القـك 71 كفى ركاية: الكلا ع 72

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امثقؼ صدؽ الكعكب مقـك جادت لو كفى اعاجؿ طعنة االميؿ معتس الذ اب الضـر ارحياة الفرءيف ييدل جرسيا

ليس الكريـ ءمى القنا امحـر االرمح ارصـ ثيااوفشككت 73يقضمف حسف انانو كالمعصـ فتركتو جزر السااع ينشنو

ثـ يارز لنا إماـ مف إ مػة الشػعر فػى الجاىميػة كصػاحب مدرسػة شػعرية ىػك "أسػتاذىا كتالمػذتيا جماءػة

ى اإلنػاة كالركيػة كتقػاـك الطاػع تارة يككنكف مف أىػؿ ايتػو كتػارة ال يككنػكف كىػى مدرسػة كانػت تعتمػد ءمػكاالنػػدفاع فػػى لػػكؿ الشػػعر مػػع السػػجية فكثػػر ءنػػدىا التشػػايو كاالسػػتعارة كالمجػػاز كاتكػػأت فػػى كصػػفيا ءمػػى

كىػػذا ارسػػتاذ ىػػك 74التصػػكير المػػادل كأف يأخػػذ الشػػاءر نفسػػو االتجكيػػد كالتصػػفية كالتنقػػيح ثػػـ التػػأليؼ "ان اشتمؿ ءمى تشاييات ثالثة أجممت ثـ فصػمت اعػد ذلػؾ كىػك زىير اف أاى سممى كذكر ااف لتياة لو ايت

لكلو: احكر كشاكيت فييا الظاا تنازءيا الميا شايا كدر الػ

-مو لكلو:أجمؿ التشايو فى ىذا الايت ثـ فص فأما ما فكيؽ العقد منيا فمف أدما مرتعيا الخال

75كالصفا كأما المقمتاف فمف مياة كلمدر المالحة

فأنت تالحظ أف زىيرا لـ يكتؼ اأف يشػاو صػاحاتو االظاػا كالميػا كالػدر جممػة اػؿ رجػع إلػى تفصػيؿ ذلػؾ

76كتحقيقو فجعؿ لمظاا ما فكيؽ العقد كجعؿ لممياة ءينيا كلمدر المالحة كالصفا

كاعد ىذه ارمثمة القميمة نقؼ ارىة مف الكلت لنقكؿ إنو مػف خػالؿ النظػر فػى الشػعر الجػاىمى ءامػة كالغزؿ خاصة يمكننا أف نؤكد مطم نيف صحة رأينا أف الشعر الغزلى فى الجاىمية اءتمد اءتماد كميان ءمػى

ك ارمػر أكثػر جػال ان تشايو المحسكسات االمحسكسات أك ما يمكف أف نطمؽ ءميو الكصػؼ المػادل كلياػدنػػذكر اعػػد لميػػؿ العديػػد مػػف ارمثمػػة لمعديػػد مػػف الشػػعرا كال شػػؾ أنػػو لػػيس مػػف الحكمػػة يمكػػف أف نقػػكؿ إف الجاىمى فى شػعره كػاف جامػدان ال يشػعر إال امػا يممسػو كيػراه إذ أننػا لاػؿ أف نحكػـ ءميػو اػالجمكد مػثالن أك

123ديكاف ءنترة ص شرح 73 25الفف كمذاىاو فى الشعر العراى ص ضيؼ شكلي 74 285فى اردب الجاىمى ص حسيف طو 75 26 الفف كمذاىاو فى الشعر العراى صضيؼ شكلي 76

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حسكسػات مػف معنكيػات ءمينػا أكالن أف نعمػـ كيػؼ كػاف ضيؽ ارفؽ كءدـ القدرة ءمى استشفاؼ مػا كرا المالجاىمى يحيا؟ كأيف كاف يعيش؟ كما ىى ثقافتو كثقافة ءصره؟ كما ىى تمؾ ارشيا التى كانػت ءينػو تقػع ءمييػا؟ فػإذا ءممنػا كػؿ ىػذا ثػـ أصػدرنا حكمنػا فحين ػذ لػف يكػكف ىنػاؾ مجػاؿ لمنقػاش أك الجػداؿ فمػيس مػف

ءنػػػد الجػػػاىمييف مػػػا نجػػػده ءنػػػد ااػػػى القاسػػػـ الشػػػااى مػػػثالن فػػػإف اعػػػد العصػػػرييف المعقػػػكؿ أف نتكلػػػع أف نجػػػدكاخػػتالؼ الثقافػػة فييمػػا ككػػذلؾ اخػػتالؼ الاي ػػة اكػػؿ مػػا فييػػا مػػف مػػؤثرات اػػؿ كاخػػتالؼ العكامػػؿ كالحػػاالت

ث النفسية تكضح لنا أنو ؿ ايمكػف أف يجتمػع شػعر الفتػرتيف إال فػى ارداة كأءنػى ايػا المغػة العرايػة مػف حيػككنيػػا لغػػة كلػػيس ىنػػاؾ مػػا يمنػػع مػػف كجػػكد اعػػض التشػػااو فػػى اسػػتخداـ العناصػػر الثااتػػة كالميػػؿ كالقمػػر كالنجػػكـ كالسػػما إلػػخ كلكننػػا مػػع ىػػذا نجػػد فرلػػان فػػى طريقػػة االسػػتخداـ فػػإذا كػػاف الجػػاىمى يشػػاو شػػعر

شػػػراؽ كجييػػػا اػػػالقمر كجمػػػاؿ لػػػدميا اغضػػػف الاػػػ اف فػػػإف الكثيػػػر مػػػف محاكاتػػػو فػػػى سػػػكاده اظممػػػة الميػػػؿ كا الشػػعرا لػػد اسػػتخدمكا نفػػس التشػػاييات ءمػػى نحػػك مختمػػؼ كلعػػؿ الشػػااى لػػد كصػػؼ محاكاتػػو اطريقػػة لػػـ يضػارءو فييػا أحػد كمػا يتضػح ىػذا فػي لصػيدتو "صػػمكات فػى ىيكػؿ الحػب" كىػي التػى تعػد كاحػدة مػػف أرؽ

-كأءذب القصا د فى الشعر العراى كيقكؿ فى مطمع القصيدة: الطفكلة كارحػػ الـ كالمحف كالصاح الجديدءذاة أنت ك

كالسما الضحكؾ كالميمة الػػ لمرا كالكرد كااتساـ الكليد يا ليا مف كداءة كجماؿ كشااب منعـ أممكد

إف الفػػرؽ كاضػػح كجمػػى كال أءتقػػد اكجػػكد داعو لالستفاضػػة فػػى ذكػػر تتمػػة ارايػػات كالتعميػػؽ ءمييػػا فػػالاكف جػػػكة تتسػػػع كممػػػا أكغمنػػػا فػػػى لصػػػيدة الشػػػااى ىػػػذا فضػػػالن ءػػػف أف التفريػػػؽ اػػػيف الشػػػعريف لػػػيس شاسػػػع كالف

مكضػػكءنا ارسػػػاس كءمػػػى ىػػػذا فإننػػػا ال ننكػػػر تمػػػؾ الماديػػػة التػػػى طغػػػت ءمػػػى شػػػعر الجػػػاىمييف كتمسػػػكيـ ى االمحسكسات كلكف ماذا ننتظر منيـ كلد ءممنا حاليـ؟ فال شؾ أف شعرىـ نػكع مػف اإلاػداع اػؿ أننػا حتػ

ىذه المحظة فى كثير مف القصا د ءالة ءمييـ كءمى صكرىـ كتشايياتيـ

إف شػػكؿ الشػػعر الػػذل كصػػؿ إلينػػا ءمػػى النحػػك الػػذل نػػراه مػػف اإلتقػػاف لػػـ يسػػتقـ كيكتمػػؿ إال اعػػد شػػكط ف كنا ال نعمـ نشأتو ال تحقيقان كال ظنان –طكيؿ مف الصناءة كالدراة كالػدليؿ ىػك ذلػؾ الشػكؿ المػكزكف –كا

مقفػػى ذك ارسػػمكب المػػكجز الجميػػؿ الخصػػب كالتعايػػر الػػدليؽ الػػذل ال غمػػك فيػػو كال تطكيػػؿ كفػػى لغتػػو الالمتينة كما فى المعمقات التى امغت مرتاػة كايػرة مػف النضػج الفنػى كنالػت إءجػاب القػدما كالمحػدثيف كػاف

فى اي ة كاحدة كطايعة كاحدة كثقافة كاحدة 77نتيجة مراف طكيؿ فى صناءة الشعر

7محاضرات فى اردب الجاىمى ص الحاكم سعد 77

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ذا ءػػدنا إلػػييـ فػػى شػػكؿ تشػػايياتيـ كصػػكرىـ الخياليػػة كاػػراءتيـ المغكيػػة كجػػدنا أف لاءػػدة الماديػػة ال كا تتغير كال تتحكؿ فاءتمادىـ ءمى الاي ة كما تحكيو كاير جدان

-فامرؤ القيس يكنى ءف رفاىية محاكتاو كرفعة شأنيا اكناية يستمدىا مف الاي ة فيقكؿ: راشيا ن كـ الضحى لـ تنتطؽ ءف تفضؿكتضحى فتيت المسؾ فكؽ ف

أماءيناىا فيما مصدر السياـ: اسيميؾ فى أءشار لمب مقتؿ كما ذرفت ءيناؾ إال لتضراى

-ثـ يأخذنا إلى شى آخر كىك نسيـ الصاا فحيف يصؼ أـ الحكيرث كجارتيا أـ الرااب يقكؿ: القرنفؿإذا لامتا تضكع المسؾ منيما نسيـ الصاا جا ت اريا

-شعرىا اقنك النخمة: شاوكحيف يتجو إلى محاكاتو فاطمة االكصؼ ي كفرع يغشى المتف أسكد فاحـ أثيث كقنك النخمة المتعثكؿ

-كترا ايا مصقكلة كالسجنجؿ: ترا ايا مصقكلة كالسجنجؿ ميفيفة ايضا غير مفاضة -كخصرىا كالجديؿ ليكنة كساليا كأناكب السقى :

كساؽ كأناكب السقى المذلؿ كالجديؿ مخصرككشح لطيؼ -كءند كصفو رنامميا يمكننا تممس خشكنة التشايو إذ يقكؿ:

أساريع ظاى أك مساكيؾ إسحؿ كتعطك ارخص غير شثف كأنو -كناظرتيا كناظرة الكحش:

اناظرة كحش كىجرىةى ميطفؿ تصدك كتادل ءف أسيؿ كتتقى -كىى كميا كايضة الخدر:

تمتعت مف ليك ايا غير معجؿ يضة خدر ال يراـ خااؤىا كا

أمػا النااغػػة فيػك إف كػػاف الجانػػب الحسػى ءنػػده ااديػان كغيػػره مػػف الشػعرا إال أننػػا ال يمكػف أف ننكػػر أثػػر الحضارة التى نعـ ايا فى الحيرة كاالط الغساسنة فيك -نسايان -اي تو فى شعره فإف لمنااغة ذكؽ ىذاتو

صػػؼ المتجػردة كيعمػؿ خيالػػو فيصػكغ آيػػات مػف الجمػاؿ فػػى صػكر زاىيػة حشػػدىا فػى مكضػػكع يجيػد فػى ك -كاحد ىك كصؼ الغانية متذرءا االتشايو فى منح المعانى إطاران حسيان فى مقاامتيا اسكاىا فيقكؿ:

ايىا * ءف ظىير مرنافو اسىيـو ميصرد لقد أصااىت لىماىوي مف حيقمىة ابو * أحكل أحـ المقمتيف مقمد نىظىرىت امي شادفو ميتىرى

ك النظـي في سمؾو يزيفي نحرىا * ذىبه تكلدي كالشياب الميكلىد د مىكا و المتأك مقييا * كالغيصف في غي فرا ي كالسيرىا أكمؿى خى صى

وي اثى دمو ميقعىد كالاىطفي ذك ءيكىفو لطيؼه طىيوي * كاإلتبي تىنفيجي

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ة * ريا الركادؼ اىضة ي المتىجرد محطيكطىة ي المتنىيف غيري ميفاضى لامت ترا ل ايفى سجفي كمة * كالشمس يكـى طيميكءيا اارسعيد

يا * ايجه متى يرىا ييؿ كيسجد دىفية و غكاصي أك ديرة و صى أك ديميىة و مف مىرمىرو مرفكءة * انيت اآجرو تشادي كلرمد سىقىطى النصيؼي كلـ تيرد إسقاطىوي * فتناكلتوي كاتقتنا االيد اميخىضبو رىخصو كأف انانىوي * ءنـ ءمى اغصانو لـ يعقد نظرىت إليؾ احاجة و لـ تىقضيا * نظرى السقيـ إلى كجكه العكد

مامة أيكىة * اردان أسؼ لثاتوي ااإلثمد تىجميك اقادمىتىي حى كارلحكاف غىداة ى غب سىما و * جفت أءاليو كأسفموي ندم

ـي اأف فاىا اارده * ءذبه مقاموي شيي المكرد ـى الييما زىءىـي كلـ أذيلوي أنوي * ءذبه غذا ما ذلتوي لمتى ـى الييما : ازدد زىءى

ـي كلـ أذيلوي أنوي * يشفى اريا ريقيا العطشي الصدم ـى الييما زىءىككما رأينا مف أمرل القيس كنايتو ءف رفاىية محاك اتػو نػرل النااغػة يسػتخدـ نفػس الفكػرة كلكػف مػف

-طريؽ آخر فيكؿ يقكؿ: رلاؽ النعاؿ طيب حجزاتيـ يحيكف االريحاف يـك السااسب

أما ارءشى فيك كاحد مف أارز الشعرا الذيف نرل أشعارىـ لد حفمت االصكر الخيالية كالتشيايات -كفى معمقتو يقكؿ:

غرا فرءا مصقكؿ ءكارضيا تمشى اليكينا كما يمشى الكجى الكىحؿي إال أنػو طريػؼ فصاحاتو فى مشاتيا الاطي ة كالدااة التى تسير فى الكحػؿ كءمػى الػرغـ مػف غرااػة التشػايو

ف لػـ ف لػـ يكػف مستسػاغان كينتقػؿ إلػى تشػايو آخػر رليػؽ ياعػدنا ءػف الكحػؿ كا مقاكؿ كمػف السػيؿ تخيمػو كا -ياعدنا ءف أحد مككناتو كىك الما كال زلنا مع مشيتيا:

مر السحااة ال ريث كال ءجؿ كأف مشيتيا مف ايت جارتيا -كيصؼ ثديييا كجيدىا اقكلو:

كجيد غزاؿ غير أف لـ ييعىطؿ كجيدىاكثدياف كالرمانتيف كءند أنصرافيا نسمع لحمييا صكتان ككسكاس الحب الصغير اعد أف يجؼ كتمر او الريح:

تسمع لمحمى كسكاسا إذا انصرفت كما استعاف اريح ءشرؽو زىجؿي -أما ركادفيا الممتم ة فيى كالقرب ييتز الما ايا:اط آكنة كالرافعات ءمى اءجازىا العجؿ كالساحاات ذيكؿ الر

-كفى مكضع آخر يقكؿ: إلى مثؿ دءص الرممة المتصيؿ ركادفيا تثنى الردا تساندت

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-ثـ يجمع مكصكفات متعددة فى لكلو: ليا مقمتا ريـ كأسكد فاحـ ماتمة ىيفا رؤده شااايا

مع الحمى لااته ليا كمعاصـ ككجو نقى المكف صاؼ يزينو ذا ما ءرجنا ءمى طرفة اف العاد ذلؾ الشاءر المجيد الذل اللى منيتو شااان صػغيران كمػا أتػى ءمػى لسػاف كا

-أختو الخرنؽ انت ادر اف ىفاف كىى أخت غير شقيقة إذا تقكؿ فى رثا و: فمما تكفاىا أستكل سيدا ضخما ءددنا لو تسعان كءشريف حجة

كليدا كال لحماءمى خير حيف ال فجعنا او لما انتظرنا إيااو

كطرفة لد جمع إلى جانػب اراءتػو المغكيػة خيػاالن لكيػان كالعيػان كءمػى حػد لػكؿ ااػف رشػيؽ فإنػو ينسػب لطرفػة -الكثير مف االختراءات فى الشعر فيك يقكؿ فى مطمع معمقتو :

تمكح كاالى الكشـ فى ظاىر اليد لخكلة أطالؿ اارلة ثيمد ال تيمؾ أسى كتجمد يقكلكف كلكفا ايا صحاى ءمى مطييـ خاليا سفيف االنكاصؼ مف دد كأف حدكج المالكية غدكة يجكر ايا المالح طكرا كييتدل ءدكلية أك مف سفيف ااف يامف كما لسـ الترب المفايؿ االيد يشؽ حااب الما حيزكميا

مظاىر سمطى لؤلؤ كزارجد كفى الحى أحكل ينفض المرد شادف تناكؿ أطراؼ الارير كترتدل خذكؿ تراءى راراان اخميمة تخمؿ حر الرمؿ دءص لو ند كتاسـ ءف ألمى كأف منكران

أسؼ كلـ يكدـ ءميو اإثمد سعتو إياة الشمس إال لثاتو ءميو نقى المكف لـ يتخدد ككجو كأف الشمس حمت ردا ىا

كيمنحيػػا تعاراتكاالسػكتتصػؿ ءنػػده التشػاييات فػػى معمقتػو فػػى إاػداع فيأخػػذ مػف الاي ػػة ءناصػر التشػػاييات

الحركػػة كالحيػػاة كمػػا فػػى إاياتػػو السػػااقة كالتشػػايو ءنػػده ىػػك العمػػاد اركؿ ءػػف المضػػمكف لتأكيػػد المعنػػى أك 78الغمك فيو"

ذ انتقمنػػا إلػػى "لايػػد فإننػػا نجػػد صػػكرة أنيقػػة شػػديدة العنايػػة كثيػػرة اإلتقػػاف غيػػر مركاػػة سػػيمة رنيػػا اتخػػذت كا

79صكرتيف سايالن" التشايو كسيمة كالمقارنة ايف

91محاضرات فى اردب الجاىمى ص الحاكم سعد 78

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-فيك يشاو النسا فى اليكادج االاقر كالظاا فيقكؿ: كظاا كجرة ءيطفىان آراميا زجال كأف نعاج تكضح فكليا

-كفى لصيدة أخرل يشاو محاكاتو االمياة كالغزالة كما فى لكلو: ءمييا كآراـ السمى الخكاذال كأف نعاجا مف ىجا ف ءازؼ

ة أخرل ففى لصيدتو التى مطمعيا: كنجد ءند ءنترة أمثم

فقماؾ فيو الءج يتكىج أشالؾ مف ءاؿ الخياؿ المارجينتقؿ ءنترة فى سيكلة كيسر كأسػمكب جػذاب أخػاذ مػف الحػديث ءػف شػكلو إلػى الكلػكؼ ءمػى اإلطػالؿ ثػـ

ة فيقكؿ: يستخدـ الكناية فيكنى ءف ءامة االغزاؿ تمطفا كتحااا ليتدرج إلى كصفيا مف خمؼ أستار الكنايـ يىكيف فييا مف العيش مايجي كاليان * كأىف لى ل ف أىضحت ارىطالؿي منيا خى

كمازحني فييا الغزاؿي المغنجي فيا طالما مازحتي فييا ءايمة * ن أغف مميحي الدؿ أحكري أىكحؿه * أزج نقيه الخد أامجي أدءجي

فيكنو * كىاف ميفىمجي لوي حاجبه كالنكف فكؽى جي ثىغره كزىىر اريلحي كىدىلجي رده كساؽه خى لد مييىفيىؼي * كخد او كى كردؼه لو ثقؿه كى

كاطفه كطي الساارية ليفه * ألب لطيؼه ضامري الكشح أنعجي ااح الميامجي ك ي الص ليكتي ايا كالميؿي أرخى سدكلوي * إلى أىف اىدا ضى

ميؿي كىي كأنيا * لكاريري فييا ز اؽ يترجرجي أراءي نجكـى الفىكلي آخره فيو ديممجي ـي * ضي ه كى كتحتي منيا ساءده فيو دممجه

كاعد أف أستعرضػنا ىػذه ارمثمػة القميمػة كرأينػا كيػؼ كػاف العراػى فػى الجاىميػة يتعامػؿ مػع المػرأة فػى غزلػو

