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Draft
Review on physicochemical properties of pollutants
released from fireworks: environmental and health effects
and preventions
Journal: Environmental Reviews
Manuscript ID er-2017-0063.R1
Manuscript Type: Review
Date Submitted by the Author: 14-Nov-2017
Complete List of Authors: Cao, Xinyuan; The Northeast Institute of Geography and Agroecology,
Chinese Academy of Sciences, Regional Atmospheric Environment Zhang, Xuelei; The Northeast Institute of Geography and Agroecology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Regional Atmospheric Environment Daniel, Q.Tong; Center for Spatial Information Science and Systems, George Mason University Chen, Weiwei; The Northeast Institute of Geography and Agroecology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Regional Atmospheric Environment Zhang, Shichun; The Northeast Institute of Geography and Agroecology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Regional Atmospheric Environment Zhao, Hongmei; The Northeast Institute of Geography and Agroecology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Regional Atmospheric Environment Xiu, Aijun; The Northeast Institute of Geography and Agroecology, Chinese
Academy of Sciences, Regional Atmospheric Environment
Keyword: Fireworks, Atmospheric pollutants, Physicochemical characteristics, Environmental effects, Management and preventation
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Review on physicochemical properties of pollutants released from 1
fireworks: environmental and health effects and preventions 2
Xinyuan Cao, Xuelei Zhang, Daniel Q.Tong, Weiwei Chen, Shichun Zhang, Hongmei 3
Zhao, and Aijun Xiu 4
5
Xinyuan Cao. Key Laboratory of Wetland Ecology and Environment, Northeast Institute of Geography and 6
Agroecology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changchun 130102, China; University of Chinese Academy of 7
Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China. 8
Xuelei Zhang. Key Laboratory of Wetland Ecology and Environment, Northeast Institute of Geography and 9
Agroecology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changchun 130102, China; Center for Spatial Information Science and 10
Systems, George Mason University, Fairfax, VA 22030, USA. 11
Daniel Q.Tong. Center for Spatial Information Science and Systems, George Mason University, Fairfax, VA 22030, 12
USA; U.S. NOAA Air Resources Laboratory, College Park, MD 20740, USA. 13
Weiwei Chen, Shichun Zhang, Hongmei Zhao and Aijun Xiu. Key Laboratory of Wetland Ecology and 14
Environment, Northeast Institute of Geography and Agroecology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changchun 15
130102, China. 16
Corresponding author: Xuelei Zhang (e-mail: [email protected]) 17
18
Abstract 19
The pollutants released from fireworks may seriously deteriorate air quality and 20
adversely impact on human health. In order to aid in obtaining comprehensive 21
observations and in the establishment of effective legislation aimed at controlling the 22
short-term effects of fireworks, we systematically reviewed the findings of previous 23
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studies of the impacts of fireworks. These studies, primarily located in Asia (more than 24
70% studies), Europe and North America, considered particle concentrations, size 25
distribution, morphology, noise and chemical composition (including water-soluble ions, 26
elements, carbonaceous material, organic matter and trace gases), along with the 27
associated human health effects during fireworks display. 41% studies suggested that 28
the concentrations of firework particles were reported to be 1 - 5 times higher than the 29
respective background values. And the mean ratios PM10/TSP, PM2.5/PM10 and 30
PM1.0/PM2.5 were 0.64, 0.72 and 0.65, respectively. During festivals, the 31
concentrations of SO42- and K+ were the highest of the water-soluble ions. For major 32
elements and gaseous pollutants, K, S and CO, SO2 had the highest concentrations, 33
respectively. The health effects of particles and gaseous pollutants, including metals, 34
emitted from fireworks need further epidemiological study to aid in the prevention of 35
health problems and the treatment of patients. Fireworks industries should technical 36
innovation to reduce pollutants emissions. Emissions inventories of fireworks display 37
should be compiled and used in Eulerian models, to forecast the spatiotemporal 38
distribution of pollutants and to further assistant the government in establishing 39
appropriate restriction levels and legislation which balance environmental protection 40
and festive spirit. 41
Key words: fireworks, atmospheric pollutants, physicochemical characteristics, 42
environmental effects, management and prevention 43
44
1 Introduction 45
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Fireworks are generally used to celebrate special events like festivals and/or 46
official celebrations, and thus become one of the most unusual sources of air pollution. 47
Traditional festivals which are characterized by the burning of fireworks include 48
Independence Day in the US (Wang et al. 2012), France's Commemoration of the 49
French Revolution (Bastille day in France), the Las Fallas in Spain (Moreno et al. 2007), 50
the Lantern Festival and Spring Festival in China (Wang et al. 2007; Tian et al. 2014 ), 51
Diwali Festival in India (Prakash et al. 2013), Guy Fawkes Day (or Bonfire Night) in the 52
UK (Agus et al. 2008), and New Year's Eve celebrations across the world (Drewnick et 53
al. 2006; Burkart et al. 2010; Licudine et al. 2011; Kwasny et al. 2009). Some typical 54
official celebrations include the Busan Culture in Korea (Shon et al. 2015), the 55
Millennium celebrated in Germany (Wehner et al. 2000), the celebration of the 2006 56
FIFA World Cup Championship in Italy (Vecchi et al. 2008) and the International 57
Fireworks Competition in Canada (Joly et al. 2010). 58
Apart from the excitement of continuous and spectacular firework displays, and the 59
visual feast of colorful lights in the sky, the burning of fireworks is a source of noise and 60
atmospheric pollutants. Fireworks have variable and heterogeneous chemical 61
compositions. Normally, fireworks contain chemicals such as sodium oxalate, charcoal, 62
sulfur, manganese, aluminum, iron, potassium chlorate, potassium perchlorate, 63
strontium nitrate, potassium nitrates and barium nitrate, etc. (Mclain 1980; Ravindra et 64
al. 2003; Wang et al. 2007). In order to enhance display effects, specific elements are 65
also added into pellets of fuel, such as strontium (Sr), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), Barium 66
(Ba), etc. Ignited fireworks in the air release gaseous and ambient particulate pollutants 67
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like carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxide, sulfur dioxide, suspended particles, 68
water-soluble ions and trace metals. The burning of fireworks may release dense 69
clouds of smoke, often degrading regional air quality to the detriment of human health 70
and the ecological environment (Clark 1997; Vecchi et al. 2008). As surface water can 71
be polluted by the deposited heavy metals from fireworks, they may also cause 72
extensive damage to vegetation. Moreover, human health, especially mortality and 73
morbidity, can also be affected by pollutants released from firework burning. 74
Due to these issues, recently the pollution caused by fireworks burning has 75
received much attention amongst the scientific community. Verma et al. (2014) 76
reviewed existing studies focusing on the effects of fireworks on air quality during the 77
Diwali festival in India, in an effort to summarize the pollution characteristics in terms of 78
their chemical components and related health effects. Another review paper focused on 79
the environmental effects of perchlorate emitted from the burning of fireworks, and 80
identified fireworks as one of the main contributors to increasing environmental 81
perchlorate contamination (Sijimol and Mohan 2014). To date, we still know little about 82
the pollution characteristics of other chemical components and the emissions from 83
fireworks in other festivals across the world. Therefore, we have conducted a 84
systematic review of past research results, focusing on emitted concentrations of 85
pollutant gases, physical and chemical characteristics of particulate pollutants, the 86
effects on human health, and the emissions levels and significance of different 87
governmental policies towards fireworks across the world. 88
In the regions suffering severe air pollution, some local governments have 89
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forbidden the burning of fireworks for festivals: for example in North Carolina (USA), 90
and Guangzhou, Shenzhen, Nanjing, Wuhan and Changchun (China). Some cities 91
have restricted firework use in their surrounding areas. Here we examine the best 92
policies that balance environmental protection and continuity of traditional culture. 93
94
2 Methodology 95
2.1 Method of analysis and synthesis 96
We conducted a comprehensive search of available literature (published before 97
June 2016) on pollutants from fireworks and their ecological and health effects, 98
considering atmospheric environmental, toxicological, epidemiological and human 99
exposure studies. The search tools of Google scholar, PubMed and China National 100
Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI) were used in this study. The search terms included 101
various combinations of firework”, “firecracker”, “cracker”, “sparkler”, “festival”, “holiday”, 102
“celebration”, “pollution”, “air quality”, “aerosol”, “component”, “size”, “concentration”, 103
“particulate”, “particle”, “PM”, “gas”, “metal”, “ion”, “health” and “effect”. 104
When more than one paper addressed analyses of the same or a similar dataset, 105
we presented all of them in the summary tables, but considered only the most 106
comprehensive or most recent published paper in our study. For example, both Liu et al. 107
(2014) and Zhao et al. (2014) studied ambient particle concentrations affected by 108
firework displays during the Spring Festival in China, but the later paper was referred in 109