أف نقػػػكؿ إف أرتاػػػاط ىػػػؤال الشػػػعرا ااي ػػػتيـ كءرفنػػػا مػػػف أيػػػف يسػػػتمد صػػػكره كتشػػػايياتو كخياالتػػػو يصػػػح لنػػػا ءجاايـ اطايعتيـ جعميـ يسػتمدكف أكصػافيـ منيػا كيقتاسػكف مػف مظاىرىػا صػكرىـ فػى شػعرىـ ككانػت كا تمػؾ الاي ػػة تػػؤدل لكػؿ مػػنيـ مكضػػكءو فيعطيػو معانيػػو كصػػكره مسػتعينا اقدرتػػو ءمػػى الكشػؼ كالخمػػؽ فمقػػد

شتى ألفاظيا كنجحكا فى تسخير ىذه المغة لمتعاير ءما يريدكف التعاير امتمككا المغة امتالكان خاصان كألمكا ا 80ءنو مف خالؿ صكرىـ كتشايياتيـ التى ككنيا خياؿ خصب كلغة لكية معارة

95محاضرات فى اردب الجاىمى ص الحاكم سعد 79 اتصرؼ كثير 101 - 91محاضرات فى اردب الجاىمى ص الحاكم سعد 80

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كالستكماؿ الصكرة نتحكؿ إلى دكر المرأة فى ذلؾ العصر كنتسا ؿ ىؿ كانت مجرد مكضكع يستخدمو كخالفو كما رأينا ءند الشعرا السااقيف؟ أـ كاف ليا الحؽ فى الشعرا لمحديث ءنو فى شعرىـ مف كصؼ

لكؿ الشعر كالاكح احايا ءمى لدـ المساكاة مع الرجاؿ؟

"نحف نعرؼ أف المرأة العراية افضػؿ ظػركؼ حياتيػا فػى مجتمعيػا كانػت كتكمػة فقػد تكػكف أكثػر ليفػة مػف أف –اعػد أف تمقػى شػااكيا–ا فيػى تحػب الرجؿ ءمى االستمتاع االحب كلكنيػا تعػرؼ كيػؼ تكػتـ ءكاطفيػ

ذا كػػاف المجتمػػع العراػػى لػػد ءػػرؼ كيػػؼ يمنػػع الشػػاءر ءػػف حاياتػػو إذا أراد تكػػكف المطمكاػػة ال الطالاػػة كا الزكاج منيا رنو شاب ايا فإنو كػاف أشػد لسػكة ءمػى المػرأة حػيف تصػرح احايػا ثػـ إف العراػى كػاف يحايػا

-السمكة:مطمكاة ال طالاة ءمى حد لكؿ سميؾ اف يعاؼ كصاؿى ذات الاذؿ لماى كأتاعي الممنعةى النكارا

أظنػػو ءاػػد –كلػػد سػػار الشػػعرا ءمػػى ىػػذا المنػػكاؿ ءمػػى حػػد مػػا نعرفػػو مػػف لػػكؿ ااػػف رشػػيؽ: لػػاؿ اعضػػيـ

العادة ءند العرب أف الشاءر ىك المتغزؿ كىك المتماكت كءادة العجػـ أف يجعمػكا المػرأة –الكريـ النيشمىىى الطالاػة كالراغاػة المخاطاػة كىػذا دليػؿ ءمػى كػـر النحيػزة ءنػد العػرب كغيػرتيـ ءمػى الحػـر كرمػر مػا يالحظ أف الكتب ارميات يندر أف نجػد فييػا ىػذا النػكع المتػكىج مػف التعايػر ءػف ءاطفػة الحػب كلػد كػاف

مع "الغريب ارءرااى الجػزؿ" حرض الركاة فى ىذه الفترة ءمى التعامؿ –ااإلضافة إلى ما ساؽ–كرا ذلؾ كالنسا ليس ليف فى ىذا المجاؿ الكثير ثـ أنيف لـ يكػف يعػددف ارغػراض كشػعر الرجػاؿ إنمػا كػف ءػادة يكحػػدف الغػػرض ااإلضػػافة إلػػى أف مجػػاليف فػػى الحػػركب كػػاف محػػدكدان كمػػف المعػػركؼ أف شػػعر الحماسػػة

كرىػف فػى الركايػة كالنقػد كػاف محػدكدان كػذلؾ كاف ىك المسيطر ءمػى الكتػب ارميػات كمػف المعػركؼ أف دكما ركل مف مشاركات نسا كالفارءة انت ااى الصمت كأـ جندب كاانة ارءشى كءمرة الجمحية ألػخ يعتاػر محػدكدان كليػذا كػاف مػف الطاىعػي أف يظمػـ شػػعر المػرأة فػإذا ليػؿ أف الشػعر العراػى فقػد منػو الكثيػػر

أاى ءمرك اف العال كااف سالـ فإننا نكافؽ ءمى ىذا كلكف مف غير المعقكؿ ءمى نحك ما يقرر رجاؿ كأف تكػػكف ءمميػػة الفقػػد لػػد كلعػػت اصػػفة خاصػػة ءمػػى شػػعر النسػػا حػػيف نعػػرؼ أف ىنػػاؾ شػػعران ليػػؿ ءمػػى

-ألسنتيف مف الرجاؿ كقكؿ امرأة فى رثا :ارى أف لست الليا القارى أخى إذ أتى مف دكف أكفانو أال تفيميف الخي

فكممػػػة "الليػػػا" تػػػدؿ ءمػػػى أف القا ػػػؿ رجػػػؿ ال امػػػرأة كمعنػػػى ىػػػذا أف المجتمػػػع كػػػاف يسػػػمح اشػػػى مػػػف ىػػػذا كالمشاىد أف اعض الشاءرات ااتدا ن مف العصر الجاىمى لد أكصدف ىػذا الاػاب ءمػى نحػك مػا نعػرؼ مػثالن

ر الرثا كاليجػا " مػف كػؿ مف "الخزنؽ انت ادر اف ىفاف" فقد جا فى مقدمة ديكانيا "لـ تنظـ فى غي

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ءمػى –ىذا نعرؼ أف المرأة فى الجاىمية لد لصػرت فػى التعايػر ءمػى ىػذا الجانػب كفػى حراسػة مػا كتاػت 81حيا كلد كاف كرا ىذا الخكؼ مف المجتمع

إف فعمػػػت االضػػػرب –كالمػػػرأة فػػػى الشػػػعر الجػػػاىمى "محاصػػػرة كغيػػػر مقاػػػكؿ منيػػػا الاػػػكح فقػػػد كانػػػت تيػػػدد

كاالطالؽ كاقطع المساف فعند ما تػزكج ءقيمػى امػرأة مػف لايمتػو كسػمعيا تتػرنـ اايػت مػف الغػزؿ لػاؿ ليػا -لعمؾ ءاشقة كأنذرىا إف ءادت لما فعمت ليكجعف ظيرىا كاطنيا فقالت:

فميس لقمب ايف جناى ضاربي فإف تضراكا ظيرل كاطنى كمييمادهي زا ي النفس كالشكؽي غالبي ككيؼ ء يقكلكف ءىز النفس ءمف تىكى

فما كاف منو إال أف طمقيا كلد كانت ىناؾ امرأة لخمية تسمى سيعدل تحب ااف ءـ ليا خاؼ أىميا ءمييػا

-مف ىذا الحب كأنذركىا اأنيا إذا نطقت فيو اشعر سيقطعكف لسانيا فما كاف منيا إال أف لالت: فاذكرانيااالدا ىكل نفسى ايا خميمى إف أصعدتما أكىاطتما

ءمى سخط الكاشيف أف تعذرانيا كال تدءا إف المنى ثـ ال ـ فقد شؼ جسمى اعد طكؿ تجمدل أحاديث مف ءيسى تشيب النكاصيا

ف لطعكا فى ذاؾ ءمدان لسانيا سأرءى لعيسى الكد ما ىات الصاا كا

-كما كانت ىناؾ مف غمب الاكح لدرتيا كقكؿ امرأة مف كثعـ فى كعب اف طارؽ : كعب اف طارؽ -كايت اهلل-أحب إف تسألكنى مف أحب فإننىف

أحب الفتى الجعد السمكلى ناضال ءمى الناس معتادان لضرب المفارؽ

-كلد تكليت فارءة انت ثاات فى ءاد الرحمف اف ىشاـ المخزكمى فقالت: لـ تنـ ءينى كلـ تكد يا خميمى ناانى سيدل ى أحدأشتكى ما اى إل فشرااى ما أسيغ كما

آنس تمتذه كادل كيؼ تمحكنى ءمى رجؿ ليس االزميمة النكد مثؿ ضك الادر صكرتو

خامؿ نكس كال جحد مف انى آؿ المغيرة ال اعده ءينى إلى أحد نظرت يكمان فال نظرت

209 - 208 ص 1987 ءاـ 2 العدد 18ءالـ الفكر المجمد 81

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لى جانب ذلؾ تكجد المرأة المطمقة التى ال تنسى الحنيف إلى زكجيا كما فعمت زينب انت فركة المر يػة كا -التى طمقيا ااف ءميا ككما فعمت أـ الضحاؾ المحارايف حيف طمقيا زكجيا فقد لالت:

* لىدل الركف أىك ءندى الصفا متحرجي ىىؿ القمبي إف اللى الضاااي خاليان ديثه كىتنشيج المريضيف مزءجي * كىأىءجمنا لربي الفراؽ كايننا حى

ديثه لك اف المحـ يشكل احره يان أىتى أىصحااو كىك منضجي * طىر حىكىناؾ مف يتعامؿ مع الجػنس ءمػى نحػك رمػزل أك مكشػكؼ ممػا نخجػؿ مػف ذكػره ىػا ىنػا أك فػى مكضػع

كما أف ىناؾ مف يرمز لمحايب االكطف "كانجػد" ءمػى كجػو الخصػكص ءمػى نحػك مػا نعػرؼ مػف " 82آخر -أسما المرية" فى لكليا:

لكمى كحـ لدكميا نأت ءف ثكل أيا جامى كادل ءريعرة التى يداكل فؤادل مف جكاه نسيميا أال خميا مجرل الجنكب لعمو

كءينان طكيال االدمكع سجكميا ككيؼ تداكل الريح شكلا مماطال إلى الايت ترجك أف تحط جركميا كلكلكا لركااف تميمية غدت

مكلية ثكمى طكيال ن ييا اأف اأكناؼ الرغاـ غرياة 83كتاريح شكؽ ءاكؼ ما يريميا مقطعة أحشاؤىا جكل اليكل

تمػػؾ لمحػػػة سػػريعة ءػػػف ءكاطػػػؼ المػػرأة كمنافسػػػتيا لمرجػػػؿ فػػى التعايػػػر ءػػػف أشػػكاليا كمشػػػاءرىا كنقػػػكؿ أف "العرايات اصفة ءامة كف ضد المجاىرة كاتجاه ءػاـ فػإف كػاف كالاػد فقػد كػاف التعامػؿ مػع الرمػز فالرجػؿ

امػػو المتغػػزالت؟ فيػػك ال يستسػػيغ أاػػدان أف تحػػب العراػػى الجػػاىمي كػػاف يصػػدؼ ءػػف الػػزكاج االشػػاءرات صحيح أنو كاف ىناؾ مف النسا مف تجرأت ءمػى إظيػار 84زكجتو إنسانا غيره أك تعجب اإنساف غيره "

ءاطفتيا اجسارة كجرأة كطاللة كال نككف ماالغيف إذا لمنا اكلاحػة أحيانػان كلكػف ىػذا النػكع ال يمثػؿ القاءػدة العامة

إف مجاؿ المنافسة ايف الرجؿ كالمرأة فى مجاؿ الشعر فى العصر الجاىمى لـ يكف متسػعان فقػد كءمى ىذا ف

كاف الرجؿ ىك سيد الساحة كفارس الميداف كال جداؿ كلعؿ ىناؾ ساب آخر فػى ءػدـ معرفتنػا لمعديػد مػف ا يػػة أك مػػف انػػى الشػػاءرات أال "كىػػك الػػركاة فمػػا أكثػػر مػػا نجػػد نسػػيانيـ السػػـ الشػػاءرة مثػػؿ: لالػػت امػػرأة ط

401راجع لصة ذل ارصاع العدكانى كاناتو المشيكرة كما جا فى الحماسة شرح التاريزل ءمى لساف امرأة ص 82 152كأشعار النسا ءف الحمارس التغماى كاناتو ص

212 ص 1987 ءاـ 2 العدد 18ءالـ الفكر المجمد 83 اتصرؼ كثير 239 ص 1987 ءاـ 2 العدد 18ءالـ الفكر المجمد 84

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ءػػامر أك ءرايػػة أك غػػاب ءنيػػا زكجيػػا أك تيجػػك زكجيػػا أك زكجػػت اشػػيخ أك ترثػػى أااىػػا أك إءراايػػة أك لعػػؿ السػػاب 85ماجنػػة أك مػػف أجمػػؿ النػػاس إلػػخ ككثػػرة ىػػذا تػػدؿ ءمػػى الظمػػـ الكالػػع ءمػػى المػػرأة"

كدرأن لمػا لػد يسػتتاعو الكشػؼ مػف ءكالػب الحقيقى ىك ءدـ رغاة العراى فى ذكر اسػـ امػرأة اػذاتيا سػتران ليػا كخيمة أحيانان كما أكضحنا مف لاؿ

أما فيما يختص االقدرة ءمى التعاير كجمب التشايو كاستحضار الصكر كدلة ارلفاظ كما تحممو مف ظالؿ

ف كما تحكيو مف معانى فإف الشاءر الجاىمى كاف ءمى ىذا ألدر مػف الشػاءرة الجاىميػة كلػد لػاؿ اشػار اػكذلؾ الخنسا ؟ لاؿ: تمؾ فكؽ الرجاؿ ارد: لـ تقؿ امرأة شعران إال تايف الضعؼ فيو فمما ليؿ لو أكى

كالحػػؽ إنػػو ال يمكننػػى أف أخػػرج انتيجػػة مرضػػية مػػف ىػػذه المقكلػػة فالخنسػػا كاحػػدة اػػيف كثيػػرات فػػإذا ءممنػػا

ءػف الغػزؿ كال شػؾ أف اشػاران يقػكؿ الحكـ كنا مخط يف ال محالة ىذه كاحدة أما الثانيػة فيػى أننػا نتحػدث لػػـ ألػرأ ليػػا فػػى الغػزؿ ايتػػا كاحػػدان؛ -كلسػػت مقياسػان اػػالقطع-ىػذا انػػا ءمػػى إجمػاؿ شػػعرىا فضػػالن ءػف أننػػى

كءمػى ىػذا ال يمكػف الحكػـ ءمػى غزليػا لػك كػاف ليػا منػو شػا إال أف مراثييػا رخييػا أشػير مػف أف يتحػدث ءنيا كىذا ليس مكضكع احثنا

نرل أف الشعرا فى الجاىمية لد تعاممكا مع الغزؿ مف منطمؽ اي ى فصكرىـ –إجماالن –ا ساؽ كمف كؿ م

الخياليػػة كميػػا مػػأخكذة مػػف الاي ػػة كالخيػػاؿ "ىػػك العنصػػر الػػذل يتنػػاكؿ ارفكػػار كالمعػػانى كالحقػػا ؽ فيمكنيػػا ايػػا كمػػا شػػعر الشػػاءر كال تمكينػػان خاصػػان اكاسػػطة التشػػايو أك االسػػتعارة أك نحكىمػػا كيشػػعرىـ أل القػػرآ

ف كاف لكؿ شاءر أسمكب يمتاز او ءف نستطيع أف نفيـ الخياؿ امغزؿ ءف الاي ة فكؿ جز ياتو كليدتيا كا سكاه كلكنيـ ينيمكف اكجو ءاـ مف معيف كاحد أما الاي ة فقد أخذكا خياالتيـ مف ظػكاىر الطايعػة الصػامتة

ف جركا فى صكرىـ الخياليػة ءمػى اسػتعماالت متحػدة أك الحية أك مف مظاىر الحياة التى تجرل أم اميـ كا 86فيما اينيـ إال أنيـ كانكا يحاكلكف أف يظيركا شخصياتيـ الفنية فى صكرىـ الخيالية

كمف ارمثمة السااقة ءمى التعمػيـ نجػد "نكءػاف مػف الصػكر نػكع غايتػو التصػكير لممر يػات كالمسػمكءات كال

ك أاعػػد منيػػا كفػػى ىػػذا النػػكع اراءػػة كميػػارة صػػدؽ كذلػػؾ الءتمػػادىـ ءمػػى يتجػػاكز ىػػذه الغايػػة إلػػى مػػا ىػػالصػػكر الحسػػية التػػى ىػػى أسػػاس التصػػكير اعامػػة فالصػػكر الحسػػية ألػػكل مػػف غيػػر شػػؾ فػػى الداللػػة ءمػػى

اتصرؼ كثير 240 ص 1987 ءاـ 2 العدد 18ءالـ الفكر المجمد 85 اتصرؼ نقمو ءف: مراجعات فى اردب كالفنكف لمعقاد 63محاضرات فى اردب الجاىمى ص الحاكم سعد 86

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المعنى كاإلحساس او مف الصكر الارىانية العقمية التى تيػدؼ إلػى اإللنػاع أمػا النػكع الثػانى فيػك الصػكر 87ىا الشعرا أنفسيـ منتزءيف جز ياتيا مف الاي ة التى ااتكر

كأخيران فال شؾ في اءتماد شعر الغزؿ فى الجاىمية ءمى الكصؼ الحسى فمـ نػر مػثال تعايػران ءػف مشػاءر الحػػب الصػػادؽ فػػى طيارتػػو كنقا ػػو كلػػـ نػػر كاحػػدان ذاب رلػػة ككجػػدان كلػػـ نحػػس احػػرارة الحػػب كمػػا يالليػػو

لكجػػػد كلسػػػكة الاعػػػد كمػػػرارة الحرمػػػاف ككػػػذلؾ فإننػػػا ال نجػػػد فػػػييـ شػػػاءران صػػػادؽ المحػػػب المتػػػيـ مػػػف تاػػػاريخ االمكءػػة ءػػؼ الضػػمير كالمسػػاف غنػػى القمػػب ءاشػػؽ يرضػػى مػػف محاكاتػػو االقميػػؿ كمػػع ىػػذا فإننػػا ال ننكػػر اراءة تصػكيرىـ فمػا مػف شػؾ أنيػـ أحسػكا االجمػاؿ كلكػف كصػفيـ لػو كػاف كصػفان خارجيػان سػطحيان ال ينفػذ

لػػداخؿ ليحػػرؾ النفػػكس كييػػز القمػػكب كيطػػرب ارركاح إف كػػؿ شػػاءر مػػنيـ كػػاف يػػرل مػػف حاياتػػو إلػػى اظاىرىا فقط فيك يميك ايا كىى ءنده امثااة أداة إمتاع يحب فييا جماؿ كجييا كرشالة لدىا مع امػتال

ية ءػػف مجػػرد مكاضػػع فتنتيػػا أمػػا غيػػر ذلػػؾ مػػف معػػانى ركحيػػة راليػػة تسػػمك اػػالحس كترتفػػع اػػالنفس الاشػػر الجسػػد ككسػػيمة إمتػػاع كاسػػتمتاع فػػال ذكػػر لػػو ءنػػدىـ إال فػػى القميػػؿ النػػادر تمػػؾ كانػػت اي ػػتيـ كتمػػؾ كانػػت

طايعتيـ كذاؾ كاف إحساسيـ االجماؿ

ثبت المراجع

القرآف الكريـ العرب العدد إاراىيـ محمد أاك الفضؿ تحقيؽ ادكف تاريخ شرح ديكاف أمرل القيس سمسمة ذخا ر

مصر: دار المعارؼ 24 شرح ديكاف أاك القاسـ الشااى ايركت: دار 1972إسماءيؿ ءز الديف دراسة كتقديـ أغسطس

العكدة الطاعة الثالثة منشكرات - تحقيؽ فخر الديف لااد - شرح القصا د العشر 1979التاريزل الخطيب

دار اآلفاؽ الجديدة محاضرات فى اردب الجاىمى ادكف اسـ ناشر مصر 1986حمد الحاكم سعد أ