our study due to its more detailed analysis of different sizes of particulates. Both Kong 110
et al. (2015) and Li et al. (2008) studied the water-soluble ions emitted from crackers 111
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during the Chinese New Year, but only the latest paper was referred in this study. 112
A total of 145 studies matched the search criteria and were included for further 113
statistical analyses. All references were further classified according to their study period, 114
geographical location, festival, pollutant type and chemical components. Further details 115
are summarized in supplement database of fireworks references. 116
117
2.2 Statistics of published literature 118
2.2.1 Temporal and spatial patterns of publications 119
There are over 140 papers concerning particle emissions from fireworks during 120
festivals and celebration events since 1995. From 1995 to 2005, there was no more 121
than one paper per year was published, showing that people paid little attention to the 122
atmospheric pollution caused by fireworks. Since the year 2006, the frequency of 123
relevant studies has increased year by year to about 20 papers per year during 2012 - 124
2014 (Figure 1a). Thus, it is timely to conduct a systematic review of pollutant 125
emissions from fireworks to enhance our knowledge of the environmental and health 126
effects of fireworks. 127
Figure 1b illustrates the spatial distribution of the published literature, revealing 128
that 70 percent of studies were carried out in China and India, which have higher 129
population densities and poor air quality. The other 30 percent were located in Europe 130
(Spain, Germany and UK) and America (the USA and Canada). 131
132
2.2.2 Festivals studied in previous publications 133
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A total of 18 festivals and celebration events were studied in previous publications 134
(Figure 2a). The New Year on January 1st of every year is celebrated in many countries 135
with fireworks, bonfires and sparkler displays during the days before and after New 136
Year’s Eve. Fireworks are used as a means of praying for luck and happiness. In China, 137
Spring Festival, Lantern Festival and New Year are the most mentioned festivals 138
(Figure 2b). The Spring Festival, on the Chinese lunar January 1st, is the most 139
important festival celebrated across the whole country. All family members get together 140
on this day, similarly to Christmas in Western countries. They eat dumplings together 141
and celebrate the new year by burning fireworks on the New Year’s Eve, the following 142
first day of the lunar year and the fifth day of the lunar year. The Lantern Festival is 143
another important traditional Chinese festival celebrated on the fifteenth day of the 144
lunar year in the Chinese calendar. It is a mark of the final day in the Chinese New Year 145
celebrations. During the Lantern Festival, people go out at night to enjoy the sight of 146
lanterns and fireworks displays. 147
The most important festivals in India (in published papers) are Diwali and Vishu 148
(Figure 2c). Diwali is a festival of light, celebrated with great enthusiasm throughout 149
India during the month of October or November and is the biggest and the brightest of 150
Indian festivals (Barman et al. 2008; Ambade et al. 2013). Vishu is another major 151
festival celebrated in parts of the adjoining state of Tamil Nadu and throughout the state 152
of Kerala during the first day of Medam, in the Malayalam calendar, which usually falls 153
during the months of April or May. This happens to coincide the beginning of the 154
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Malayalam New Year. It is celebrated irrespective of creed, religion or caste all over the 155
State (Nishanth et al. 2012). 156
In the USA, Independence Day is celebrated with centralized and intensive 157
fireworks displays on the 4th of July (Moreno et al. 2007) (Figure 2e). Las Fallas is a 158
traditional celebration held in commemoration of Saint Joseph in the city of Valencia, in 159
Spain, and also in Germany (Figure 2d). The term Fallas refers to both the celebration 160
and the monuments burnt during the celebration. A number of towns in the Valencian 161
Community have similar celebrations inspired by the original Fallas de Valencia 162
celebration. 163
Four specific celebration events have also been addressed in former studies. They 164
are the Olympic Games, the World Cup, the Millennium and the Busan National 165
Fireworks Competition. 166
Among these previous publications, the Spring Festival and Diwali are the most 167
studied festivals. 168
169
2.2.3 Geographic distribution of studied firework events 170
Fireworks displays studied in the 145 reviewed articles occurred in 67 cities 171
distributed across 14 countries. As depicted in Figure 3 (red stars), the studied cities 172
were mainly located in Asia (India, China, Korea and Iran), Europe (Spain, Malta, 173
Germany, the UK, Switzerland, Austria, Hungary and Italy) and North America (the USA 174
and Canada). 175