اتصػػرؼ نقمػػو ءػػف: لضػايا النقػػد ارداػػى كالاالغػػة لمػػدكتكر 64جػػاىمى ص محاضػػرات فػى اردب الالحػػاكم سػػعد 87 محمد زكى زكى العشماكل

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حسف محمد ءاد الغنى محمد ءاد المنعـ خناجى ءامر محمد احيرل ءاده ادكل محمد طاىر مصر: اليي ة العامة المصرية لمكتاب – العقاد كلضية الشعر 1979الجاالكل

الطاعة الخامسة ءشر مصر: دار المعارؼ حسيف طو فى اردب الجاىمى ادكف تاريخ شرح ديكاف جميؿ اثينة ادكف تاريخ ايركت: المكتاة الثقافية

شرح ديكاف ءنترة اف شداد ادكف تاريخ ايركت: المكتاة الثقافية مصر: –الطاعة الرااعة -لصيدة حب فى الشعر العراى 20 أحمى 1983شكشة فاركؽ يناير

مداكلي مكتاة مصر: دار المعارؼ –الطاعة العاشرة –ضيؼ شكلي ادكف تاريخ الفف كمذاىاو فى الشعر العراى

شرح ديكاف الحماسة راي 2000يحي اف ءمي اف محمد اف حسف اف اسطاـ الخطيب التاريزم تماـ تحقيؽ غريد الشيخ ايركت: دار الكتب العممية

مصر: دار –الطاعة الخامسة –كف تاريخ أشتات مجتمعات فى المغة كاردبالعقاد ءااس محمكد اد المعارؼ

العقاد ءااس محمكد ادكف تاريخ سارة مصر: دار نيضة مصر لمطاع كالنشر مصر: دار نيضة مصر لمطاع كالنشر –العقاد ءااس محمكد ادكف تاريخ ىذه الشجرة

عرب لاؿ اإلسالـ ءمي جكاد المفصؿ في تاريخ التحميؿ مف

http://mandaeannetwork.com/Mandaean/ar_almfsl_fi_tarikh_alarb_kbl_alislam_Jawad_Ali_sabians_mandaeans_mandaeannetwork.html?i1

مصر: دار الشركؽ – فى ظالؿ القرآف الطاعة الشرءية الحادية ءشر 1985لطب سيد الككيت 4العدد 16لمجمد ا1986مجمة ءالـ الفكر الككيت2العدد 18 المجمد 1987مجمة ءالـ الفكر

مصر: دار الكتب – شرح ديكاف سحيـ ءاد انى الحسحاس1950الميمنى ءاد العزيز تحقيؽ المصرية

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نظريات الذاكرة الجمعية وتطوراتها في ميادين العموم االنسانية زهير سوكاح

في الترجمة وعضو مجمس إدارة الجمعية الدولية لمترجمي العربيةباحث

التطرؽ -كما لد يتاادر إلى ذىف القارئ امجرد لرا تو لعنكانيا الر يسي -لدراسة ىذه اليس ىدؼ لتاريخ الذاكرة اإلنسانية أك التفا أثر التفاءؿ اإلنساني مع مكضكع الذاكرة الذم يرجع إلى ءيكد سحيقة

نما ىي تنفرد اتقديـ ناذة كركنكلكجية ك نظرية ءف نشأة كتطكر مفيكـ "الذاك الجمعية" كىي أيضا رة كا ايذا المعنى تعاطو تنظيرم مع ىذا المفيكـ كانا تنظيرم يتسـ االدينامكية كاإلاداءية كيشيد إلى يكمنا ىذا امتدادا كتطكرا متكاصميف في حقكؿ معرفية متنكءة لعؿ مف أارزىا االدرجة اركلى: ءمكـ االجتماع

ب ك مف ثمة االي مياديف العمكـ االنسانية كاخاصة في الدكؿ كالتاريخ ك الدراسات الحضارية كءمكـ اآلدا الغراية

التي نشرت حكؿ الذاكرة اإلنسانية إال أف أكؿ تعاطي ءممي حقيقي مع 88رغـ فيض الكتااات الفمسفيةالذاكرة كظاىرة مجتمعية ذات اعد جمعي يستحؽ المالحظة العممية المتأنية لـ يتامكر حقيقة إال مع ادايات

حيث أفضى إلى فتح كاير في مجاؿ العمـك االجتماءية التي كانت أكؿ حقؿ يتعاطى مع رف العشريف القظاىرة الذاكرة في سياليا الجمعي اكءي ءممي شرارة ىذا الفتح العممي أحدثتيا دراسات ءالـ االجتماع

الشتغاؿ العممي التي شكمت أكؿ انطاللة حقيقية لMaurice Halbwachsالفرنسي مكريس ىالاكاكس العممية ايف المؤيدة كالمعارضة الرصيف مع ظاىرة الذاكرة الجمعية سرءاف ما لفت ارنظار اركاديمية ك

كما لاث أف ظير اعد ذلؾ اىتماـ ءممي جديد ايذه الظاىرة المجتمعية أسيـ كثيرا في تغيير خريطة ماماتو في ما يمي نتطرؽ إذف إلى مجمكءة مف الحقكؿ المعرفية كالتخصصات العممية في مجاؿ اىت

نقطة اد ىذا االشتغاؿ الذكراتي أم نظرية ىالاكاكس التي أارز فييا الاعد الجمعي لظاىرة التذكر ثـ نمقي الضك ءمى امتدادات ىذا االشتغاؿ التنظيرم في مجاالت معرفية أخرل غير مجاؿ العمـك

نظيرم ايتخصصي يتسـ االتنكع التنظيرم كالخصكاة المعرفية االجتماءية تكاممت فيما اينيا لتؤسس لانا ت كالتعدد المنيجي

مفيـك الذاكرة الجمعية ءند مكريس ىالاكاكس1

إلى فكرة مفادىا أف ءممية التذكر 89في تأسيسو لنظريتو "الذاكرة الجمعية" يستند مكريس ىالاكاكسالفردية ال يمكف أف تنشأ أك أف تتحقؽ إال ضمف إطار اجتماءي معيف فعمى ءكس التصكرات العممية

Russell (1921)ك Bergson (1896) أنظر 88 La Mémoire collectiveالمصطمح الفرنسي: 89

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السا دة في ءصره كالتي كانت تعتار ءممية التذكر أمرا ذاتيا امعنى أنو ءممية فردية ذات كظيفة اتو حكؿ الذاكرة إيجاد رااط لكم ايف ما أسماه اػ: ايكلكجية محضة استطاع ىالاكاكس مف خالؿ كتاا

"الذاكرة الجمعية" ك الذكريات الشخصية لمفرد كايف المجتمع الذم ينتمي إليو في ىذا الراط اءتار أف اإلطار االجتماءي الذم تنش و ثقافة مجتمع ما يسير ءمى تأسيس نسؽ جمعي يجعؿ الخارات

االطارات 1925الصادر سنة في كتااو 90تذكر كلتأكيؿ اصكرة جمعية كالتجارب الذاتية لمفرد لاامة لمالطااع االجتماءي يشرح ما أسماه اػ:" "Les cadres sociaux de la mémoire" االجتماءية لمذاكرة

لمتذكر الفردم" اتأكيده أف استناد ارفراد في تجديدىـ لمماضي إلى اإلطارات المرجعية االجتماءية يجعؿ جمعي امعنى أف الذكريات الفردية لـ تكف يكما ما متمركزة كمنحصرة في -ذات طااع مرجعي ذكرياتيـ

ذاتية الفرد فحسب اؿ كانت دا ما تممؾ ليا مكانا ضمف المنظكمة االجتماءية كنتيجة طايعية لتفاءؿ دلا أك غيرىـ الفرد مع محيطو االجتماع فعف طريؽ الحكار مع اآلخر مثال: مع أفراد ارسرة أك ارص

مف جية أخرل ينطمؽ ىالاكاكس مف ككف أف أم .يتسنى لممر تذكر محطات كتجارب ىامة في حياتومجتمع اشرم يتألؼ مف جماءات اجتماءية مختمفة تمتمؾ كؿ كاحدة منيا ءمى حدة رصيدا ذاتيا ك

يد ءنو لكجكد ىذه مشترؾن ايف أفرادىا مف التذكر كىذا الرصيد الذكراتي المشترؾ ىك شرط ال محالجماءة نفسيا حيث أنيا تؤسس ليكيتيا ءار فعؿ التذكر الجمعي ىذه اليكية الجماءية ما ىي إذف إال نتيجة لتفسير مشترؾ لمماضي الخاص ايذه الجماءة كمف ىنا يتجمى أيضا كاكضكح شديد كظيفة الذاكرة

91ة كضماف صيركرتياالجمعية كما يراىا ىالاكاكس أال كىي تأسيس "ىكية" جمعي

الذاكرة الجمعية كاليكية2

أكال كأخيرا ءار فعؿ التذكر فالفعؿ التذكرم –حسب ىالاكاكس -إذف تؤسس الجماءة لنفسيا كىكيتيا يضمف استمرارية كدكاـ الخارات كالتجارب الماضية في الحاضر كالمستقاؿ كمف ثمة تأسيس "اليكية"

التذكرم إلى جانب ذاتيتو ىك ذك اعد جمعي يمكف أف ييمارس دخؿ أسرة أك جماءة كضماف اقا يا فالفعؿ اشرية أك مجتمع ما ءمى ضك ىذا فالتذكر ىك أيضا طقس اجتماءي ميـ كممارستو اشكؿ مشترؾ كجمعي كمنتظـ ما ىي االتأكيد إال نقطة نشك ذاكرة جمعية ما فكؽ فردية كالتي ال تيؤسس ادكرىا إال

ة ىكياتية مشتركة ك متماسكة يضرب لنا ىالاكاكس في كتااو الثاني: "الطاكغرافيا الدينية لألراضي ررضياعض ارمثمة ءف La Topographie légendaire des Évangiles en Terre Sainteالمقدسة"

ية : حاممكا الذاكرة أشكاؿ الذاكرة الجمعية مثؿ الذاكرة العا مية كالذاكرة الدينية أم ذاكرة الجماءة الدين

82 ص (2008)أنظر: سككاح زىير 90 Erll (2005)أنظر 91

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العا مية ىـ اطايعة الحاؿ أفراد ىذه العا مة الذيف يتقاسمكف تجارايا ككجكدىا تنشأ ىذه الذاكرة الجمعية ءف طريؽ التفاءؿ االجتماءي الذم تكتسب فيو خارات كتجارب حياتية في إطار ءا مي كتتـ الممارسة

-العا مي في الحاضر أك حضرنة الماضي العا مي الذاكراتية ضمف ىذه العا مة ءار استحضار الماضياكاسطة الركاية الشفكية ك في مناساات كاحتفاالت ءا مية يشارؾ أيضا في ىذا التذكر -إف جاز التعاير

العا مي كؿ أفراد العا مة الذيف لـ يعاصركا كلا ع كتجارب كأحداث مرت ايا ىذه العا مة فقط كايذه كاتر الذاكراتي تيأسس ىذه العا مة لذاكرتيا كالتي تمتد زمنيا كذاكراتيا إلى ألدـ الكيفية أم ءف طريؽ الت

92حدث يستطيع أف يتذكره أكار فرد سنا في تمؾ العا مة احيث يقـك انقمو إلى أفراد العا مة الجدد فعؿ إذف الذاكرة الجمعية تاني ىنا نفسيا ءف طريؽ أشكاؿ متنكءة مف التفاءؿ االجتماءي يارز فييا

التذكر التكاصمي اجال فيصير ىؤال الذيف لـ يعايشكا أحداثا ءا مية معينة ىـ أيضان مف حاممي ذكريات ءف تمؾ ارحداث كىذا افضؿ ىذا التكاتر الذاكراتي يقدـ ىالاكاكس مثاال أكثر كضكح ءف الذاكرة

تكمف كظيفتيا في التأسيس ف كالجمعية كىك "الذاكرة الدينية" التي تمتد إلى م ات أك أالالؼ السنيكالحفاظ ءمى اليكية الدينية لجماءة دينية معينة ءف طريؽ الممارسة التذكرية المنتظمة لمجمكءة مف العادات ك التقاليد ك الطقكس الدينية تمتاز الذاكرة الدينية إلى جانب ىذا اأماكنيا الذاكراتية مف مااني

ضرحة ك مرالد كنصكص دينية كغيرىا ك التي تساىـ ادكرىا في أماكف تعادية ك لاكر كأ ءمرانية كالديني مف –تأسيس ك تعزيز اليكية الدينية لتمؾ الجماءة مف جية ك تعيف ءمى ممارسة الفعؿ التذكرم

جية أخرل يظير مف خالؿ ىذه ارمثمة أف مفيكـ ىالاكاكس لمتذكر الجمعي ىك مفيكـ مكسع ك تعريفو أيضا ليذه

ىرة تعريؼ مفتكح غير أف أارز ما يميز الذاكرة الجمعية ىي ءممية تأسيس اليكية فكؿ ما ييتذكر الظا -جمعيا يكافؽ الصكرة الذاتية ك مصالح ك رغاات جمع معيف أك جماءة معينة ك المشاركة التذكرية

أىـ سمتيف لمذاكرة الجمعية يعني أف المشارؾ ينتمي ىكياتيا إلى ىذه الجمع أك ىذه الجماءة غير أف ذالؾ أف الذاكرة الجمعية ال تقدـ صكرة طاؽ ارصؿ لمماضي اؿ 93الجمعية ىما: المنظكرية كاالنتقا ية

ءمى العكس مف ىذا فيي تقـك اإءادة استحضار لمماضي اشكؿ انتقا ي ك كفؽ منظكر محدد ك زاكية لجمعية تماي االدرجة اركلى الحاجيات تذكر معينة امساءدة الحاضر ككالعو ءمى ضك ىذا فالذاكرة ا

الراىنة لمجماءة المتذكرة إذف فيذا الماضي المتذىكر ما ىك إال انا تذكرم منظكرم في ىذا السياؽ يقكؿ ىالاكاكس: "الذاكرة ال تقكـ اإءادة إحيا الماضي ااعث الماضي اؿ تقكـ اإءادة انا و كتشكيمو في

Erll/Nüning (2005)أنظر 92 Erll (2005)أنظر 93

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ة تتـ إذف في زمف الحاضر إذف التذكر ىك ءممية إءادة انا الماضي زمف الحاضر العممية التذكري 94امساءدة الحاضر "

تجدر اإلشارة إلى أف معظـ النصكص العراية القميمة التي تعرضت لمكضع الذاكرة الجمعية تخمط ايف كييف الجماءي مفيكمي "الذاكرة الجماءية" ك"الذاكرة الجمعية" مما يجعؿ ءممية التمييز ايف المست

كالجمعي لمفيكـ التذكر في تمؾ النصكص ضراا مف العاث إف الفرؽ الحاسـ ايف مفيكمي الذاكرة الجماءية ك الذاكرة الجمعية لدل ىالاكاكس يكمف في أف الذاكرة الجماءية خاصة اػأم جماءة معينة داخؿ

المعنى ذاكرة مشتركة ايف مختمؼ مجتمع ما أما الذاكرة الجمعية فيي ذاكرة جمع معيف كىي أيضا ايذا .الجماءات المككنة لممجتمع اعاارة أخرل الذاكرة الجمعية ىي تعاير ءف كؿ ىاتو الذاكرات الجماءية

إذف يتعيف الفصؿ ايف مفيكمي الذاكرة الجماءية أم ذاكرة خاصة االجماءة كايف الذاكرة جمعية أم الساؽ في التنظير لمذاكرة كظاىرة مجتمعية كثقافية كاف لمكريس ىالاكاكس إذف95الذاكرة الال فردية

كاالتالي تفسير الثقافة كاليكية الجمعيتيف كنتيجة لفيـ نشط لمذات ككامتالؾ جمعي لمماضي كليس كنتاج لمكراثة الايكلكجية كما ءار ءنيا معاصركه كأستاذه إميؿ دكركايـ ك أيضا فركيد لكف ما لاثت نظريتو أف

د خصكصا مف لاؿ زمال و في جامعة ستراساكرغ مف أمثاؿ مارؾ امكش ك شارؿ تعرضت لنقد شدي فقاـ ىالاكاكس اإءادة 96امكندؿ حيث تـ اءتاارىا "تعميما غير مشركع لظاىرة نفسية كفردية محضة"

الذاكرة الجمعية" تقديـ كشرح تصكره حكؿ التذكر الجمعي كظاىرة مجتمعية اشكؿ مفصؿ في كتااو الثالث 97ـ1950ذم اشتغؿ ءميو أزيد مف خمسة ءشر سنة لكنو صدر غير مكتمال سنة كال "

-راما اصكرة غير كاضحة ءمى أية حاؿ -لاـ ىالاكاكس في كتاو الثالث حكؿ الذاكرة الجمعية اتقديـ تصكريف أساسيف حكؿ التذكر الجمعي: يقدـ التصكر اركؿ الذاكرة الجمعية كذاكرة ءضكية محسكسة

مجتمعي لمتذكر الفردم أما التصكر الثاني: -ذاكرة العا مية ك ىي ايذا المعنى إطار جمعي مثاؿ: الالذاكرة كانا ذاكراتي منظكرم غير محسكس يراط ايف الماضي كالحاضر ك يتأسس ءار كسا ط ك طقكس ك مؤسسات ضمف تجمعات حضارية في إطار ارتااطيا مع الماضي رغـ أىمية كتااات

التنظيرية حكؿ التذكر الجمعي إال أنيا ضمت في فترة ما اعد الحرب العالمية الثانية في طي ىالاكاكسأما اليـك .النسياف أيضا لـ يتمقى الجانب السكسيكثقافي لمظاىرة الذاكراتية اصفة ءامة أم اىتماـ يذكر

معية ك الثقافية دكف فال يمكف الحديث في مجاؿ العمـك االجتماءية كالحضارية ءف ىذه الظاىرة المجت

Laborde (2005)أنظر 94

أنظر سككاح زىير (2007) 95

المصدر السااؽ نفسو 96

Halbwachs (1939) 97 أنظر

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الرجكع إلى اإلطار التنظيرم الذم لدمتو كتااات ىالاكاكس التأسيسية حكؿ الذاكرة الجمعية ك الجدير Jan االذكر ىنا أف نظرية ىالاكاكس لد شكمت المنطمؽ الر يسي لممؤرخ ارلماني المعاصر ياف أسماف

Assmann "ا مف لامو المؤرخ الفرنسي ايير نكراك كذ 98في تأسيسو لنظريتو "الذاكرة الحضاريةPiere Nora "ك ىما امتداداف معرفياف لنظرية 99في كضعو لتصكره النظرم المعركؼ اػ:"أماكف الذاكرة

لكف ءمى الرغـ مف أف ىالاكاكس لد تناو الذاكرة الجمعية في كؿ مف ميدانيف العمكـ الثقافية ك التاريخية لمتذكر االجتماءي ك إلى العاللة "المصيرية" ايف التذكر ك اليكية في كلت ماكر إلى الاعد الجمعي

داخؿ المنظكمة االجتماءية إال أنو لـ ييتـ كثيران ااإلجااة ءف السؤاؿ: كيؼ ااإلمكاف لمتذكر الجمعي أف يؤسس فعميان لميكية ك أف يضمف اقا يا؟

اليكياتية؟- ارماكف الذاكراتية3

لفو Nora Pierreالفرنسي ايير نكرا فىطف المؤرخ إلى أىمية ىذا التساؤؿ كاديييتو كلاـ في مؤىافحص كدراسة العاللة التأثيرية المتاادلة )أماكف الذاكرة ( Les Lieux de mémoire 100الضخـ

ايف ما يمكف أف نسمييا اػ: "أنماط التذكر" ك اليكية كخميص إلى أف التخمي ءف الطقكس التذكرية ىماؿ ارشكاؿ الذاكراتية في جماءة لكمية يفسح المجاؿ أماـ تفشي ما يسميو اػ: "النسياف الجمعي" مما كا يؤدم ال محالة إلى تكىيف أسس اليكية القكمية ك االتالي إلى إضعافيا ك راما تالشييا ييحاكؿ ايير نكرا

ع ماضيو القكمي ك ذلؾ ءف طريؽ شرح ىذه الفكرة اراطيا االحاضر الميجتمعي الفرنسي في ءاللتو مإءطا أمثمة حية ك مممكسة ءما يسميو اػ: "أماكف الذاكرة" التي يرل أنيا الضامف الكحيد ليس فقط

القكمية ك -الستمرارية االرتااط الجمعي االماضي القكمي اؿ في المقاـ اركؿ خمؽ اليكية المشتركةالييكياتية؟ كما طايعتيا؟ كما مدل تأثيرىا الفعمي -الذاكراتية المحافظة ءمى صيركرتيا فما ىي ىذه ارماكف

القكمية؟-في المحافظة ءمى اليكية الجمعيةفي تنظيره لمكظيفة اليكياتية لما أسماه اػ:"أماكف الذاكرة" مف تصكر -ءكس ىالاكاكس -ينطمؽ ايير نكرا

لذاكرة الجمعية لا ال: "كثر الحديث في لحضكر ا -في ءصرنا الحالي -مفاده أنو لـ تعد ىنالؾ إمكانية

Das kulturelle Gedächtnisالمصطمح ارصمي اارلمانية: 98 Les Lieux de mémoireالمصطمح ارصمي االفرنسية: 99

عة أجزا في فرنسا سنة صدر ىذا الكتاب المكلؼ مف سا 1992 100

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ءصرنا ىذا ءف الذاكرة الجمعية كىذا مرده أصال إلى غياايا المطمؽ أم أنو لـ يعد ىنالؾ كجكد لشي 101يحمؿ ىذا االسـ "

ءمى ىذا ارساس الذم ينفي كجكد الذاكرة الجمعية ءمى الرغـ مف ككنيا كالع سكسيكثقافي مجرد ركز و لمكظيفية اليكياتية لمتذكر الجمعي ءما اءتاره االمقااؿ الحسي لمذاكرة الجمعية أم اما نكرا في تحميم

أسماه اػ: أماكف الذاكرة التي تشمؿ أمكنة جغرافية ك انايات ك تماثؿ ك أءماؿ فنية ك أيضا شخصيات س كلصر فرسام تاريخية ك أياـ تذكرية كنصكص فمسفية كءممية كأنشطة رمزية كغيرىا كىكذا تعد ااري

ك كتاب كارج إيفؿ مف أماكف الذاكرة في فرنسا أيضا العمـ الفرنسي ك الرااع ءشر مف يكليكزDiscours de la méthode لمفيمسكؼ الفرنسي ديكارت كميا تندرج تحت مسمى:" أماكف الذاكرة

. الفرنسية"ءصر الجميكرية الفرنسية الثالثة أم في نكرا أف ادايات تامكر أماكف الذاكرة الفرنسية ترجع إلى يرل

اتأسيس اليكية -حسب نكرا –القرف التاسع ءشر ميالدم ففي تمؾ الحقاة لامت الذاكرة الكطنية الجمعية الفرنسية غير أف معالـ ىذه الذاكرة سرءاف ما ادأت في التادد ااتدا مف النصؼ الثاني مف

يشيد انتقالية ذات كثيرة متسارءة اصكرة غير مساكلة ادأت القرف العشريف ذالؾ أف المجتمع العصرمفييا معظـ أشكاؿ االرتااط االماضي ك الميؤسسة في آف كاحد لميكية القكمية في االضمحالؿ التدريجي

ذلؾ الاديؿ الحسي ك"االصطناءي" لذاكرة فرنسية جمعية لـ تعد -حسب نكرا -مما يجعؿ أماكف الذاكرة مكجكدة اآلف

ك الذم يعد مف أىـ المصادر التنظيرية في حقؿ 1992 كتااو ىذا الذم اكتمؿ صدكره سنة فيالدراسات التاريخية التي ظيرت في فرنسا حكؿ مفيكـ الذاكرة الجمعية يتحدث ايير نكرا ءف ثالثة شركط إلضفا صاغة "الذاكرتية" ءمى مفيكـ مجرد أك شي حسي معيف ك ءمى ضك ىذا فيمكف

الاعد المادم .الاعد المادم كالاعد الكظيفي كالاعد الرمزم حديث أيضا ءف ثالثة أاعاد رماكف الذاكرة:الإلى أف ىذه ارماكف تقتصر ءمى أشيا - حسب تعاير ايير نكرا -رماكف الذاكرة ال يجب أف يحيؿ

غير ذلؾ فأحداث كتب ك مممكسة ذات طايعة مادية فقط مثؿ المااني العمرانية أك المكحات الفنية أك -تاريخية حاسمة أك دلا ؽ صمت إلحيا ذكرل شخص ميت تتكفر أيضا ءمى اعد مادم جمي رنيا

كؿ ىذه "التمكضكءات" تمتمؾ .كحدات الزمف ءاارة ءف "مقطع مادم" محدد مف فترات ك - حسب نكرامضاكطة ضمف المنظكمة االجتماءية فكتب معركفة في اعدا كظيفيا امعنى أنيا تيحقؽ كظيفة محددة ك

لاؿ أف -كيضعت في اادئ ارمرErnest Lavisse لمؤلفو Histoire de Franceفرنسا مثؿ كتاب لتحقيؽ ىدؼ معيف ك محدد ك ىكذا فإف ىذا الكتاب التعميمي ييعتمد -ترتقي إلى درجة مكاف لمذاكرة

االنساة لممثاؿ السااؽ دلا ؽ يخ في المدارس الفرنسية أككمرجع مدرسي أساسي ضمف حصص التار

Nora (1994)أنظر 101

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أيضا يتعيف ءمى .الصمت فكظيفتيا اارساس ىي االستحضار الزمني المؤلت لذكرل أك ذكريات محددةىذه التمكضكءات كي ترتقي إلى مرتاة أماكف الذاكرة أف تككف أيضا ذات اعد رمزم أم حاممة لمعنى

اشكؿ جمي حينما تنتقؿ مثال ممارسات أك أفعاؿ معينة إلى طقكس محاطة رمزم معيف ك ىذا يظير ايالة رمزية فقط اعد ىذا "االرتقا الرمزم" تصير ىذه التمكضكءات حاممة لنفس الطايعة الحضارية

ىذا التعريؼ الفضفاض لمفيكـ أماكف الذاكرة .102كاليكياتية التي تمتمكيا أماكف الذاكرة في مجتمع ماديد مف النقاد يطرحكف تساؤالت مشركءة حكؿ كيفية فصؿ أماكف الذاكرة ءف غيرىا مف ارماكف جعؿ الع

غير الذاكراتية غير أف المتأمؿ في تعريؼ نكرا يدرؾ أف النظر إلى الظكاىر الثقافية المرتاطة ءف كءي لايير نكرا ءار أمكفاالماضي القكمي لمجتمع معيف كأماكف لمذاكرة أمرا مقاكال اؿ ممكنا ءمى أية حاؿ

ىكياتي ذك تمظيرات محسكسة ءكس –ىذا النمكذج التنظيرم أف يعالج المسألة الذاكراتية ككالع جمعيالكثير مف الااحثيف في ىذا مجاؿ الذيف دأاكا ءمى التعامؿ مع الذاكرة الجمعية كظاىرة سكسيكثقافية

يرم ك ىكذا فتحت نظرية أماكف الذاكرة أفاؽ مجردة حيث تأثركا في ىذا ذالؾ اتراث ىالاكاكس التنظتنظيرية جديدة في مجاؿ الاحث الذاكراتي في حقمي العمكـ التاريخية كالثقافية أسيمت في زيادة الكءي اركاديمي اضركرة ك جدكل التعاطي مع التذكر الجمعي ككالع مجتمعي محسكس حيث كجد ىذا

رج حدكد التنظير الفكرم الفرنسي فظيرت اعد ذالؾ مشركءات المشركع التنظيرم الجديد مسانديف لو خاتنظيرية مماثمة في القارة اركراية ك أيضا في خارجيا استميمت معظميا النيج التنظيرم رماكف الذاكرة

الذم لـ يقتصر ءمى النطاؽ Erinnerungsorte (2001) :مثؿ المشركع ارلماني الفرنسية حت في ءمكمو ءمى ارفؽ اركراي أيضا ظير مشركع تنظيرم آخر في ارلماني فحسب اؿ انفت

ك غيرىا مف المشاريع التنظيرية حكؿ City of Memory (2003) :الكاليات المتحدة ك المعركؼ اػك منطقة الكيايؾ الجز الناطؽ ارماكف الذاكرة في امداف كمناطؽ أخرل كإيطاليا ك أكراا الشرلية

103ا االفرنسية في كند الذاكرة الحضارية4

رأينا نظريا إذف أف التذكر ىك فعؿ يضمف مف جية استمرارية التجارب ك الخارات ك يمكف مف جية أخرل مف تأسيس اليكية ك الحفاظ ءمى كجكدىا ليس فقط ءمى المستكل الفردم اؿ ك ءمى المستكل

ايير الجمعي ك ىذا ينطاؽ ءمى المجتمعات الاشرية حسب ىالاكاكس ك كذا ءمى القكميات حسب طرح نكرا لكف الفعؿ التذكرم الجمعي ال يقتصر فقط ءمى المجتمعات ك القكميات اؿ يشمؿ حتى الحضارات

(2007)أنظر سككاح زىير 102

المصدر السااؽ نفسو 103

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الاشرية فالحضارات تقكـ ىي ادكرىا االرجكع إلى ماضييا السحيؽ ك استحضاره اشتى طرؽ الممارسة ا متاحؼ ك غيرىا إذا الذاكراتية مف احتفاالت ك طقكس ذاكراتية جمعية إلى جانب تأسيس أراشيؼ ك ان

كاف ىالاكاكس يسترشد في معالجتو لمذاكرة الجمعية ادراسة الف ات المجتمعية المككنة لممجتمعات الاشرية ك إذا كاف ايير نكرا يحاكؿ راط ىذا الظاىرة االقكمية امعنى أنو لكؿ لكمية أماكف ذاكراتية محسكسة

ياف أسماف كزكجتو أليدا أسماف يسعياف في أاحاثيما تؤسس ليكيتيا فإننا نجد أف المؤرخ ارلمانيالذاكراتية إلى إاراز الاعد الحضارم لمتذكر الجمعي ك ذلؾ ءف طريؽ فحص العاللة التأثيرية المتاادلة ايف التذكر الجمعي ك ايف الحضارة كنظاـ اشرم رمزم في ىذا اإلطار أسس كمييما تصكرا نظريا لمتذكر

ينطمؽ كالىما في ك (das kulturelle Gedächtnis)الذاكرة الحضارية"الجمعي أسماه اػ: "مفيكميا معالجتيما لظاىرة التذكر الجمعي مف تميز مصطمحي الترحاه ايف نمطيف مختمفيف كظيفيان ك

ك"الذاكرة ( das kommunikative Gedächtnis)مف أنماط التذكر الجمعي: "الذاكرة التكاصمية" -حسب ياف كأليدا أسماف- تنشأ الذاكرة التكاصمية (das kulturelle Gedächtnis)104 الحضارية

ىنا نالحظ أف الذاكرة الذم يتسـ االعفكية ك ءف طريؽ التكاصؿ كالتفاءؿ االجتماءي اليكمي كالتكاصمية امفيكميا ارسماني تيحيمنا إلى مفيكـ الذاكرة الجمعية ءند ىالاكاكس التي ىي تعاير ءف

فاءؿ المجتمعي اليكمي ءمى العكس مف ىذا يعرفاف "الذاكرة الحضارية" اأنيا: "محزكف ىكياتي يتسـ التءمى ضك ىذا 105ااالستقرار ك الثاات ك تجتمع فيو خارات حضارة ارمتيا كذالؾ ءمى مر العصكرػ"

تضرب جدكرىا في ءمؽ التاريخ –ءكس الذاكرة التكاصمية -نستشؼ أف الذاكرة الحضارية في التفريؽ المنيجي ك النظرم -كما ىك كاضح -يكمف الشرط المركزم في الطرح ارسماني

الضركرييف ايف شطريف مف الذاكرة الجمعية يقعاف في ءاللة ترااطية ك تكاممية فيمااينيما لاـ ياف أسماف صد مف أجؿ اكضع مقارنة ايف سمات كخصا ص كؿ مف الذاكرة التكاصمية ك الذاكرة الحضارية ءف ل

التعريؼ ايما ك ذلؾ انطاللا مف فحص محتكياتيما الذاكراتية كأشكاليما ك كسا طيما إلى جانب انيتيما الزمنية: تتأسس الذاكرة التكاصمية ءار التكاصؿ اليكمي العفكم مما يجعؿ مخزكنيا الذاكراتي ءاارة ءف

ذا فأفؽ الذاكرة التكاصمية يمتد ما ايف مجمكع خارات ك تجارب تاريخية لحاممي ىذه الذاكرة ءمى ضك ىثمانيف إلى م ة سنة إلى جانب ىذا فمحتكيات الذاكرة التكاصمية متغيرة ك غير تااثة تتادؿ ال تستقر ك

التذكر الجمعي -حسب التعريؼ ارسماني -ال تعرؼ لرا ة ثااتة أما الذاكرة الحضارية فيقصد اياتية ك ىك ايذا تذكر ثاات ك مستقر ك لا ـ اذاتو كممارسة لحضارة معينة يقـك ءمى أسس مؤسسا

حضارية دا مة ك منتظمة ك ىي تحتكم كؿ التجارب ك الخارات السحيقة لحضارة ما ءار تاريخيا إلى

Erll (2005)أنظر 104 Assmann (1988)أنظر 105

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جانب أحداث ك كلا ع تيفسر ك تيؤؿ ءار مجمكءة مف الطقكس ك الكسا ط الذاكراتية في ىذا السياؽ ذاكرة الحضارية اما يمي:يحدد ياف أسماف كظا ؼ ال

"ينضكم تحت مفيـك الذاكرة الحضارية مخزكف حضارم ك ىكياتي خاص اكؿ مجتمع يمتد لحقب زمنية طكيمة ك يتككف مف نصكص ك صكر ك طقكس لاامة لمممارسة ااستمرار تقكـ في حالة المحافظة اخمؽ

اضي ييشترؾ فييا ك ييستند إلييا أثنا الصكرة الذاتية لحضارة معينة إنيا معرفة جمعية حكؿ الم 106لحظة كءي حضارة ما لذاتيا "

مف ىذا التعريؼ يمكف استخالص سمات مركزية لمذاكرة الحضارية تميزىا ءف الذاكرة التكاصمية اليكمية سيس مف اينيا السمات التالية: التعريؼ اليكياتي اإلستعادية االكتمالية ك االنعكاسية كؿ حضارة تقكـ اتأ

ذاكرتيا حضارية ك التي تسمح ليا اأف تشتؽ منيا اعد ذالؾ ىكيتيا الحضارية ك ىذه ىي الكظيفة التعريفية لمتذكر الحضارم الذاكرة الحضارية ىي أيضا انا استعادم أم أنيا تستعيد الخارات كالتجارب

لحضارة إلى جانب ىذا تمتاز السحيقة في لحظة زمف الحاضر كفؽ الحاجيات الذاكراتية كاليكياتية لتمؾ االذاكرة الحضارية اميزة االكتمالية فيي ءمى خالؼ الذاكرة التكاصمية تادك انا مكتمال كمستقرا كتااثا أك لااال ءمى ارلؿ لمتشكؿ كاالكتماؿ أيضا تمتاز الذاكرة الجمعية اانعكاسيتيا أم أنيا كذاكرة جمعية تعكس

راح النظرية ارسمانية يكمف في الطرح 107فيي مرآة ءالميا اليكياتي اجال الصكرة الذاتية لمحضارة المنيجي الدليؽ ك التصكير العممي النظرم الكاضح لمعاللة الرااطة ايف التذكر كظاىرة حضارية ك التأسيس الذاكراتي لميكية الجمعية في ايعدىا الحضارم ىذا الطرح يجعؿ ظاىرة الذاكرة الحضارية ممكنة

ة ك الدراسة حققت معو النظرية ارسمانية شيرة انطمقت مف ألمانيا مع نياية اسنكات الثمانينات المالحظمف القرف الماضي حيث أثرت اشكؿ كاير في اراحاث الذاكراتية التي ظيرت اعد ذالؾ في ميداف العمـك

لة المتاادلة ايف الحضارية إلى يكمنا ىذا كاارخص اعد نشرىما لمنصكص تنظيرية مشتركة حكؿ العال الذاكرة الحضارية ك اليكية السياسية

الذاكرة الحضارية ك كاليكية السياسية5

لاـ كؿ مف ياف ك أليدا أسماف اشرح نظرية الذاكرة الحضارية في كتاايف ىاميف ك ىما كتاب "الذاكرة الحضارية"

Das kulturelle Gedächtnis ك كتاب "أمكنة التذكر" 1992لياف أسماف الصادر سنةErinnerungsräume يراط ياف أسماف في كتااو الذاكرة 1999رليدا أسماف الذم صدر سنة

15 المصدر السااؽ نفسو ص 106 Assmann (1992)أنظر 107

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التذكر ك التأسيس الجمعي لميكية إلى االستعماؿ السياسي -ءكس ىالاكاكس -أكثر الحضارية اكضكحسماف في الجز اركؿ مف كتااو ىذا لمكسا ط المركزية لمذاكرة لمسمطة ءار فعؿ التذكر يتطرؽ ياف أ

الحضارية كىي احساو الكتااة كالشفاىة كىذا التقسيـ الثنا ي يحيؿ إلى التمييز ايف الحضارة الشفاىية ك الطااع النصكصي ك ىنا يقـك ياف أسماف اإاراز الطااع الطقكسي لمحضارة الشفاىية الحضارة الكتااية ك

اة الكتااية فالحضارات الشفاىية تعتمد اشكؿ أساسي في طقكسيتيا التذكرية ءمى التكرار الدليؽ لمحضار كالحرفي رساطيرىا ك لتصكراتيا الرمزية في الغالب ءار التكاتر الشفيي مما يجعؿ رم تغيير أك رم

ممركيات الشفيية أما تجديد يطرأ في ىذا السياؽ تأثيرا سمايا ءمى طقكسية اؿ ك لدسية النسؽ العاـ لالطااع النصكصي فيك ءمى العكس مف الطااع الطقكسي يعتمد اارساس ءمى التفسير الحضارم ءف طريؽ الكسيط النصي كاستراتيجية سياسية ذات كظيفة ذاكراتية كيرل ياف أسماف في ىذا الصدد أف

اتيا كاالتالي الحية ىكياتيا فيذه الكسيط النصي يجعؿ لمتذكر كظيفة متحركة في الحضارات المتحركة ذاكر الحضارات تتخذ التذكر محركا لديمكمتيا في الجز الثاني مف كتااو ىذا يتطرؽ ياف أسماف إلى العاللة الكطيدة ايف اليكية السياسية ك فعؿ الكتااة ك الذاكرة الحضارية مكضحا ايذا أىمية النص ككسيط مف

فيك يرم أف الديمكمة الحضارية كالمؤسسة لميكية الجمعية تديف الكسا ط المركزية لمذاكرة الحضارية ااستمراريتيا في الحضارات النصكصية إلى نمطيف مف ارنماط النصية: النص المعيارم ك النص اإلخاارم ذالؾ أف ىذه الديمكمة تأسس ليكيتيا ءف طريؽ كؿ تمؾ النصكص التي تجيانا ءمى التساؤؿ

نحف ؟" أم النصكص اإلخاارية ك ءف طريؽ تمؾ النصكص تيتـ ااإلجااة ءف اليكياتي التالي: "مف ءمى ضك ىذا 108التساؤؿ الكظيفي التالي: ماذا يجب ءمينا فعمو كحضارة ؟ النصكص المعيارية

يمكننا القكؿ أف ىذه النصكص تمتمؾ اعدا ذاكراتيا ك اعدا جمعيا فيي نصكص ذاكراتية ك جمعية في يا ك ظيفة ىكياتية ك ىذا االتحديد ما حفز مجمكءة مف الااحثيف إلى دراسة النصكص آف كاحد ك ل

المعيارية كاإلخاارية التي أشار إلييا ياف أسماف انطاللا مف ىذا المنظكر الذم يكشؼ ءف كظا فيا ضمف أستريد إرؿ التذكر الحضارم ككسيط مف كسا طو ارساسية كمف أارز ىؤال الااحثيف الكاتاة ارلمانية

Astrid Erll ءف الكسيط النصي لمتذكر -رفقة مجمكءة مف الااحثيف-التي ركزت في أاحاثيا 109الجمعي

Erll (2005).أنظر 108 Erll/Nünning/Birk/Neumann/Schmidt (2004)انظر 109

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"فنا" ك"طالة" اكصفيا الذاكرة 6