In particular, there were 24 and 18 cities with studies on the effects of fireworks in 176
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China and India, respectively. Most of the studies in China were located in eastern 177
China which has 73 percent of the resident population and a more advanced economy. 178
In the areas of Sinkiang and Tibet in western China, there were no studies on the 179
effects of fireworks. The geographical distribution within the territory of India is more 180
uniform. The states located in western and northeastern India, such as Gujarat, Bihar 181
and Jharkhand, should pay more attention to fireworks pollution. 182
In European countries, the Nordic regions closer to the Arctic have a cleaner 183
atmospheric background than the rest of Europe and are ideal places to study the 184
environmental effects of fireworks. Unfortunately, no studies were reported from this 185
region. Throughout North America, only five cities (4 from the USA, 1 from the Canada) 186
have studied on the emission characteristics and effects of fireworks. However, as the 187
largest fireworks consuming country, more works should be conducted in the USA to 188
protect the domestic environment and residential health. There were limited studies 189
from South America and Africa. 190
Figure 3 (yellow circles) also illustrates firework-related injuries studied during 191
fireworks burning. The studied countries were also mainly in Asia (India, China, Iran 192
and Israel), Europe (the UK, France, Denmark, Northern Ireland, Sweden, Norway, 193
Austria and Hungary) and America (the USA). Other countries like Australia, New 194
Zealand and South Africa also had studies on injuries resulting from fireworks. Overall, 195
50 percent of studies on firework-related injuries were located in Europe. 196
197
2.3 Data quality control assurance 198
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Only two research papers focused on condition-controlled pure fireworks 199
emissions in laboratory experiments (Perry et al. 1999; Betha et al. 2014). The majority 200
of reviewed data are obtained from outside monitoring. As well-known that bonfires and 201
biomass burning activities are always simultaneously conducted during the fireworks 202
display time in festival days. Moreover, due to the close distance between the 203
measurement sites to the street or residential areas, a significant influence from local 204
traffic and human beings on the measurements can be expected (Liu et al. 2014). Thus, 205
we must keep in mind that all reviewed physiochemical data in this paper are including 206
the background emissions from biomass burning and other anthropogenic sources. 207
208
3 Physical characteristics of pollutants emitted from fireworks 209
3.1 Emission strength and ambient concentration 210
Emissions of particles depended on the quantity of fireworks burnt, frequency of 211
burning, type of fireworks and quality of fireworks (Majumdar et al. 2011). Concentration 212
is a physical property quantifying the abundance of particles per unit volume of air, 213
normally expressed as the mass or number concentration. Most of the studies included 214
in this review adopted filter sampling methods to obtain the mass concentration and 215
reported the particle concentrations based on the normal aerosol size classification (i.e. 216
TSP, PM10, PM2.5 and PM1.0). Sixty out of the 145 included studies mentioned one or 217
more concentrations of TSP, PM10, PM2.5, PM1.0, and even the ratios among them, from 218
fireworks. In this section, we want to state the relative pollution intensity due to 219
fireworks in different countries, by comparing concentrations in different size bins. 220
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Furthermore, in order to assess the contribution of fireworks to regional atmospheric 221
pollution, further comparisons between particle concentrations during fireworks burning 222
and background conditions (the pre-festival days or/and post-festival days) were also 223
conducted. This section will be organized following the sequence of aerosol size 224
divisions from the coarse to fine fractions. 225
The results from 10 previous studies reporting the concentrations of TSP from 3 226
countries (China, India and Germany) during different festivals or events are 227
summarized in Table 1. However, these studies only covered 8 cities. The highest 228
concentration of TSP observed during fireworks burning was 39800 µg/m3 before the 229
year 1994 in China (Sun et al. 1995). The reasonable explanation for this abnormally 230
high value is that the authors only monitored one location for a very short time (50 231
minutes from 23:40 to 00:30 on New Year’s Eve) during the highest emission intensity 232
of fireworks. Another reason is that the Chinese government had not banned fireworks 233
during festivals, and cheap, poor quality sparklers were available for sale before 1994. 234
The mean concentration of TSP during fireworks events was 489.6 µg/m3, with a range 235
from 330.5 µg/m3 to 670.8 µg/m3 in China and India. An exceptional study from Wehner 236
et al. (2000) only reported 40.5 µg/m3 of TSP during the celebration of the Millennium in 237