تقسيما أساسيا لمذاكرة (Erinnerungsräume)مف جيتيا تقدـ أليدا أسماف في كتاايا "فضا ات التذكر" الجمعية في اعدىا الكظيفي: الذاكرة اكصفيا فنا كتقنية مف جية كالذاكرة اكصفيا طالة مف جية أخرل

تأخد منو المحتكيات الذاكراتية كمما استدءت ىي خزاف لممعرفة الذاكراتية تسجؿ فيو ك 110فالذاكرة فناحيؿ ضمنيا مف زاكية نظر أنتراكلكجية إلى القطب اآلخر فيي ت 111الحاجة إلى ذالؾ أما الذاكرة طالةن

ىك النسياف ذالؾ أنو مف كفرة ك فيض التذكرات الممكنة ال يتـ تذكر إال نزر المعاكس لمتذكر أال ك كض يؿ جدا مف المحتكيات الذاكراتية كذلؾ احسب الكضعيات كاالحتياجات فالتذكر ىنا طالة لي

ءمى ضك ىذا لامت أليدا أسماف اكضع تقسيـ إضافي جديد لمتذكر 112عي مكاجية فعؿ النسياف الجمالجمعي يسمط الضك إلى حدا ما ءمى ثنا ية النسياف ك التذكر ك يكمؿ ءمى أية حاؿ تقسيـ ياف أسماف نة": تنعت أليدا أسماف الذم تـ التطرؽ إليو آنفا فيي تتحدث ءف " الذاكرة الكظيفية" ك "الذاكرة الميخز

-ااسـ "الذاكرة المأىكلة" امعنى أنيا تتشكؿ مف ءناصر حاممة لقيمة ذاكراتية 113الذاكرة الكظيفيةنة فيي ءمى العكس مف الذاكرة الكظيفية 114حضارية تشكؿ نسقا ذك أىمية تاريخية أما الذاكرة الميخز

ياجاتو الذاكراتية في غير مأىكلة امعنى أنو ليس لدييا أم ارتااط حيكم أك كظيفي صريح االحاضر كاحتىذا الصدد تقكؿ أليدا أسماف: "ءمى المستكل الجمعي تضـ الذاكرة المخزنة كؿ معرفة غير مستعممة أك غير لاامة لالستعماؿ ذاكراتيا أم كؿ معرفة مجردة مف اليكية كىي أيضا مف جية أخرل ءاارة ءف

احتكا يا ءمى كظا ؼ كخيارات اديمة ككثيرة خزاف مف اإلمكانيات كالفرص التي لـ تغتنـ اعد إلى جانبأما االنساة لمذاكرة الكظيفية فينا يتعمؽ ارمر اذاكرة مكا مة تكاكب الحاجيات التذكرية ك تتأسس ءار ءمميات االنتقا ك االختيار ك الراط ك انا المعنى ك ايذا المعنى فحتى العناصر غير المنظمة ك

115تصير في الذاكرة الكظيفية مرتاطة ذاكراتيا في ما اينيا "غير المنسقة فيما اينيا ءاللة ترااطية -حسب أليدا أسماف-إذف العاللة المتاادلة ايف ىذيف الصنفيف مف التذكر الجمعي ىي

كطيدةػ فيي تشاو الذاكرة الكظيفية اذالؾ الجز الصغير الظاىر مف الجاؿ الجميدم المغطى تحت الما ك

Gedächtnis als arsالمصطمح ارصمي اارلمانية: 110

Gedächtnis als visالمصطمح ارصمي اارلمانية: 111 Assmann, A. (1999)أنظر 112 Funktionsgedächtnisالمصطمح ارصمي اارلمانية: 113 Speichergedächtnisالمصطمح ارصمي اارلمانية: 114 137المصدر السااؽ ص 115

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يشكؿ إذف الذاكرة المخزنة ك رغـ أف الذاكرة الكظيفية لدييا مياـ مركزية مثؿ انا ك تأسيس ىذا ارخير اليكية أك حتى شرءنة نظاـ مجتمعي لا ـ ىكياتيا إال أف الذاكرة المخزنة ليست في ىذا السياؽ اقميمة

ستقامية فكؿ ءناصر ارىمية فيي حسب تعاير أليدا أسماف: "صالحة رف تصير خزاف لذاكرة كظيفية مالذاكرة المخزنة يمكف أف تنتقؿ إلى الذاكرة الكظيفية في حالة ما إذا كاف لدييا االنساة لممجتمع اعد

تمتاز الذاكرة 116معنكم إضافي ك مف ىنا تتضح درجة النفاذ أك التنافذ العالية ايف الذاكرتيف "ا اصدد تزامف ذاكراتي ففييا تقؼ الاارحة جناا إلى المخزنة اسمات ءدة فانا يا الزمني مكازم أم أننا ىن

جنب مع اليـك أما كسا طيا فتتشكؿ مف اردب كالفف ك العمكـ كالمتاحؼ ك أما حاممكىا فيـ أفراد الجماءة الحضارية ادكرىا تتميز الذاكرة الكظيفية اسمات كاضحة: فيي تسعي إلى تقكية ك تعميؽ

يا الزمني فيك يقـك ءمى راط الاارحة مع اليـك كتعار الذاكرة الكظيفية الحاضر ءار ماض معيف أما اناءف ارنا الجمعية ك تتميز ااالنتقا ية شديدة أما كسا طيا فيي ككؿ الطقكس التذكرية مف أءياد ك مناساات ءمكمية ك غيرىا ك يعتار كؿ فاءؿ أك ءنصر جمعي حامؿ ليذه الذاكرة الكظيفية فا دة ىذا

إمكانيات التحكؿ -حسب أليدا أسماف -ؽ ايف الفعؿ الكظيفي كالتخزيني لمتذكر الجمعي يجعؿ التفري 117كءممياتو ضمف الذاكرة الحضارية أمرا يمكف مالحظتو ك تفسيره

كانت ىذه إذف ناذة كركنكلكجية ك نظرية ءف ىذا الثالكث التنظيرم في ميداف اراحاث الذاكراتية الذم في تامكر مااحث كاىتمامات ءممية غير مساكلة في مجاؿ العمكـ الثقافية كاالجتماءية كاف لو االغ ارثر

كالتاريخية كاخاصة في ميداف الدراسات ارداية حيث ثـ راط الذاكرة الجمعية ااآلداب مما أفضى إلى ؿ في كنأم 118نشك ما يعرؼ االتحميؿ ارداي الذاكراتي الذم يقكـ اتحميؿ النصكص ارداية ذاكراتيا

ظيكر ترجمات ءراية رصينة ليذا التعاطي الذكراتي مع النصكص ارداية مما سيفتح أفاؽ رحاة لمتعاطي الذاكراتي مع النصكص ارداية العراية التي تشغؿ فييا كؿ مف الذاكرة ك اليكية مساحة أداية غير ىينة

جعالمرا

النمكذج الذىاكراتي الفمسطيني ذاكرة الجمعية ػ اليكية ايف الكتااة التاريخية كال(2008)سككاح زىير

العدد السااع كالعشركف -مجمة رؤل تراكية

المصدر السااؽ نفسو 116 Assmann, A. & Assmann J. (1994) أنظر 117 مف أىـ المراجع التنظرية الحديثة حكؿ منيج التحميؿ الذاكراتي لمنصكص ارداية نجد الكتاب: 118

Gedächtniskonzepte der Literaturwissenschaft: theoretische Grundlegung und Anwendungsperspektiven و لمؤلفيتAstrid Erll كAnsgar Nüning في ألمانيا 2005الصادر سنة

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: مفيـك الذاكرة الجمعية لدل مكريس ىالاكاكس مكلع دركب (2007)سككاح زىير : أماكف الذاكرة مكلع دركب (2007)سككاح زىير

Assmann, A. (1988). “Kollektives Gedächtnis und kulturelle Identität”, In: Kultur und Gedächtnis, Frankfurt, Suhrkamp. Assmann (1992). Das kulturelle Gedächtnis : Schrift, Erinnerung und politische Identität in frühen Hochkulturen. München, C.H.Beck. Assmann, A. & Assmann J. (1994): “Das Gestern im Heute. Medien und soziales Gedächtnis”. In: Die Wirklichkeit der Medien. Opladen. Westdeutscher Verlag. Assmann, A. (1999): Erinnerungsräume : Formen und Wandlungen des kulturellen Gedächtnisses. München: C.H.Beck. Bergson (1896): Matière et mémoire. Essai sur la relation du corps à l'esprit. Alcan, Paris. Erll (2005): Kollektives Gedächtnis und Erinnerungskulturen: eine Einführung. Stuttgart. Metzler. Erll/Nünning (2005). Gedächtniskonzepte der Literaturwissenschaft: theoretische Grundlegung und Anwendungsperspektiven. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. Erll/Nünning/Birk/Neumann/Schmidt (2004): Medien des kollektiven Gedächtnisses : Konstruktivität - Historizität - Kulturspezifität. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. Halbwachs (1925). Les cadres sociaux de la mémoire. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1952. Halbwachs (1939). La mémoire collective. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1950. Laborde (2005). Erinnerung und Gesellschaft. Springer-Verlag. Nora (1984/86/92). Les Lieux de mémoire, Gallimard. Russel (1921). The Analysis of Mind. George Allen & Unwin, London.

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ترجمة المصطمح اإلسالمي: أركان اإلسالم أنموذجا ليمى الغزواني وحنان واسنوان

مختبر الترجمة وتكامل المعارف،كمية اآلداب والعموم اإلنسانية المغرب -جامعة القاضي عياض، مراكش

ممخص الممـز اإخراج نص ال يشكاو أم خمؿ لغكم المصطمح أىـ ما يعترض سايؿ المترجـ تعد مشكمة ترجمة

كيتال ـ مع كسا ؿ التعاير في المغة اليدؼ كيحتـر جكىر الثقافة اليدؼ كلممصطمح اإلسالمي يتضمف حمكالت كازنة في المغة كالثقافة ارصؿ فالمترجـ ليس مطالاا اترجمة خصكصية زا دة رنو

التي تدخؿ في تركياو كفي المغكم لممصطمح فحسب اؿ ءميو أيضا أف يترجـ جميع العناصر المفيكـخمفية النص ارصمي حتى يككف لنطرة لتكصيؿ المفاىيـ مرفقة اكؿ دالالتيا كحمكالتيا الثقافية كالدينية

ايف الشعكب صا صو كيتناكؿ ااإلضافة كسيتناكؿ المقاؿ تعريؼ المصطمح كأىميتو كتعريؼ المصطمح اإلسالمي كخ

إلى ذلؾ دالالت مصطمحات أركاف اإلسالـ الصالة كالزكاة كالصـك كالحج في الثقافتيف ارصؿ كاليدؼ لتقييـ الترجمات مكضكع الدراسة في المقاؿ كما مدل نجاحيا في المحافظة ءمى المصطمح

ية كاإلنجميزية اإلسالمي كحمكالتو الداللية ءند ترجمتو إلى المغتيف الفرنس تقديـ

المصطمح كدكره في تنمية أصاح ءمـ المصطمح ءمما مستقال اذاتو في السنكات ارخيرة نظرا رىميةالعمـك كتكحيدىا ايف أصحاب االختصاص الكاحد لتسييؿ التكاصؿ فيما اينيـ كتقريب العمكـ مف المتمقي

فالمصطمح ضركرة الزمة »العممي كالحضارم العادم مما يستكجب النظر في شأنو لمكاكاة التطكر 119« لممنيج العممي إذ ال يستقيـ منيج إال إذا اني ءمى مصطمحات دليقة

كتعد الترجمة مف أىـ العمـك المرتاطة اعمـ المصطمح رف دكرىا ىك نقؿ ثقافة لغة أصؿ إلى لغة ىدؼ اختالؼ م " ءنو إشكاليات متعددة نظرا كىذا يشمؿ المصطمحات الخاصة ايذه الثقافة ارصؿ مما ينتج

مترجمي لغة كاحدة في نقؿ مصطمح مف لغة إلى أخرل احسب إدراؾ كؿ كاحد منيما لمفيكـ المصطمح 120كطايعتو كٱستعماالتو "

ااءتاار القرآف الكريـ دستكرا ءمميا المصطمح االسالمي في القرآف الكريـ مكضكع ترجمة كيأتي اختيارفي الثقافة كالحضارة اإلسالميتيف لما يحكيو مف مصطمحات ذات أىمية كدالالت ليمة كركنا أساسيا

فالمصطمحات القرآنية كاإلسالمية تدخؿ في نطاؽ المصطمح الخاص الذم يجب التعامؿ معو اعناية

. 265: ءمـ المصطمحات: أسسو النظرية كتطايقاتو العممية 119 47: المنيجية العامة لترجمة المصطمحات كتكحيدىا كتنميطيا 120

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فا قة فكيؼ تعامؿ إذف مترجمك المغة الفرنسية كاإلنجميزية مع ىذه المصطمحات؟ كما ىي المنيجية المعتمدة في ترجماتيـ؟ كىؿ استطاءكا التكصؿ إلى مقااؿ يحمؿ الداللة ءينيا لممصطمح ارصؿ؟ كىؿ

المصطمحات المترجمة مكحدة فيما اينيا؟

شكاالت كضعو المحكر اركؿ: مفيكـ ءمـ المصطمح كا

ءمـ المصطمح -1

كلد كرد 121اشتقاليما مف"اصطمح"كيشكؿ كؿ مف"المصطمح" ك"االصطالح" لفظيف لمفيـك كاحد لد تـ كلد تطكر ىذا التعريؼ 122«الصالح ضد الفساد » امعنى في جممة مف المعاجـ العراية جذر "صمح"

كنخمص إلى أف 123«اتفاؽ طا فة مخصكصة ءمى أمر مخصكص » ليدؿ ءمى أف االصطالح ع ألفاظ تدؿ ءمى ىك التعارؼ المخصكص أك االتفاؽ ايف مجمكءة متخصصة ءمى كض» المصطمح

مسميات مااشرة لما يتداكلكف أك ىك التعاير ءف معنى مف المعاني العممية يتفؽ ءميو ءمما ذلؾ العمـ امعنى أف المصطمحات ىي ألفاظ ءممية تـ االتفاؽ ءمى معناىا كدالالتيا مساقا ايف مجمكءة مف 124«

الناس يشترككف في المغة كفي التخصص العممي عمما كالااحثكف العرب االمصطمحات كتصنيفيا فقد تـ تأليؼ المعاجـ المصطمحية التي تعد كلد اىتـ ال

راط ىػ 1191 ت فالتيانكم امثااة اءتراؼ ضمني االمكانة التي حظي ايا المصطمح ءند العرب؛ مي ءاللة كطيدة ايف االصطالح كالعمكـ في "كشاؼ اصطالحات الفنكف كالعمكـ" اينما ءرؼ الخكارز

في كتااو ىػ 471 ت المصطمحات ءمى أنيا "مفاتيح العمكـ" كضمف الجرجاني ىػ 387ت في ىػ 821 ت "التعريفات" معاني المصطمحات المستخدمة في الفنكف كالعمـك كما أكد القمقشندم

مكـ الحاجة إليو ءمى أف معرفة المصطمح ىي الالـز المحتـ كالميـ المقدـ لع» كتااو صاح ارءشى : كشاو المصطمحات اأنيا دستكر كجب التزكد او في احكر العمـ 125«كالتصار القاصر ءميو

261ءمـ المصطمحات: أسسو النظرية كتطايقاتو العممية: 121 383 الصحاح: تاج المغة كصحاح العراية: 284 المفردات في غريب القرآف: 3/348لساف العرب: مج 122 6/550تاج العركس: مج 123 60في المصطمح كلغة العمـ: 124 1/7: جصاح ارءشى 125

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ت Wüsterاعمـ حديث النشأة يعنى االمصطمح في القرف العشريف ءمى يد ككستر كادأت العنايةالجمعية الدكلية آنذاؾ كلد ترأس 126 فيك أكؿ مف نادل اضركرة العناية االمصطمحات كتكحيدىا1977

لمسانيات التطايقية كىكذا شؽ ىذا العمـ لنفسو طريقا مستقال ءف ءمـ المعجـ كالمسانيات في العاللة ايف المفاىيـ العممية كارلفاظ المغكية » Terminologyكياحث ىذا العمـ ءمـ المصطمح

ميما مفيكـ الكاحد كياقى المفيكـ ركنا فيك يسعى إلى تحديد المصطمح الكاحد لم127«التي تعار ءنيا في ىذه العاللة حيث "يشكؿ نقطة انطالؽ لمعمؿ في ءمـ المصطمح كجب تحديده ادلة ككالعية تسيالف

128تميزه ءف االي المفاىيـ المشااية"ذا ما التضى ارمر يصكغ مفردة تخص تقنية ما رجؿ تماي ة كيعتار ءمـ المصطمح "فنا يعايف كيحمؿ كا

كياقى تعريؼ ءمـ المصطمح غير كاضح في العديد مف الدارسات 129المتطماات التعايرية لممستخدـ"مف 130المصطمح كيعكس تمؾ الخاصة االمفيكـ" الغراية "حيث يعرؼ االعمـ الذم يحدد ءال ؽ مال مة

خالؿ ىذيف التعريفيف يالحظ أف ءمـ المصطمح ءند الغرب ال يسعى إلى صياغة أك تكليد مصطمح جديد إال ءند الحاجة فيك ياحث في المفردات المكجكدة الدالة ءمى مفاىيـ معينة

ية كتتجمى أىمية كدكر المصطمح في تيسير العمكـ كفيميا فاعد التطكر الذم شيدتو الحضارات اإلنسانكتكسع العمكـ كظيكر ءمـك جديدة مرتاطة االتكنكلكجيا اتخذت الشاكة العالمية لممصطمحات في فيينا

فمقد أصاح » ءناية خاصة لممصطمح حيث منحت131«ال معرفة اال مصطمح » االنمسا شعار كراـ لد حظي اعناية فا قة تدؿ ءمى الدكر الذم يمعاو في« أميرا » المصطمح راط الصمة ذا جالؿ كا

كياقى كضع 132«ايف ارمـ كالشعكب كفي نقؿ المعرفة كالتكنكلكجيا كنشر آثار الحضارة الحديثة المصطمح أكلى مراحؿ كالدة المصطمح كنشأتو

126 General theory of terminology and translation studies : 425. 269كتطايقاتو العممية: ءمـ المصطمح : أسسو النظرية 127 24ارسس المغكية لعمـ المصطمح : 128

129 Manuel pratique de terminologie: 14. ( ترجمة اتصرؼ130 La terminologie: noms et notions: 42. ( ترجمة اتصرؼ

265: ءمـ المصطمح : أسسو النظرية كتطايقاتو العممية 131 12المنيجية العامة لترجمة المصطمحات كتكحيدىا كتنميطيا: 132

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طرا ؽ كءكا ؽ كضع المصطمح -2

العممية حظي كضع المصطمح ااىتماـ المصطمحييف كالمترجميف نظرا لدكره الاارز في تقريب المفاىيـكالفنية داخؿ نفس المغة أك إلى لغة أخرل ك"نقصد اكضع المصطمح جميع الفعاليات المتصمة اجمع

فكضع 133المصطمح كتحميمو كتنسيقو كتحديد مرادفاتو كتعريفاتو االمغة ذاتيا أك مقااالتو امغة أخرل"رضو ءكا ؽ كياقى السايؿ المصطمح يدخؿ في الجانب التطايقي لعمـ المصطمح غير أف ىذا الكضع تعت

لكضع المصطمح المناسب ىك االءتماد ءمى المفيـك كتختمؼ طرا ؽ كضع المصطمح ايف العرب كالغرب طرا ؽ كضع المصطمح ءند العرب 2-1

اناثؽ اىتماـ العرب القدما اكضع المصطمحات مف ءنايتيـ االترجمة لاؿ كاعد العصر العااسي كلد

إذا كجد المصطمح » مغكيكف العرب منيجية كاضحة لكضع المصطمح العراي حيث:كال الااحثكف اءتمدذا لـ التراثي ارصيؿ يستعمؿ أكال كال يقدـ ءميو إال في حالة شيكع المصطمح ارجناي ككثرة تداكلو كا

كالتعريب يكجد المصطمح ارصيؿ يتـ المجك إلى التكليد ءار آليات لغكية محضة ىي المجاز كاالشتقاؽ 134«كالنحت ففي ىذه المنيجية التراث لاؿ التكليد أك اعاارة النحاة السماع لاؿ القياس

االشتقاؽ

المقصكد ىنا ااالشتقاؽ تككيف لفظ ءراي » يعد االشتقاؽ أكؿ الطرؽ المعتمدة في تكليد المصطمح ك كذلؾ اأف 135«أثاتتو النصكص جديد مف مادة ءراية ءرفتيا المعجمات كاكزف ءراي ءرفو النحاة أك

يستناط مف المصدر الفعؿ كالفاءؿ كاسـ المفعكؿ كالصفة إلخ المجاز

المجاز خالؼ الحقيقة كأحيانا يشار إلى المعنى االمجاز "كيستعمؿ المجاز في غير ما كضع لو مع عمالو فاليدؼ منو كليس لممجاز لاءدة مضاكطة تسيؿ است136لرينة مانعة مف إرادة المعنى ارصمي"

إخراج لفظ مف معناه ارصمي إلى معنى جديد

272 ءمـ المصطمح : أسسو النظرية كتطايقاتو العممية: 133 87المصطمح ايف المعيارية كالنسقية: 134 35ارسس المغكية لعمـ المصطمح: 135 42دراسات في الترجمة كالمصطمح ك التعريب: 136

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التعريب

التعريب لفظ استحدثو العرب ليمكنيـ مف االلتااس مف المغات ارخرل خصكصا المغة اإلنجميزية إيراد المفظة ارجناية ءمى حاليا مف المغة اركركاية المنقكؿ منيا مع» كالمغة الفرنسية كيقصد االتعريب

كاركيد أف المشكمة التي مف شأنيا اءتراض ىذا 137«مراءاة النظاـ الصكتي لمغة العراية المنقكؿ إلييا نقؿ ارصكات المينة كارصكات الساكنة الحركات كالحركؼ اركركاية الكاردة في » النقؿ ىي أف:

138«المصطمحات المعراة كالدخيمة إلى العراية ال يخضع لقكاءد مضاكطة لنحتا

كىك انتزاع كممة مف كممتيف أك أكثر ءمى أف يككف تناسب في » ال يمجأ إلى النحت إال ءند الضركرة كيمجأ إليو » ككأنو اختزاؿ ألفاظ مركاة إلى لفظة كاحدة 139«المفظ كالمعنى ايف المنحكت كالمنحكت منو

كالثاني معنى آخر فيتككف منيا لمعالجة الكممات اركركاية المتككنة مف ءنصريف يفيد اركؿ معنى كما يككف العنصر الثاني أحيانا كاسعة أك Prefixeثالث جديد كيككف العنصر اركؿ صدرا أك سااقة

Suffixe»140الحقة

طرا ؽ كضع المصطمح ءند الغرب 2-2

ءف يتميز الغرايكف فيما يخص كضع المصطمح اككنيـ ال يسعكف إلى تكليد المصطمحات اؿ ياحثكف المصطمحات في معاجميـ العامة كالمتخصصة ككتايـ التراثية كالعممية لذلؾ يحثكف ءمى أىمية الاحث

"منيج الاحث المنتظـ ميـ جدا خاصة في ءمـ أفDorothy Nakos-Aupetitالمنتظـ فقد ذكرت لكتب العامة المصطمح المقارف فيك يعتمد ءمكما ءمى مختمؼ مراحؿ تصفح: المصادر المكتكاة ا

ثـ المتخصصة كاعد ذلؾ المصادر الشفيية حسب الحاجة ايدؼ إيجاد حؿ محدد لمشكؿ 141معركؼ" : 142طرا ؽ كضع المصطمح إلى أراعة ألساـ (1980)سنة Robert DUBUCكلسـ

85أزمة المصطمح العراي في القرف التاسع ءشر: 137 41المنيجية العامة لترجمة المصطمحات كتكحيدىا كتنميطيا: 138 42دراسات في الترجمة ك المصطمح ك التعريب: 139

44-43المنيجية العامة لترجمة المصطمحات كتكحيدىا كتنميطيا: 140141 Réflexions sur la terminologie: 256. ( مة اتصرؼترج142Manuel pratique de la terminologie: 15-16. ( ترجمة اتصرؼ

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التأصيؿ le repérage

كيتـ ذلؾ ءمى مستكييف: ارلفاظ لمفاىيـ أساسية خاصة االمجاؿ المستكل التصكرم كيتـ ءمى صعيده جمع المصطمحات

المدركس اطا ؽ تعريفية لحقا ؽ مممكسة أك مفاىيـ أساسية المستكل الكظيفي: كفيو يتحكؿ العمؿ مف الاحث ءف

إلى التعرؼ ءمى سيالات التعااير الخاصة االتقنية المدركسة التحميؿ السياليL‖analyse contextuel

اتحديد السياؽ ءار التحقؽ مف العناصر الداللية المكجكدة داخمو فحسب القيمة ييتـ التحميؿ السيالياإلخاارية التي تحمميا ىذه العناصر يصاح السياؽ تارة تعريفيا كتارة تفسيريا كتارة أخرل تجميعيا كفي

جميع ىذه الحاالت تاقى العالمة المفيكمية ميمة ميما ادت ضعيفة التكليد La création néologique

أف التكليد حظي DUBUCكمف ايف الطرا ؽ التي تمجأ إلييا المصطمحية خمؽ كممات جديدة كيرل ااىتماـ ماالغ فيو مقارنة امكانتو الحقيقية فالمصطمحي ليس صانع كممات إذ تقتصر ميمتو في ارغمب

لمتكليد إال ءند لصكر الكممات المكجكدة كليس ءمى خمقيا في كؿ لحظة فال حاجة ءمى التراح المصطمح اليدؼ

التكحيدnormalisation La

التكحيد ىك االتفاؽ داخؿ حقؿ ءممي محدد ءمى استعماؿ مصطمح اعينو لمداللة ءمى معنى ما كىذا االتفاؽ إما أف يحصؿ ااتفاؽ العمما أك اقرار مف السمطة المفكضة ليذه الغاية كياقى مسمما اأف

مد ءمى التكثيؽ المصطمحي الجيد التكحيد يعت ءكا ؽ كضع المصطمح 2-3

كيعاني كضع المصطمح كخاصة المصطمح العراي مف ءدة ءكا ؽ تعرلؿ تطكر العممية المصطمحية أىميا الترادؼ المفظي كيقصد او استخداـ مصطمحيف أك أكثر لمداللة ءمى معنى أك مفيكـ كاحد كتعاني

ترادفات المفيكـ الكاحد في المعاجـ ارمر الذم يجعؿ المصطمحي أك المترجـ المغة العراية مف تكدس ماختيار المصطمح ارنسب لممفيـك ااإلضافة إلى االشتراؾ المفظي الذم يعني تعدد أماـ صعكاة في

كتنكع المعاني في المصطمح الكاحد كلد ذكر فيمي حجازم اأنو "ال يجكز استخداـ كممة ءراية كاحدة

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رف مف شأف ذلؾ 143لمفيكميف مختمفيف اؿ يجب التعاير ءف كؿ مفيكـ امصطمح يميزه ءف ارخر" إحداث لاس لدل المتمقي

المحكر الثاني: المصطمح اإلسالمي

تعريؼ المصطمح اإلسالمي -1

ءمى ارلفاظ مف الداللة شكؿ مجي اإلسالـ نقمة نكءية في المجاؿ المغكم حيث انتقمت مجمكءة مفأصاح الذىف أماـ ارسما الشرءية ال ينصرؼ » المعنى العاـ إلى الداللة ءمى المعنى الخاص كىكذا

نما ينصرؼ إلى المعنى الشرءي الجديد الذم يقتضيو الشرع كتتطماو الحياة إلى المعنى المغكم القديـ كا 144«الجديدة كال يعرؼ ارصؿ إال اعد تصفح كتب المغة

ارلفاظ التقنية التي تنتمي إلى مجاؿ داللي لغكم كاحد: الحقؿ الديني » مصطمحات اإلسالمية كيقصد اال

كىذه ارلفاظ إما استحدثيا اإلسالـ امجي و أك كانت معركفة ءند العرب مف لاؿ في العصر الجاىمي المي العاـ كيمكف تقسيـ المصطمح اإلسالمي ءمى المستكل اإلجرا ي إلى لسميف : المصطمح اإلس145«

كالمصطمح القرآني

المصطمح اإلسالمي العاـ 1-1

نقصد االمصطمح اإلسالمي العاـ المصطمح الكارد في القرآف الكريـ كمصطمح الحديث كالمصطمح الذم أجمع ءميو الفقيا كءمما الشرع اعد أف دءت الضركرة إلى تكليده كاذلؾ يككف المصطمح اإلسالمي

مصطمحات منزلة ذات كزف ثقيؿ كمصطمحات ءرفية اتفؽ ءمييا ءمما الشريعة كالفقيا العاـ مزيجا ايف لتحديد داللة مستجدة

229ارسس المغكية لعمـ المصطمح: 143 102إشكالية ترجمة المصطمح اإلسالمي: 144 97-96نفسو: 145

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المصطمح القرآني 1-2

يمكف اءتاار كؿ مصطمح كرد ذكره في القرآف الكريـ لمداللة ءمى مفيكـ محدد مصطمحا لرآنيا كيرد القرآنية إما أف تككف مستحدثة أك معركفة ءند العرب المصطمح مرفكلا امفيكمو كمعناه كالمصطمحات

القرآف الكريـ أضفى ءمييا دالالت جديدة ذاءت كانتشرت كتنكسيت دالالتيا » أياـ الجاىمية غير أف 146«الجاىمية

كاما أف المصطمح القرآني ىك ارصؿ كمنو تفرءت المصطمحات اإلسالمية العامة فإننا سنعتار المصطمح ك نفسو المصطمح اإلسالمي القرآني ى

خصكصيات المصطمح اإلسالمي -2 المرجع 2-1

لكؿ مصطمح مرجع أم كاضعو ارصمي الذم جعمو يككف » يقصد االمرجع ارنصؿ كالمنات فػ ءمى صكرتو المفظية كضمنو فكرة أك مفيكما أصاح متداكال لمعالجة معرفة معينة في زماف كمكاف

ف الكريـ ىك كحي أنزلو اهلل ساحانو كتعالى ءمى رسكلو الكريـ فمرجعو كاحد كأصؿ القرآ147«محدديف كاالتالي انتفى مادأ االتفاؽ الذم يانى ءميو المصطمح

المرجعية 2-2

الحقؿ المعرفي الذم يعار المصطمح ءف اعض جكاناو كيدكر » كيقصد امرجعية المصطمح اإلسالمي : فالمصطمح اإلسالمي خمؽ كسط اي ة دينية ال يمكف اأم 148«دا رتو في فمكو احيث ال يفيـ إال في

شكؿ مف ارشكاؿ إفراغو مف حمكلتو الداللية كنقمو إلى مجاؿ ءممي أك معرفي آخر

المصطمح اإلسالمي أداة ك مكضكءا 2-3

97-96نفسو: 146 II :72مدخؿ إلى ءمـ المصطمح 147 II :72مدخؿ إلى ءمـ المصطمح 148

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معنى يتميز المصطمح اإلسالمي اقدرتو ءمى االشتغاؿ أداة : "يكضع فييا مضمكف ما أك تحمؿ 149ما ءمى امتداد الحضارات المختمفة كارنساؽ الفكرية المتعددة كالعقا د كالمذىايات المتميزة"ينظر » ااإلضافة إلى اشتغالو مكضكءا أك مضمكنا كالذم يقصد ايما كظيفة المصطمح كجكىره حيث

ي العناصر المككنة فيو لذاتو كياحث في ءناصره كتفكيكو لمكصكؿ فيو إلى ءنصر معيف يعزؿ ءف اال 150«لو مف أجؿ التأكيد ءمى تشغيؿ المصطمح في اتجاه ىذا العنصر أك ذاؾ

اإلءجاز الترجمي لممصطمح اإلسالمي 2-4

ءجاز المصطمح اإلسالمي مف اإلءجاز القرآني كيتمثؿ مف خالؿ تكافؽ المفظ كالمعنى كتكامميما » كا

الدكر ارىـ في فف الفصاحة احيث تككف المفظة دالة ءمى في أدا الدكر المطمكب فييما فالتأليؼ ىك فإءجاز المصطمح اإلسالمي يتجمى في لفظو الجامع 151«المعنى المراد كتقع في المكلع المناسب ليا

الشامؿ لمفيكـ محدد احيث ال يترادؼ مع أم لفظ آخر كال تتعدد معانيو اؿ تجتمع لتشكؿ مفيكما كاحدا ز ءف الكؿ لذلؾ تاقى ترجمتو إلى لغات أخرل إءجازا احؽ ال يتجزأ فيو الج

الترجمة كالمصطمح اإلسالمي -3

تعنى مف حيث ارساس انقؿ » الترجمة ىي ءممية نقؿ نص مف المغة ارصؿ إلى المغة اليدؼ فيي

كتدخؿ ترجمة المصطمح 152«مف لغة إلى أخرل –كليس معاني الكممات المفردة –معنى النص يشكؿ مكضكع ترجمة النص الديني ركنا ىاما » سالمي في نطاؽ ترجمة النصكص الدينية حيث اإل

ليس في الدراسات المغكية التطايقية فحسب كلكف أيضا في مجاؿ التكاصؿ ايف الثقافات كالشعكب كىك كفي ىذا الصدد أضحت ترجمة 153«شي أصاح ممحا في كلتنا الحاضر أكثر مف أم كلت مضى

ني القرآف الكريـ مطماا ممحا في ءصرنا الحالي معاال يختمؼ العمما ءمى أف أىـ مميزات النص القرآني ىك إءجازه الذم يتمثؿ في "أسمكاو كدلة ألفاظو كذلؾ التكافؽ كاالنسجاـ ايف المفظ كالمعنى المراد احيث يصكر المفظ المعاني أدؽ تصكير احيث تارز

3معركة المصطمحات ايف الغرب ك اإلسالـ: 149 II :74مدخؿ إلى ءمـ المصطمح 150 336مقدمة في الدراسات القرآنية: 151 299ءمـ المصطمح : أسسو النظرية كتطايقاتو العممية: 152

9النص الديني ك الترجمة: 153

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لفاظو كجماليا كذلؾ التناسؽ العجيب ايف المفظ كالمعنى كالتكامؿ كالترااط ايف ءظمة القرآف في ركءة أارلفاظ احيث تككف المفظة المغكية معارة أدؽ تعاير ءف المعنى المراد كلك كلع أم إاداؿ أك تغيير في

154ارلفاظ المترادفة الختمت المعاني كاضطرب ارسمكب"ءف اإلءجاز حيث ال يكجد مجاؿ إلاداؿ مصطمح اآخر فمكؿ إذف فكؿ لفظ كمصطمح لرآني يعار

مصطمح معنى خاص او ال يدؿ ءميو سكاه كتتجمى صعكاة ترجمة النص الديني في ككف المترجـ مطالاا ليس فقط اإتقاف المغة ارصؿ لمنص كالمغة

لو إال ااإللماـ اليدؼ كلكنو مطالب أيضا االغكص في الثقافة ارصؿ لمنص القرآني كىذا لف يتأتى اأصكؿ التشريع كالتفاسير كالعمكـ القرآنية الخ حتى ال يجرد المصطمحات اإلسالمية مف داللتيا

ترجمة كؿ الحمكالت الداللية لمقرآف الكريـ إلى المغات المقصكدة في المغة ارصؿ كاالرغـ مف استحالة ارخرل فإف ترجمة معانيو تظؿ أمرا ضركريا كممحا

المحكر الثالث : ترجمة مصطمحات أركاف اإلسالـ أنمكذجا

سنحاكؿ في ىذا المحكر ءرض كنقد ترجمات مصطمحات أركاف اإلسالـ في القرآف الكريـ إلى المغة

لى المغة اإلنجميزية ءند كؿ محمد اف شقركفك Denise Masson (1994)الفرنسية ءند كؿ مف كا كلد التصرنا في Mohammad Marmaduke Pickthall (2009) ك1953مف يكسؼ ءمي ت

ىذه الدارسة ءمى اعض اآليات مف سكرة الاقرة التي كرد فييا ذكر مصطمحات أركاف اإلسالـ اصيغتيا الفعمية كاستثنينا مصطمح الشيادتاف لعدـ كركده في القرآف الكريـ كرنيما ءاادة تعتمد ءمى اإلسمية أك

القمب كالمساف

الضياع كالراح في ترجمة أركاف اإلسالـ في القرآف الكريـ -1

لاؿ : لاؿ رسكؿ اهلل –ءاد اهلل اف ءمر اف الخطاب رضي اهلل ءنيما –ءف أاي ءاد الرحمف لاـ » صمى اهلل ءميو كسمـ: اني اإلسالـ ءمى خمس: شيادة أف ال إلو إال اهلل كأف محمدا ءاده كرسكلو كا

يتا الزك 155«اة كحج الايت كصـك رمضاف الصالة كا

113مقدمة في الدراسات القرآنية: 154

23التعميقات ءمى ارراعيف النككية: 155

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:مصطمح الصالة

الصالة مف اهلل تعالى : الرحمة كالصالة كاحدة » ك156«ىي الدءا كالتاريؾ كالتمجيد »الصالة لغة: 157«الصمكات المفركضة كىك اسـ يكضع مكضع المصدر

كالشركط المخصكصة حيث فالصالة الركف الثاني مف أركاف اإلسالـ كىي العاادة المخصكصة اارركافال تصح إال اشركط كفركض فمف شركطيا: الطيارة ] [ كستر العكرة ] [ كأما فركضيا: » إنيا

فاستقااؿ القامة كالنية كتكايرة اإلحراـ كالقياـ ليا كلرا ة القرآف كالقياـ ليا كالرككع كالطمأنينة فيو كرفع سجكد كالطمأنينة فيو كرفع الرأس مف السجكد كالجمكس ايف الرأس مف الرككع كاالءتداؿ فيو كال

158« السجدتيف كالطمأنينة فيو كالسجكد الثاني كالطمأنينة فيو كلد ذكر مصطمح الصالة في سكرة الاقرة في جممة مف اآليات نكرد اعضيا كاآلتي:

ـ يينفقيكفى ٱلذيفى ييؤمنيكفى { لنىاىي زى مما رى مكةى كى ييقيميكفى ٱلص [ 3]الاقرة : {اٱلغىيب كىكثيرا ما يقرف اهلل تعالى ايف الصالة » في شرح ىذه اآلية ىػ 774 ت يقكؿ اإلماـ ااف كثير

ءميو كتمجيده كاإلنفاؽ مف ارمكاؿ فإف الصالة حؽ اهلل كءاادتو كىي مشتممة ءمى تكحيده كالثنا 159«كاالاتياؿ إليو كدءا و كالتككؿ ءميو

1953كيكسؼ ءمي ت محمد اف شقركفك Denise Masson (1994)كلد ترجميا كؿ مف ءمى التكالي اػ: Mohammad Marmaduke Pickthall (2009)ك

Ceux qui croient au Mystère ; ceux qui s‖acquittent de la prière ; ceux qui font l‖aumône avec les biens que nous leur avons accordés. Masson : T 1 p 4.