Germany which has a lower population density compared to China and India. The 238
mean mass concentrations of particles during festivals were 1.05 - 2.84 times higher 239
than those of the background values (459 µg/m3 vs. 437 µg/m3 in Lanzhou and 670.8 240
µg/m3 vs. 235.9 µg/m3 in Jhansi). Only one paper monitored the number concentration 241
of TSP, which was 1.2×105 particles/cm3 during the Diwali festival, which was almost 242
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1.6 times higher than the concentrations before and after Diwali Festival. 243
Another important particle size fraction emitted from fireworks is PM10. Results of 244
PM10 concentrations during different firework events were compiled in Table 2, 245
revealing that the highest mean concentration of PM10 was 2237.3 µg/m3 in Salkia (a 246
slum in Howrah, India) during Diwali Festival (Thakur et al. 2010). This value was 247
almost 110 times higher than the lowest mean concentration of PM10 of 20.5 µg/m3 248
reported in Malta (Camilleri et al. 2010). The highest background concentration of PM10 249
was also observed in Salkia, at 538 µg/m3, which is even higher than the concentration 250
in the capital city of Delhi (122.1 µg/m3 - 167.8 µg/m3). Although Malta has the lowest 251
concentration, this study also concluded that fireworks play a remarkable negative 252
effect on air quality, especially with respect to PM10, during the summer-long religious 253
Feast festival (Camilleri et al. 2010). The mean concentration of PM10 during festivals 254
was 218.4 µg/m3, ranging from 25.4 µg/m3 to 469.3 µg/m3 in China. The mean value 255
was 479.8 µg/m3, ranging from 46 µg/m3 to 2237.3 µg/m3 in India, more than 4 times 256
than the National Ambient Air Quality Standard of PM10 (100 µg/m3) in India (Verma et 257
al. 2014). Furthermore, the mass concentration of PM10 during festivals was about 1.5 258
times and 2.3 - 4.2 times than that on non-festival days in China and India, respectively. 259
The difference in concentration, of more than a factor of 2, between China and India 260
may reflect in the different management policies on fireworks burning. Only two papers 261
mentioned the concentration of PM10 in European countries (Spain and Italy), where 262
the mean PM10 concentration was only 71.5 µg/m3 and ranging from 63.9 µg/m3 - 79 263
µg/m3; this is 1.4 times higher than the PM10 concentration (50 µg/m3) accepted by the 264
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Air Quality Standard of the European Union. 265
The finer size fraction of PM2.5 means it is harder to scavenge and has a longer 266
residence time in the atmosphere. It can also travel deep into the lungs, causing 267
damage to the human respiratory system. Therefore, greater attention needs to be paid 268
to the concentrations of PM2.5 released from fireworks (Table 3). The highest mean 269
mass concentration of PM2.5 shown in Table 3 was 6378.6 µg/m3 during the 270
international fireworks competition, 212 times higher than the standard for PM2.5 (30 271
µg/m3) in Canada (Raizenne et al. 2003). This was the result of nine 40-minute 272
fireworks displays from June to July (Joly et al. 2010). The mean concentration of PM2.5 273
was 516.1 µg/m3 (ranging from 61 µg/m3 to 6378.6 µg/m3) among 6 countries 274
comprising China, India, Canada, the USA, Spain and Germany. These countries 275
reported PM2.5 levels 1 - 4 times higher than the background concentration during 276
non-firework days. Meanwhile, the lowest mean PM2.5 concentration, of 61 µg/m3, 277
occurred in the USA and was as attributed to the greater distance between the 278
monitoring site and the fireworks burning locations (Seidel et al. 2015). However, only 279
one paper monitored the number concentration of PM2.5, in Nagpur (India) during 280
fireworks events, where the mean PM2.5 was nearly 4.5×106 particles/L: 3 - 4 times 281
higher than the background values (pre-days and post-days). A similar result was 282
reported by Majumdar et al. (2011), who also monitored the number concentrations of 283
PM1 during a fireworks display in Nagpur. During this event, the mean number 284
concentration of PM0.25-1.0 was 4,451,136 particles/L and the maximum was 8,957,897 285
particles/L. The mean number concentrations exceeded 3 times and 5 times than those 286
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in the periods before and after the event, respectively. 287
The ratios of TSP、PM10、PM2.5、PM1.0 were further analyzed in this section to 288
evaluate the size enrichment characteristics of particles emitted from fireworks. Results 289
for the different ratios of particles at each studied festival are listed in Table 4. Among 290
the compiled studies, 64% (range 38% - 86%) of the TSP (by mass) was distributed in 291
PM10. Therefore, over half of the total suspended particulate was PM10. Most of the 292
previous studies focused on the ratio between PM2.5 and PM10 (Wang et al. 2007; Xu et 293
al. 2006; Wang et al. 2014; He et al. 2014; Han et al. 2014; Shi et al. 2014; Lin et al. 294
2014; Nirmalker et al. 2013; Srivastava et al. 2015; Thakur et al. 2010). The mean ratio 295