Ceux qui croient au monde non-manifesté , qui s‖acquittent régulièrement de la prière et qui [à titre d‖aumône] dépensent de ce que nous leur avons donné. 22ص 1ااف شقركف ج

Who believe in the Unseen, Are steadfast in prayer, And spend out of what We Have provided for them. 17يكسؼ ءمي ص

Who believe in the unseen, and establish worship, and spend of that We have bestowed upon them. Marmaduke Pickthall : p 33

1/374ي غريب القرآف: جفالمفردات 156 6/2402الصحاح تاج المغة ك صحاح العراية: مج 157 1/169الجامع رحكاـ القرآف: مج 158 1/67تفسير القرآف العظيـ: 159

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ار } كىاستىعينيكا ا { كىالصالىة الص اشعيفى مىى الخى نيىا لىكىايرىةه إال ءى [45]الاقرة : كىا يقكؿ تعالى آمرا ءايده فيما يؤممكف مف خير الدنيا » ىذه اآلية اػ : ىػ 774 ت كفسر اإلماـ ااف كثير

نيا إلى الصالة ] [ لكايرة ءا د كاآلخرة ااالستعانة االصار كالصالة؛] [ كالضمير في لكلو : كا ف كانت خطااا في سياؽ إنذار اني إسرا يؿ فإنيـ لـ يقصدكا ايا ءمى سايؿ كالظاىر أف اآلية كا

نما ىي ءامة ليـ كلغيرىـ كاهلل أءمـ 160«التخصيص كا اػ: Mohammad Marmaduke Pickthall (2009)كترجميا

Seek help in patience and prayer; and truly it is hard save for the humble-minded Marmaduke Pickthall : p 37

ليذه اآلية رنو استخدـ مصطمح مغاير Mohammad Marmadukeكاكتفينا اعرض ترجمة لممصطمح الذم استخدمو في ترجمتو لآلية السااقة اينما احتفظ االي المترجمكف انفس المصطمح المعتمد

لسااقة في اآلية االمالحظ في ترجمات مصطمح "الصالة" التي أكردناىا سااقا أف المترجميف اءتمدكا ءمى المعجـ كاىتمكا في غالب ارحياف االمعنى المغكم دكف االلتفات إلى المعنى االصطالحي كىكذا فقد ترجـ كؿ مف

Denise Masson (1994) كمحمد اف شقركف مصطمح الصالة امصطمح« La prière » في اآليةالثالثة مف سكرة الاقرة كىذا المصطمح ينحصر معناه في المغة الفرنسية في "التكجو إلى اهلل ااختالؼ

ليس ليا كلت محدد ءكس 161طمب معركؼ" اردياف االدءا جيرا أك ىمسا لمتكدد إليو مف أجؿ كالثنا ىناؾ تمجيد كتكحيد اهلل الصالة في الشريعة اإلسالمية فيي محددة اكلتيا كااإلضافة إلى الدءا

كشركط كفركض ال تصح إال ايا كما أسمفنا الذكر كالذم « Prayer » فقد استخدـ مصطمح 1953االنساة لترجمة مصطمح الصالة ءند يكسؼ ءمي ت

كىذا 162يعني "طمب شعا رم أك طمب في ءيد الشكر يكجو إلى اهلل أك إلى أم مصدر آخر لمعاادة"اعيد ءف مفيكـ الصالة في الشريعة اإلسالمية مما نتج ءنو ضياع داللي لمصطمح الصالة كلد المعنى

ايف اآلية الثالثة كاآلية الخامسة Mohammad Marmaduke Pickthall (2009)اختمفت ترجمة 163الذم يعني التقديس كالكلار تجاه اهلل أك اآللية« Worship »كارراعكف فقد استخدـ مصطمح

في اآلية الثانية « Prayer »متعاير ءف مصطمح الصالة في اآلية اركلى ثـ ءاد الستخداـ مصطمح ل لـ يحسـ االختيار ايف المصطمحيف اإلنجميزييف Mohammad Marmaduke (2009)فػ

133 -132/ 1تفسير القرآف العظيـ: ج 160161 Dictionnaire Encyclopédique Universel : 1029( ترجمة اتصرؼ162 The oxford everyday dictionnary and guide to correct English: 547. ( ترجمة اتصرؼ163 The oxford everyday dictionnary and guide to correct English : 825. ( ترجمة اتصرؼ

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كالمالحظ أف المترجميف ارراعة اكتفكا اترجمة مصطمح الصالة امصطمح آخر تراطو او ءاللة الجز كؿ فقد ترجـ الصالة كىي الكؿ االجز الذم ىك الدءا فتـ راح أحد المعاني الميمة كىك المعنى اال

المغكم في الترجمة غير أف ىذه الترجمة ألغت جميع المعاني: مف تحميد كتكاير كحمد كسجكد ف كفة الضياع كرككع كتالكة القرآف كما أضاءت الشركط كالفرا ض الممزمة لصحة الصالة كىكذا فإ

الترجمي أشد ثقال مف كفة الراح الترجمي ذلؾ أف الدالالت ارساسية كالميمة لمصطمح الصالة ضاءت خالؿ ءممية الترجمة نتحدث ىنا إذف ءف ضياع داللي

مصطمح الزكاة

تزيد ارصؿ النما كالطيارة كنقمت شرءا إلخراج معركؼ فإف نقمت مف اركؿ فألنيا » إف الزكاة في ف نقمت مف الثاني فألنيا تطير اركة الماؿ كتفيد النفس فضيمة الكـر أك رنيا تككف في الماؿ النامي كا

فالزكاة ثالث أركاف اإلسالـ كىي تزكية لمنفس كالركح كالماؿ 164» الماؿ مف الخاث كالنفس مف الاخؿ 165 »مكمؼ هلل تعالىفي الشريعة لدر معيف مف النصاب الحكلي يخرجو الحر المسمـ ال» ك

كلد ذكر مصطمح الزكاة في سكرة الاقرة في جممة مف اآليات: ـ يينفقيكفى { لنىاىي زى مما رى مكةى كى ييقيميكفى ٱلص [ 3]الاقرة : }ٱلذيفى ييؤمنيكفى اٱلغىيب كى

كاالنفاؽ ىك مف اإلحساف إلى المخمكليف » في شرحو ليذه اآلية ىػ 774 ت جا ءف اإلماـ ااف كثيراالنفع المتعدل إلييـ ] [ فكؿ مف النفقات الكاجاة كالزكاة المفركضة داخؿ في لكلو تعالى: }كمما

166«رزلناىـ ينفقكف{ ءمى التكالي اػ: محمد اف شقركفك Denise Masson (1994)كلد ترجميا كؿ مف

Ceux qui croient au Mystère ; ceux qui s‖acquittent de la prière ; ceux qui font l‖aumône avec les biens que nous leur avons accordés. Masson : T 1 p 4.

Ceux qui croient au monde non-manifesté , qui s‖acquittent régulièrement de la prière et qui [ à titre d‖aumône] dépensent de ce que nous leur avons donné. 22ص 1ااف شقركف ج

1/349مجركح المعاني في تفسير القرآف العظيـ: 164165 : 907كشاؼ اصطالحات الفنكف كالعمـك

1/67تفسير القرآف العظيـ: ج 166

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ليذه اآلية محمد اف شقركفك Denise Masson (1994)لمنا اعرض ترجمات الفرنسية لكؿ مف لمداللة ءمى اإلنفاؽ « l‖aumône »رنو لفت انتااىنا استخداميما لمصطمح

كعيفى { مكةى كىآتيكا ٱلزكىكةى كىٱركىعيكا مىعى ٱلر [ 43]الاقرة : } كىأىليميكا ٱلصءف مقاتؿ: "ىذه اآلية مكجية رىؿ الكتاب حيث يأمرىـ اهلل تعالى االصالة ىػ 774 ت يقكؿ ااف كثير

مع الناي صمى اهلل ءميو كسمـ كأمرىـ أف يؤتكا الزكاة أم يدفعكنيا إلى الناي صمى اهلل ءميو كسمـ كالزكاة 167فريضة كاجاة ال تنفع ارءماؿ إال ايا"

1953كيكسؼ ءمي ت شقركف محمد افك Denise Masson (1994)كلد ترجميا كؿ مف ءمى التكالي اػ: Mohammad Marmaduke Pickthall (2009)ك

Acquittez-vous de la prière, faites l‖aumône; inclinez-vous avec ceux qui s‖inclinent. Masson : T 1 p 10.

Accomplissez la prière, acquittez-vous de l‖aumône, et inclinez-vous avec ceux qui s‖inclinent. 50ص 1ااف شقركف ج

And be steadfast in prayer ; Practise regular charity ; And bow down your heads; With those who bow down.( in worship ). 27يكسؼ ءمي ص

Establish worship, pay the poor-due, and bow your heads with those who bow (in worship). Marmaduke Pickthall : p 37

كمحمد اف شقركف مصطمح الزكاة في اآلية الثانية Denise Masson (1994)لقد ترجـ كؿ مف 168كىذا المصطمح االفرنسية يعني "ما يعطى لمفقرا مف ااب الصدلة" « L‖aumône»امصطمح

ض كاجب ءمى كؿ مسمـ كتختمؼ ءف الصدلة اينما تعرؼ الزكاة حسب ما ذكرناه سااقا ءمى أنيا فر نما ىي ءمؿ اختيارم يرتقي او المسمـ ءند راو فالزكاة حؽ هلل كليا نصيب تدفع التي ال تعتار كاجاة كا منو كليا شركط تخصيا ارمر الذم يكضح لنا كاجال كجكد ضياع داللي في ترجمة مصطمح الزكاة ال

ترجمة ءمى المفيكـ الحقيقي كارصمي اؿ استادلت مفيكـ الزكاة يرافقو أم راح ترجمي إذ لـ تحافظ ال امفيـك الصدلة

Ceuxا » في اآلية اركلى « كمما رزلناىـ ينفقكف » ءاارة Denise Masson (1994)كلد ترجمت l‖aumônequi font »محمد اف شقركف فقد ترجـ نفس العاارة مشيرا إلى أف المقصكد في ىذه أما

« : L‖aumône »نفاؽ ىك اآلية ااإل« qui [à titre d‖aumône] dépensent de ce que nous leur avons donnés »

1/128تفسير القرآف العظيـ ج 167

168 Dictionnaire Encyclopédique Universel : 92( ترجمة اتصرؼ

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لمداللة ءمى اإلنفاؽ كلد أكد المفسركف ءمى أف اإلنفاؽ يضـ « aumône »فقد استخدـ مصطمح ءالة ارىؿ كالحاؿ أف المترجميف لد لدما مصطمحا كاحدا لمداللة ءمى النفقة كالزكاة الصدلة كالزكاة كا

كىذا تعارض مع الشريعة اإلسالمية التي تفرؽ ايف النفقة كالزكاة كمف خالؿ ىاتيف الترجمتيف يتضح أف ىناؾ ضياءا دالليا لممعنى الحقيقي لمزكاة مما سيؤدم ال محالة إلى التااس المفاىيـ في ذىف المتمقي

» مصطمح الزكاة امصطمح 1953ترجـ يكسؼ ءمي ت أما الترجمة اإلنجميزية لآلية الثانية فقد Charity» "كىذا المعنى 169كيعني "المعاممة الكدكدة لمقاصريف كاليتامى ككـر في العطا لممحتاجيف

اعيد ءف مفيكـ الزكاة في الشريعة اإلسالمية مما نتج ءنو أيضا ضياع داللي لمصطمح الزكاة كاستخدـ Mohammad Marmaduke (2009) مصطمح «Poor-due » كالذم يقصد او مستحؽ يدفع

لمفقرا كفي كمتا الحالتيف لـ يتمكف أم مف المترجميف مف تقريب المعنى الكارد لمصطمح الزكاة في اآلية

مصطمح الصـك

اإلمساؾ كترؾ التنقؿ مف حاؿ إلى حاؿ كيقاؿ لمصمت صـك رنو إمساؾ ءف الكالـ » الصكـ لغة ىك:اإلمساؾ ءف المفطرات مع التراف النية او مف طمكع الفجر إلى غركب الشمس » في الشرع: كىك170«

فالصـك رااع أركاف اإلسالـ 171 «كتمامو ككمالو ااجتناب المحظكرات كءدـ الكلكع في المحرمات كلد ذكر مصطمح الصـك في سكرة الاقرة في جممة مف اآليات نكرد اعضيا كاآلتي:

ـ تىتقيكفى { ـ لىعىمكي مىى ٱلذيفى مف لىامكي ـي كىمىا كيتبى ءى يىا ـي ٱلص مىيكي [ 183]الاقرة : } يأىييىا ٱلذيفى آمىنيكا كيتبى ءىمف ىذه ارمة يقكؿ تعالى مخاطاا لممؤمنيف» يقكؿ اإلماـ ااف كثير في تفسير اآلية الكريمة:

كآمرا ليـ االصياـ كىك اإلمساؾ ءف الطعاـ كالشراب كالكلاع انية خالصة هلل ءز كجؿ لما فيو مف زكاة النفكس كطيارتيا كتنقيتيا مف ارخالط الردي ة كارخالؽ الرذيمة كذكر أنو كما أكجاو ءمييـ فقد أكجاو

172« أدا ىذا الفرض أكمؿ مما فعمو أكل ؾ ءمى مف كاف لاميـ فميـ فيو أسكة كليجتيد ىؤال في 1953كيكسؼ ءمي ت محمد اف شقركفك Denise Masson (1994)كلد ترجميا كؿ مف

ءمى التكالي اػ: Mohammad Marmaduke Pickthall (2009)ك

169 The oxford everyday dictionnary and guide to correct English : 119. ( ترجمة اتصرؼ

1/657الجامع رحكاـ القرآف: مج 170 1/658الجامع رحكاـ القرآف: مج 171 1/318تفسير القرآف العظيـ: ج 172

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Ô vous qui croyez ! Le jeûne vous est prescrit comme il a été prescrit aux générations qui vous ont précédés. ػػػ Peut-être craindrez-vous Dieu ػػػ. Masson : T 1 p 34.

Vous qui croyez ! Le Jeûne vous a été prescrit comme il a été prescrit à ceux qui sont venus avant vous [ à ceux qui vous ont précédés] et ce afin que vous soyez pieux. 168ص 1ااف شقركف ج

O ye who believe ! Fasting is prescribed to you, As it was prescribed to those before you, that ye may (learn) Self-restraint 73يكسؼ ءمي ص

O ye who believe! Fasting is prescribed for you, even as it was prescribed for those before you, that ye may ward off (evil). Marmaduke Pickthall : p 52

د مفى ٱلفىجر ثيـ أىتم } يط ٱرىسكى يطي ٱرىايىضي مفى ٱلخى ـي ٱلخى تى يىتىاىيفى لىكي ايكا حى كيميكا كىٱشرى ـى إلىى ٱلميؿكى يىا { كا ٱلص [ 187: ]الاقرة

أااح تعالى اركؿ كالشرب مع ما تقدـ مف إااحة » ىذه اآلية اقكلو ىػ 774 ت فسر اإلماـ ااف كثيرالجماع في أم الميؿ شا الصا ـ إلى أف يتايف ضيا الصااح مف سكاد الميؿ كءار ءف ذلؾ االخيط

ط ارسكد كارايض المراديف مف ارايض مف الخيط ارسكد كرفع الماس اقكلو } مف الفجر { ] [ كالخي .173«ىذه ارية تحتيا فإنيما اياض النيار كسكاد الميؿ

ءمى التكالي اػ: Mohammad Marmaduke Pickthall (2009)كلد ترجميا كؿ مف يكسؼ ءمي كAnd eat and drink, Until the white thread; Of down appear to you; Distinct from its black thread ; Then complete your fast. Till the night appear. :يكسؼ ءمي ص75

And eat and drink until the white thread becometh distinct to you from the black thread of the dawn. Then strictly observe the fast till nightfall. Marmaduke Pickthall : p 52

ليذه اآلية Mohammad Marmaduke (2009)كاكتفينا اعرض ترجمة كؿ مف يكسؼ ءمي كرنيما اءتمدا مصطمحا مغايرا لممصطمح الذم استخدماه في ترجمتيما لمصطمح الصـك في اآلية السااقة

احتفظ المترجمكف الفرنسيكف انفس المصطمح المعتمد في اآلية السااقة اينما

1/331تفسير القرآف العظيـ: ج 173

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كالذم يعني في المغة الفرنسية « le jeûne »نالحظ أف مصطمح الصـك لد تمت ترجمتو امصطمح غير أنو يدؿ في الشريعة اإلسالمية ءمى اإلمساؾ ءف الطعاـ 174"الحرماف مف اركؿ رسااب دينية"

ف طمكع الفجر إلى غركب الشمس كءف ارفعاؿ الادي ة مف نميمة كغياة كىك أيضا كالشراب كالجماع مدءكة إلى التفكر في الخالؽ ساحانو كتعالى ككؿ ىذه المعاني لد تـ إغفاليا أثنا اختيار ىذا المقااؿ

نو الفرنسي فأتت الترجمة ترجمة سطحية ااتعدت ءف الغكص في المدلكالت ارخرل لمصـك مما نتج ء ضياع داللي لممصطمح

مف سكرة الاقرة 183في اآلية « Fasting ا » االنساة لمترجمة اإلنجميزية فقد ترجـ مصطمح الصكـ تارة مف نفس السكرة كىذه ارخيرة تعني في المغة اإلنجميزية الاقا دكف 187في اآلية « Fast ا » كتارة

فتطمؽ ءمى يكـ أك مكسـ Fastingأما 175أكؿ أك دكف اعض أصناؼ اركؿ خاصة ككاجب ديني ككأنو لصد شير رمضاف في ترجمتو غير أف المفسريف لـ يذكركا أف شير 176مخصص لمصـك

رمضاف فرض ءمى الناس صيامو لاؿ مجي اإلسالـ ففي كمتا الترجمتيف إذف ىناؾ ضياع داللي لترجمة مصطمح الصكـ

مصطمح الحج

القصد إلى ايت اهلل الحراـ » كلد كرد في القرآف الكريـ امعنى 177«كالقدكـ القصد كالكؼ » الحج لغة يكـ النحر إذا » كتمامو 178 «ءاادة هلل كحده في كلت محدد ردا مناسؾ محددة اآداب محددة

179 «رمى الحاج جمرة العقاة كزار الايت فقد حؿ مف إحرامو كمو ي جممة مف اآليات نكرد اعضيا كاآلتي:كلد ذكر مصطمح الصـك في سكرة الاقرة ف

ج } [ 189{]الاقرة : يىسأىليكنىؾى ءىف ٱرىىمة ليؿ ىيى مىكىاليتي لمناس كىٱلحى

174 Dictionnaire Encyclopédique Universel : 695. ( ترجمة اتصرؼ175 The oxford everyday dictionnary and guide to correct English: 254. ( ترجمة اتصرؼ176 Ibid : 254. ( ترجمة اتصرؼ

183القامكس المحيط: 177 17في المصطمح اإلسالمي: 178

4/7جامع الاياف ءف تأكيؿ آم القرآف: ج 179

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لاؿ العكفي ءف ااف ءااس: سأؿ الناس رسكؿ اهلل » ىاتو اآلية ىػ 774 ت فسر اإلماـ ااف كثير{ يعممكف يىسأىليكنىؾى ءىف ٱرىىمة ليؿ ىيى مىكىاليتي لمناس صمى اهلل ءميو كسمـ ءف ارىمة فنزلت ىذه اآلية }

180«ايا حؿ دينيـ كءدة نسا يـ ككلت حجيـ 1953كيكسؼ ءمي ت محمد اف شقركفك Denise Masson (1994)لد ترجميا كؿ مفك ءمى التكالي اػ: Mohammad Marmaduke Pickthall (2009)ك

Ils t‖interrogent au sujet des nouvelles lunes. Dis : « Ce sont, pour les hommes, des indications qui leur permettent de fixer les époques du Pèlerinage. Masson : T 1 p 35.

Ils t‖interrogent au sujet de la lune, [ses phases] dis-[leur] : «Ce sont des points de repère servant à déterminer le temps pour les hommes et aussi le pélerinage. 177ص 1ااف شقركف ج

They ask thee concerning the New Moons. Say : they are but signs to mark fixed periods of time In (the affairs of) men, and for Pilgrimage. يكسؼ ءمي

76ص They ask thee, (O Muhammad), of new moons. Say : they are fixed

seasons for mankind and for the pilgrimage. Marmaduke Pickthall : p 53

مىيو أىف يىطكؼى } نىاحى ءى ج ٱلاىيتى أىك ٱءتىمىرى فىالى جي فىا كىٱلمىركىةى مف شىعىآ ر ٱلمو فىمىف حى { ايمىا إف ٱلص [158]الاقرة:

ىذه اآلية: "نزلت لتثايت السعي ايف الصفا كالمركة اعدما ترؾ في أف ىػ 774 ت ذكر اإلماـ ااف كثير 181اداية اإلسالـ كتأكيد أف الصفا كالمركة ركف في الحج ال يمكف إسقاطو"

اػ:1953كلد ترجميا يكسؼ ءمي ت Behold ! Safā and Marwa are among the Symbols of Allah. So if those

who visit the House in the season. Or at other times, should compass them round, it is no sin in them. 63 يكسؼ ءمي ص كاكتفينا اعرض ترجمة يكسؼ ءمي ليذه اآلية رنو لـ يعتمد المصطمح الذم استخدمو في ترجمتو لآلية

كلد ترجـ مصطمح الحج .سااقةالسااقة اينما احتفظ االي المترجمكف انفس المصطمح المعتمد في اآلية ال

1/338تفسير القرآف العظيـ: ج 180 297-1/296تفسير القرآف العظيـ: ج 181

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كالذم يعني "رحمة يقكـ ايا شخص ما إلى مكاف لصد في المغة الفرنسية« Pèlerinage »اػ غير أف اليندكس يحجكف لمتعاد كالمسمميف يحجكف إلى مكة كالاكذييف يحجكف إلى التات 182التعاد"

مخصكصة يقكـ ايا جميع الحجيج كلد لكف الحج في الشريعة اإلسالمية يتحدد في كلت معيف كاأفعاؿالطكا ؼ ضياع الخصكصية الداللية التي يتميز ايا الحج في اإلسالـ ءف االي نتج ءف ىذه الترجمة

غير المسممة Mohammad Marmaduke (2009)أما في ترجمة اإلنجميزية فقد استخدـ كؿ مف يكسؼ ءمي ك

ايا شخص حاج إلى مكاف ما كتعاير ءف الذم يعني "رحمة يقـك « Pilgrimage »مصطمح كىذا المعنى ليس المقصكد امصطمح الحج في الشريعة اإلسالمية مما نتج ءنو ضياع 183اإلحتراـ"

داللي آخر اػ :« فمف حج الايت » كلد ترجـ يكسؼ ءمي في اآلية الثانية

« So if those who visit The House in the season » The»ك «The House»اػ : تحمؿ في طياتيا التااسا إذ لـ يحدد المترجـ المقصكدكىذه الجممة

season» داخؿ اآلية كحج الايت يقصد او أدا مناسؾ الحج كالمالحظ في ىذه الترجمة المقترحة أفالذم يشير إلى « To visit»ىناؾ ضياءا االغيا نتج ءف ضياع اإليجاز كما أنو ترجـ حج اػفعؿ : دالالت متعددة ال تعار ءف مصطمح حج الايت المقصكد في اآلية الكريمة

كمف خالؿ كؿ ما ساؽ يتضح لنا أف ىذه الترجمات لـ تستطع نقؿ مفيـك المصطمح اإلسالمي الخاص ءف المعاني الشرءية اارركاف إلى المغتيف الفرنسية كاإلنجميزية حيث ااتعدت المصطمحات المقترحة

ينية التي تحمميا ىاتو المصطمحات في القرآف الكريـ ارمر الذم نتج ءنو ضياع داللي كالحمكلة الد كآخر االغي

مقترحات اديمة لترجمة مصطمحات اإلسالـ -3 الترجمة التفسيرية 3-1

تسعى الترجمة التفسيرية إلى نقؿ المفاىيـ العميقة لمنص فيي ال تتكلؼ ءند المككنات النصية مف

اليب اؿ تغكص في المفاىيـ كتمجأ لمتفسير مف أجؿ إيضاح المعنى المقصكد في النص مفردات كأس كايذا اإلجرا تستطيع 184ارنصؿ كمف الناحية الكالعية "تاقى الترجمة التفسيرية إجرا ا ممكنا"

182 Dictionnaire Encyclopédique Universel: 954. ( ترجمة اتصرؼ183 The oxford everyday dictionnary and guide to correct English: 527 . ( ترجمة اتصرؼ

116مقدمة في الدراسات القرآنية: 184

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الترجمات استيعاب جميع دالالت ألفاظ أركاف اإلسالـ احيث نستعمؿ ترجمات المصطمحات المتعارؼ ييا في المغة اليدؼ معتمديف ءمى ما جا ت او المعاجـ المغكية مع إضافة ءنصر أك ءناصر ءم

لمصالة كنضيؼ تكضيحا "La prièreتخصصية كتفسيرية لممصطمح ارصؿ أم نعتمد مصطمح " يايف الخصكصية الداللية لممصطمح في المغة ارصؿكتفسيرا لممفيكـ ارصمي لممصطمح االمغة اليدؼ

ارمر االنساة لممصطمحات ارخرل كنفس ف كانت تسيـ في الحفاظ ءمى المفاىيـ كالمقاصد المتضمنة في النص القرآني إال ايد أف ىذه الترجمة كا

أنيا تاقى ترجمة نساية االنساة لممصطمحات ذلؾ أف ءمى المصطمح أف يحافظ ءمى استقالليتو كأال التكثيؼ كاإليجاز ك كثيرا ما تؤدم ىذه الترجمة إلى تسنده دءا ـ أخرل فمف أىـ خصا ص المصطمح

ضياع االغي ناتج ءف ضياع اإليجاز

المعادؿ المكضكءي 3-2

مصطمح معادؿ في النص اليدؼ يكاد يماثؿ المصطمح في النص يسعى ىذا اإلجرا إلى الاحث ءفصؿ كالاحث في الثقافة اليدؼ ارصمي كالمقصكد االمعادؿ المكضكءي االاتعاد ءف مصطمحات المغة ار

ءف مصطمحات ليا نفس المفاىيـ كاما أف المصطمحات المنشكدة ىي مصطمحات دينية تعادية كجب ءمينا العكدة إلى ثقافة المغة اليدؼ كالاحث فييا ءف مصطمحات دينية تعادية تقااؿ أك تعادؿ نظيراتيا في الثقافة ارصؿ كذلؾ رف الديف

كالمغة ارصؿ ديف سماكم مصدره كاحد في المغة اليدؼ فكما شيرءت ءاادات في ديف لغة ارصؿ شيرءت في المغة اليدؼ كيتككف الكتاب المقدس اإلنجيؿ مف

تاريخ حياة المسيح كدءكتو لد » رسا ؿ اكلس كارناجيؿ ارراعة التي تنسب إلى الحكارييف غير أفصؿ لد فقد كلعؿ ىذه ارناجيؿ لد أخذت ءنو كلد كتات ارناجيؿ كتات االمغة اآلرامية كلكف ىذا ار

185«ارراعة االيكنانية اعد كفاة ءيسى اجيؿ أك جيميف غير أف المغة ارصمية لمديانة المسيحية كانت اآلرامية كاعدىا كتات ارناجيؿ التي اءتمدىا الكتاب

اإلنجميزية كأكيد أنو خالؿ ىذا النقؿ ءرفت المقدس االيكنانية إلى أف ترجمت إلى المغات الفرنسية ك ترجمة الكتاب المقدس ضياءا دالليا كاالغيا لممصطمحات التعادية التي شيرءت في ءيد ءيسى ءميو السالـ إذف فالمعادؿ المكضكءي المنشكد لممصطمحات اإلسالمية يمفو الغمكض كمف الممكف أف ال

يؤدم نفس الداللة التي أداىا فيما ساؽ

. 172مسيحية:ال -2مقارنة اردياف 185

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كمف ثمة فاالءتماد ءمى آلية المعادؿ المكضكءي في ترجمة المصطمح اإلسالمي غير مجدية رنيا ذا كاف ارمر ءمى ىذه الحاؿ في ثقافة ليا ديف سماكم تؤدم إلى االلتااس ايف المصطمحات المتااينة كا

أك ليا أدياف كضعية أك فيك مف ااب أكلى حيف نركـ ترجمة القرآف الكريـ إلى لغات كثقافات غير دينية كثنية

Transliterationالترجمة االحفاظ ءمى ارصكات 3-3

كنقصد ايا ءممية كتااة المفظ أك المصطمح الكارد في النص ارصمي امفظو في المغة اليدؼ مع نقؿ

الحركؼ اليجا ية لممصطمح في لغتو ارصؿ احركؼ المغة اليدؼ 2011 ت كياقى ىذا اإلجرا اركثر مال مة رنو يحافظ ءمى ثقافة لغة ارصؿ كلد ذكر نيكمارؾ Newmarkراما يككف النسخ اإلجرا اركثر تفضيال لنقؿ مصطمح غريب مف ثقافة أجناية أنو"

ة اليدؼ كىذا مع إضافة شرح لو داخؿ النص فإذا أصاح المصطمح شا عا لد يتـ اءتماده في المغ .186اإلجرا دليؿ ءمى احتراـ الثقافات ارجناية"

كلاؿ شيكع المصطمح يجب أف يكيؼ مع المغة اليدؼ حتى تسيؿ استساغتو ءند المتمقي كنتحفظ اشأف فنحف Newmarkإضافة شرح لممصطمحات المنقكلة اطريقة الحفاظ ءمى ارصكات أك النسخ ءند

اف اإلسالـ إلى القكاميس المتخصصة حتى يعتد ايا في كؿ الترجمات نسعى إلى إدخاؿ مصطمحات أرككنظرا لالىتماـ الذم أصاحت تمقاه ىذه المصطمحات في الحضارات ارخرل أصاح يتحتـ ءمى المصطمحييف كالمعجمييف العرب تدكيف المصطمحات اإلسالمية في معاجـ خاصة أك ءامة االمغات

مكغ ىذه الغاية نقترح اتااع الخطكات التالية:ارخرل مع ذكر تعريفاتيا كلا فيـ النظاـ الصكتي لمغة ارصؿ كىي المغة العراية كلمغة اليدؼ المغة الفرنسية أك اإلنجميزية -1 نسخ المصطمحات مع مراءاة تطااؽ حركات المغة العراية كنظيراتيا في المغة اليدؼ -2 لمغة اليدؼ تكييؼ ىذه المصطمحات كفؽ التراكيب النحكية -3 جمعيا في لاءدة ايانات مرفقة اتعاريؼ االمغة اليدؼ -4 نشرىا في معاجـ ءامة أك متخصصة لضماف شيكءيا في الثقافة اليدؼ -5

186 The approches to translation: 83. ترجمة اتصرؼ

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خاتمة : نخمص في ختاـ ىذه المقالة إلى كجكد ءاللة كطيدة ايف المصطمح كالمفيـك الذم يدؿ ءميو كأف المترجـ

ءمى حدة حتى يتمكف مف ترجمتو إلى المغة اليدؼ فالمصطمح جز ممـز اإدراؾ داللة كؿ مصطمح جكىرم في الانية الثقافية لمغة كياقى لممترجـ الحؽ في اختيار اإلجرا ارنسب في ترجمتو لممصطمح غير أنو في انتقا ه رم إجرا يجب أف يحرص كؿ الحرص ءمى اإلاقا ءمى المفيكـ ارصمي

لمثقافة المصدر لممصطمح المترجـ احترامان معاني القرآف الكريـ لـ يتمكنكا مف االلتزاـ امعنى المصطمح اإلسالمي ءند كىكذا يتضح أف مترجمي

ترجمتو إلى المغتيف الفرنسية كاإلنجميزية مما تساب في ضياع داللة كمفيكـ المصطمح فالمككنات الداللية حج تخص المصطمحات اإلسالمية كخصكصية لممصطمحات اإلسالمية الصالة كالزكاة كالصـك كال

ىذه المصطمحات دفعت انا إلى التراح مجمكءة مف اإلجرا ات ياقى أفضميا مف منظكرنا الترجمة كياقى الااب مفتكحا لماحث Transliterationالصكتية ترجمة المصطمحات االحفاظ ءمى ارصكات

مى المفاىيـ كالمدلكالت الحقيقية لمصطمحات كالتنقيب ءف حمكؿ أخرل اشرط أف تحافظ ىذه الحمكؿ ء أركاف اإلسالـ الصالة كالزكاة كالصـك كالحج كغيرىا مف المصطمحات القرآنية

الئحة المصادر والمراجع

القرآف الكريـ -أزمػة المصػطمح العراػي فػػي القػرف التاسػع ءشػر مقدمػػة تاريخيػة ءامػة : محمػد سػػكاءي -1

ـ 1990دار الغرب اإلسالمي ايركت الطاعة اركلى ارسس المغكية لعمـ المصطمح : د محمكد فيمي حجازم دار غريب -2 2001 -ىػػػ 1421التعميقػػات ءمػػى ارراعػػيف النككيػػة محمػػد اػػف صػػالح العثيمػػيف ت -3

ـ 2003 –ق 1424ـ مكتاة اليداية الدار الايضا الطاعة اركلى تفسػير القػػرآف العظػيـ ل مػػاـ الحػػافظ ءمػاد الػػديف أاػي الفػػدا إسػػماءيؿ اػف كثيػػر القرشػػي -4

ىػػػ ءمػػؽ ءميػػو : الشػػيخ أحمػػد محمػػد شػػاكر الشػػيخ العثيمػػيف الشػػيخ 774الدمشػػقي ت ارلااني الشيخ مقاؿ اف ىادم الكادءي الشيخ صالح اف ءاػد العزيػز آؿ محمد ناصر الديف

ـ 2009 -ىػػ 1430الشيخ الجز اركؿ دار اآلثار جامع الاياف ءف تأكيؿ آم القرآف تفسير الطارم اراي جعفر محمػد يػف جريػر الطاػرم -5

حكاشػيو محمػكد محمػد ىػ راجػع ك خػرج أحاديثػو أحمػد محمػد شػاكر حققػو ك ءمػؽ 310ت ـ 2008شاكر دار اف الجكزية القاىرة الجز اركؿ ك الثاني ك الثالث ك الرااع

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ىػ 671الجامع رحكاـ القرآف راي ءاد اهلل محمد اف أحمد ارنصارم القرطاي ت -6راجعػػػو ك ضػػػاطو كءمػػػػؽ ءميػػػو : د محمػػػػد إاػػػراىيـ الحنفػػػػاكم ك خػػػرج أحاديثػػػػو د محمػػػد حامػػػػد

ـ 2007 -ىػ 1428ثماف دار الحديث القاىرة المجمد اركؿ ءالجيكد المغكية في المصػطمح العممػي الحػديث : د محمػد ءمػي الزركػاف منشػكرات اتحػاد -7

ـ 1998الكتاب العرب دراسػػات فػػي الترجمػػة ك المصػػطمح ك التعريػػب : شػػحادة الخػػكرم دار طػػالس لمدراسػػات -8

ـ 1992مشؽ الطاعة الثانية كالترجمة ك النشر دركح المعػػػاني فػػػي تفسػػػير القػػػرآف العظػػػيـ ك السػػػاع المثػػػاني تػػػأليؼ العالمػػػة أاػػػي الفضػػػؿ -9

ىػػ تحقيػؽ ك تخػريج : د السػيد محمػػد 1270 ت شػياب الػديف محمػكد ارلكسػي الاغػدادم ـ 2005 -ىػ 1426السيد ك سيد إاراىيـ ءمراف المجمد اركؿ دار الحديث القاىرة

ىػػػ الجػػز الثػػاني المطاعػػة 821صػػاح ارءشػػى الشػػيخ أاػػي العاػػاس أحمػػد القمقشػػندم ت -10 ـ 1913ىػ/ 1331ارميرية االقاىرة

ىػػػػ 393الصػػػحاح تػػػاج المغػػػة كصػػػحاح العرايػػػة تػػػأليؼ إسػػػماءيؿ اػػػف حقػػػاد الجػػػكىرم ت -11ر رااعػة المجمػد السػادس ينػايتحقيؽ: أحمد ءاد الغفكر ءطػار دار العمػـ لمماليػيف الطاعػة ال

1990 ءمـ المصطمح : أسسو النظرية ك تطايقاتػو العمميػة د ءمػي القاسػمي مكتاػة لانػاف ناشػركف -12

2008. ايركت الطاعة اركلى ءمـ المصطمح كطرا ؽ كضع المصطمحات في العراية د ممدكح محمد خسارة دار الفكػر -13

ىػ 1429 -ـ 2008دمشؽ الطاعة اركلى دار الحداثة ايركت الطاعة ـ 2001 ت في المصطمح اإلسالمي د إاراىيـ السامرا ي -14

1997 ينايراركلى 2012 في المصطمح كلغة العمـ د ميدم صالح سمطاف كمية اآلداب جامعة اغداد اغداد -15 تحقيػؽ: ىػ 817ت القامكس المحيط مجد الديف محمد اف يعقكب الفيركزآاادم الشيرازم -16

مكتػػب تحقيػػؽ التػػراث فػػي مؤسسػػة الرسػػالة اإشػػراؼ محمػػد نعػػيـ العرلسكسػػي مؤسسػػة الرسػػالة 1426 -ـ 2005الطاعة الثامنة ايركت

تحقيػػػؽ: د ىػػػ 1191 ت كشػػاؼ اصػػطالحات الفنػػكف ك العمػػكـ محمػػػد ءمػػى التيػػانكم -17 1996اركلى ءمي دحركج مكتاة لاناف ناشركف ايركت الطاعة

ىػ 711 ت لساف العرب ل ماـ العالمة أاي الفضؿ جماؿ الديف محمد اف مكرـ اف منظكر -18 ىػ 1300 المطاعة الكارل الميرية ااكالؽ مصر المحمية الطاعة اركلى المجمد الثالث

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كليمػي مجمة الدراسات المعجمية إشكالية ترجمة المصػطمح اإلسػالمي أمينػة دردكر مطاعػة -19 2002العدد اركؿ يناير

أحمػػػد اكحسػػػف مجمػػػة الفكػػػر العراػػػي المعاصػػػر تصػػػدر ءػػػف IIمػػدخؿ إلػػػى ءمػػػـ المصػػػطمح -20 1989غشت - يكليكز 67 – 66ااريس العدد -مركز اإلنما القكمي ايركت

المصػػطمح اػػيف المعياريػػة ك النسػػقية مشػػركءة لاءػػدة االصػػطالح العراػػي المكلػػد محمػػد غػػاليـ -21 -خالػػػػد ارشػػػػيب منشػػػػكرات معيػػػػد الدراسػػػػات ك اراحػػػػاث لمتعريػػػػب جامعػػػػة محمػػػػد الخػػػػامس

2006 الرااط -السكيسيمعركػػة المصػػطمحات اػػيف الغػػرب ك اإلسػػالـ د محمػػد ءمػػارة نيضػػة مصػػر مكتػػب تنسػػيؽ -22

1997التعريب مارس تػػػػـ التحقيػػػػؽ ىػػػػػ 502 ت المفػػػػردات فػػػػي غريػػػػب القػػػػرآف أاػػػػي القاسػػػػـ الحسػػػػيف اػػػػف محمػػػػد -23

كاإلءداد امركز الدراسات ك الاحكث امكتاة نزار مصطفى الااز الجز اركؿ مقدمػػة فػػي الدراسػػات القرآنيػػة الػػدكتكر محمػػد فػػاركؽ النايػػاف مطاعػػة فضػػالة كزارة اركلػػاؼ -24

ـ 1995 -ىػ 1415كالشؤكف اإلسالمية ـ مكتاػة النيضػة 2000 -ىػ 1421 ت المسيحية د أحمد شماي – 2مقارنة اردياف -25

1967المصرية الطاعة الثالثة المنيجية العامة لترجمة المصطمحات كتكحيدىا كتنميطيا محمد رشاد الحمزاكم دار الغرب -26

ـ 1986لاناف الطاعة اركلى –اإلسالمي ايركت كميػة اآلداب ك العمػـك 2007النص الديني ك الترجمة أءماؿ الندكة الدكلية اركلػى مػارس -27

2009اإلنسانية مراكش الطاعة اركلى

28- Benchekroun. M, Le Coran commentaire et traduction, Tome 1, nouvelle édition revue 1997.

29- Cabré.M.T, Terminologie et dictionnaires, Meta : Journal des traducteurs, Vol.39, n°4, 1994, p 589-597.

30- Dictionnaire Encyclopédique Universel, collection 02, Hachette – Spadem – Adagp, 1980.

31- Dubuc.R (1980), Manuel pratique de terminologie, Linguatech et Conseil International de la langue française.

32- Hildegund. B, General theory of terminology and translation studies, Meta : Translators‖ Journal, Vol.27, n°4, 1982, p 425-431.

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33- Marmaduke Pickthall. M, The meaning of the Glorious Qur‖an, ALBIRR Foundation.U.K.

34- Masson. D, Le Coran I, Éditions Gallimard. 35- Nakos-aupetit. D, Réflexions sur la terminologie, Meta : Journal

des traducteurs, Vol.25, n°2, 1980, p 254-256. 36- Newmark.P(1986), Approches to translation, Pergamon Press. 37- Rey. A (1992), La terminologie : noms et notions, Que sais-je ? 38- The Oxford Everyday dictionary and guide to correct English (1985),

First edition, Leisure Circle Limited. 39- Yusuf Ali. A, The Qur‖an, Tahrike Tarsile Qur‖an, Inc Third U.S Edition, 1998.