between PM2.5 and PM10 was 0.72 (ranging from 0.60 to 0.76), indicating that the main 296
aerosol emissions from fireworks are fine particles (Huang et al. 2012). Three papers 297
studied the mass concentration ratio between PM1.0 and PM2.5 and found a mean ratio 298
of about 0.65. Only one paper reported the ratio between PM1.0 and PM2.5 in number 299
concentration, finding it to be 0.99, which means that the number percentage of 300
PM1.0-2.5 was only 1%. This further supports the findings that most particle sizes are 301
smaller than 1 µm, consistent with the conclusions of Section 3.3. 302
303
3.2 Size distribution 304
Ten papers studied the size distribution of particles emitted from fireworks, most of 305
which were published after the year 2010. Study areas were located in China 306
(Shanghai, Lanzhou and Nanjing), India (Delhi and Nagpur), Germany (Leipzgi) and 307
Spain (Alicante). 308
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In order to help scholars to better conduct future monitoring of the size distribution 309
of particles from fireworks, we firstly summarized the sampling instruments and their 310
specific models along with their output data types in Table 5. Based on their working 311
principle, the instruments were divided into 2 types, either aerosol multi-stage sampler 312
or online particle size spectrometer. The Anderson (8-stages) and DLPI (13-stages) 313
were the most widely used filter samplers in aerosol multi-stage sampling, and the 314
reported data were mass concentrations (M) of particles or elements in different size 315
bins. 316
The online particle size spectrometers are instruments capable of real-time 317
analysis of size distributions (the number size (N), surface size (S) and volume size (V)) 318
of particles ranging in size from nanometer to micrometer. Their high reliability, 319
long-term stability and performance characteristics make them suitable for long-term 320
monitoring of firework particles at atmospheric research stations. Instruments 321
combining a Differential Mobility Analyzer (DMA) and Condensation Particle Counters 322
(CPC), termed a twin differential mobility particle sizer (TDMPS) by the Leibniz Institute 323
for Tropospheric Research or so-called scanning mobility particle sizer (SMPS) by 324
GRIMM Corporation, are used to continuously measure the mobility size distributions of 325
ultrafine and fine particles. The SMPS systems from TSI Corporation, GRIMM 326
Corporation and MSP Corporation were most used in studies of online monitoring size 327
distribution of particles emitted from fireworks (Wehner et al. 2000; Remškar et al. 2014; 328
Jing et al. 2014; Joshi et al. 2015; Wang et al. 2014). More detailed comparisons of 329
different products from the above 3 corporations were provided by Watson et al. (2011), 330
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who reported differences of about 25 percent between instruments due to differences in 331
particle charging efficiency. Only one paper adopted the APS (a double-crest optical 332
particle sizer) with sub-micrometer bottom limit to study the size distribution of fireworks 333
(Zhao et al. 2012). ELPI can be used for real-time particle charge distribution and for 334
gravimetric impactor measurements. Another advantage of the impactor technology is 335
that it also enables post-measurement chemical analysis of size-classified 336
particles. This enhances our knowledge of the size distribution of enriched or toxic 337
elements, e.g. K, S, Cu and Ca (Crespo et al. 2012) and Ba (Khaparde et al. 2012), 338
thereby providing data that are useful for protection human health. The size-resolved, 339
non-refractory chemical composition of the sub-micron aerosol particles combined with 340
time-related mass concentrations can also be measured with an aerosol time-of-flight 341
mass spectrometer (ATOFMS) during fireworks in festivals or celebration events (Liu et 342
al. 1997; Drewnick et al. 2006). 343
In Figure 4, we further summarized and compared the same size attributes from 344
different studies on identical axes to capture the key characteristic of spectral size 345
distributions. This clearly shows that the number concentrations of particles were high 346
in the submicrometer size fraction, with a dominant peak located around 100 nm. The 347
six studies were conducted on Feb 3rd 2011 (Spring Festival), Nov 13th 2012 (at 50 m 348
height on a high rise building), Jan 1st 2000 (Millennium), Jan 22nd 2012 (Spring 349
Festival), New Year and Feb 10th 2013 (Spring Festival), respectively. Time periods of 350
0:00-1:00 or 0:00-4:00 were chosen to represent the effects of fireworks. It is also 351
evident in Figure 4a that an accumulation mode between around 1 µm and 3 µm was 352
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present in addition to the main peak. The volume size distribution is shown in Figure 4b. 353
Wehner et al. (2000) selected volume size distributions to highlight the increasing finer 354
particle volume in the size range of 3 nm - 800 nm during the Millennium firework 355
displays. Another study from Zhao et al. (2012) reported a clearly bimodal lognormal 356
volume size distribution of particles during the time period of concentrated fireworks 357
burning. The authors explained the dominant peak in coarse particles (centered at 5 - 6 358
µm) as the small distance (only 10 meters) between the instrument and burning 359
location, leading to the presence of undeposited coarse particles from the launch 360
process, and resuspension of road dust. However, more studies need to be conducted 361
to further verify this viewpoint. 362
Figure 4c and 4d compare time series of number size distributions of graded 363
particles from the only two relevant papers. The two studies were conducted in 364
Shanghai and Nanjing during the Spring Festival in 2009 and 2012, respectively. Wang 365
et al. (2011) monitored 12 size distributions of particles emitted from fireworks; Wang et 366
al. (2014) measured the size distribution of aerosol particles in 7 size intervals, which 367
were 10 - 30 nm, 30 - 50 nm, 50 - 100 nm, 100 - 200 nm, 200 - 500 nm, 500 - 1000 nm 368
and 1 - 10 µm. In order to facilitate the comparison between the two studies, we picked 369
out the data for size diameters of 60 nm, 170 nm, 400 nm, 650 nm and 6800 nm 370
reported by Wang et al. (2011) which lay close to the size intervals in Wang et al. (2014). 371
The main features of Figure 4c and Figure 4d are that particles with diameters of 30 - 372
50 nm, 50 - 100 nm and 100 - 200 nm had the highest number concentrations, followed 373
by 200 - 500 nm particles. Particles with diameters of 500 - 1000 nm had moderate 374
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number concentrations. These characteristics persisted throughout the events. The 375
coarser particles (> 1 µm) had the lowest number concentrations and stronger temporal 376
variability. The highest number concentration of finer particles reached 10000 cm-3. 377
These studies demonstrated that fireworks can contribute fine particles (around 30 - 378
500 nm) into our atmospheric environment. 379
What is the relationship between chemical elements and particulate sizes? Only 380
two papers focused on this issue: Crespo et al. (2012) and Khaparde et al. (2012). 381
Crespo et al. (2012) measured the aerosol elemental mass-size distributions of K, S, 382
Cu and Ca both during the Mascletà and background days using a 12-stages cascade 383
low pressure impactor (SDI). The mass size distributions of K and S, which are 384
presented as typical gunpowder elements of fireworks, were characterized by 3-modes. 385
Two equivalent dominant peaks were centered at 200 nm and 700 nm during the 386
Mascletà. Meanwhile, on the background day, both the mass size distributions of K and 387
S showed single primary peaks centered on 3 µm and 200 nm, respectively. The 388
element Cu emitted from fireworks is harmful to human health, and shows a similar to 389
the patterns of K and S in the Mascletà. However, Cu tended to be concentrated in finer 390
particles (250 nm and 500 nm) in contrast to the background pattern dominated by 4 391
µm. The typical crustal element Ca, shown in Figure 5, displayed no obvious change of 392
mass size distribution between the Mascletà and background days; mass size 393
distributions on both days were enriched in sizes 2 - 4 µm. A three-peak-curve in the 394
size distribution of Ba was also observed during fireworks burning on Indian Diwali days 395
(Khaparde et al. 2012). Thus, there are still knowledge gaps regarding the mass 396
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concentrations of enriched elements / heavy metals and the size distributions of 397
particles released from fireworks. 398
399
3.3 Morphology 400
Only 6 studies have addressed the morphology of firework particles. To identify 401
and characterize individual particulate matters, scanning electron microscopy coupled 402
with energy dispersive X-ray spectrometer (SEM-EDX) has often been used (Witt et al. 403
2010; Agrawal et al. 2011). The morphology of particles before and after combustion is 404
shown in Figure 6. Particles emitted from fireworks have regular and irregular spherical 405
shapes (Agrawal et al. 2011; Azhagurajan et al. 2014). The spherical particles are 406
formed by high temperatures and are termed fly ash particles. Analysis revealed that 407
the spherical particles were mainly composed of Al, Fe, K and Sr emitted from fireworks 408
during festivals (Witt et al. 2010), providing further evidence that the higher 409
concentrations of Al, Fe, K and Sr result from high-temperature combustion during 410
fireworks burning (Li et al. 2013). 411
412
4 Chemical compositions 413
The main ingredient of fireworks is black powder, comprised primarily of charcoal 414
powder, potassium nitrate and potassium chlorate. To improve the visual impact, 415
aluminum, iron, antimony and inorganic salts are also added. When the fireworks are 416
burning, the sulfur, charcoal powder and metal powder rapidly combust with the 417
oxidizer and large amounts of heat and light are released. This produces carbonaceous 418
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gases containing nitrogen and sulfur, as well as numerous particles (such as metal 419
oxides) (Xu et al. 2006). In this part, we will exhaustive review the chemical 420
composition of fireworks according to water-soluble ions, custal elements and trace 421
metals, carbonaceous and organic matter and trace gas emitted from fireworks. 422
423
4.1 Water-soluble ions 424
Some 23 of the 145 included papers focused on the concentrations of 425
water-soluble ions in particles during festivals. Normally, ions in ambient pollutants 426
reach the Earth surface via wet deposition, when they can cause human health 427
problems and even enter into the hydrological cycle. Thus, chemical composition is a 428
critical aspect of the laboratory analysis of particles. A total of 13 water-soluble ions 429
were analyzed in 23 published papers, and comprise 5 cations (Na+, Mg2+, K+, Ca2+ and 430
NH4+) and 8 anions (F-, Cl-, ClO4
-, NO2-, NO3
-, SO32-, SO4
2- and CO32-). Only 8 papers 431
reported on NO2-, SO3
2-, and CO32-. An overall comparison of the concentrations of 13 432
reported water-soluble ions is illustrated in Figure 7. 433
The concentrations of SO42- and K+ were greatest during festivals, when they 434
reached 23 µg/m3 and 13 µg/m3, respectively. These levels are 38.3 times and 2.7 435
times higher than the concentrations on background days (Moreno et al. 2010; Kong et 436
al. 2015). This is because sulfur and potassium are the two major components in 437
fireworks, where they act as the main oxidizer in black powder (commonly in the form of 438
perchlorate or chlorate) during fireworks burning. The fireworks release SO2 which can 439
be rapidly converted to SO42- either by oxidation catalysed by metals or by 440
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photochemical oxidation (Cheng et al. 2014). The burning of potassium follows two 441
corresponding chemical reactions, which are 2KClO3=2KCl+3O2 and KClO4=KCl+2O2 442
(Tian et al. 2014). The concentrations of other water-soluble ions during festivals were 443
observed to decrease in the order CO32- > NO3
- > Cl- > NH+ > Ca2+ > Mg2+ > Na+ > 444
NO2- > SO3
2- > F-, indicating that the secondary aerosol components (including CO32-, 445
NO3-, NH4
+) also increased gradually and became major components during festival 446
days (Chatterjee et al. 2013). The mean concentrations of CO32-, NO3
-, NH4+ were 15 447
µg/m3, 14 µg/m3 and 8.7 µg/m3 during fireworks burning, respectively; the respective 448
ratios between fireworks displays and background days were 30.3, 2.2 and 4.0, which 449
can be used as indicators of fireworks burning. Furthermore, Cl- released by chlorate 450
and/or perchlorate (e.g. potassium chlorate) present in fireworks lead to an observed 451
average Cl- concentration of 11 µg/m3. 452
453
4.2 Crustal elements and trace metals 454
Specific elements are added to fireworks to enhance the visual impact and 455
ornamental effects (Grima et al. 2012). Sr, Ba, Sb, Pb, Na, K and Cu are effective in 456
producing red, yellow-green, light green, green, yellow, violet and blue fireworks, and it 457
is therefore unsurprised to find higher concentrations of these elements following 458
fireworks displays. Ca chlorides and sulphates are used to generate orange flames and 459
to deepen fireworks colors. Most fireworks use Zn to generate smoke. Mn and its 460
oxides are also used as a fuel and oxidizer to produce brighter lights (Swanepoel et al. 461
2010). K compounds in black powder mainly work as oxidation agents during burning, 462
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and Cr is a catalyst to increase burn rate (Do et al. 2012). As a metallic fuel, Mg plays 463
an important role in generating sparks and crackling stars. Al as also contributes part 464
the part of the fuel, sparks and glitter effects. More detailed information on these 465
aspects can be found in Table 2 of Martín-Alberca and García-Ruiz (2014). In total, 47 466
elements (Na, Mg, Al, Si, P, S, Cl, K, Ca, Ti, Fe, Zn, Ba, Pb, Cr, Sr, As, Mn, Cu, Cd, Li, 467
Ni, Co, Br, Rb, Se, Sn, Pt, B, W, Tl, Th, U, V, Bi, Be, Mo, Sb, Cs, Zr, Ge, Ga, La, Ce, Eu, 468
Y, Sc) had been analyzed in 32 previous published papers; these elements include the 469
crustal elements, trace elements and rare earth elements. We selected 18 470
frequently-used metals emitted from sparklers and classified them into 3 categories (K, 471
S, Ca, Al, Si, Mg, Na; Fe, Ba, Zn, Pb, Cu; Ti, Sr, Mn, Cr, As, Cd) to conduct further 472
quantitative comparisons between previous studies (Figure 8). 473
The concentrations of major elements during festivals were observed to decrease 474
in the order K > S > Ca > Al > Si > Mg > Fe > Na > Ba > Zn > Pb > Cu > Ti > Sr > Mn > 475
Cr > As. K and S had the highest average concentrations, which were 9637.3 ng/m3 476
and 9681.9 ng/m3, owing to the highest concentrations of K+ and SO42- ions. The high 477
concentration of K may be attributed to potassium salts like nitrates, chlorates and 478
perchlorates, which are the basic materials in firework manufacturing (Grima et al. 479
2012). Meanwhile, S is always used as propellant/fuel. Additionally, the crustal 480
elements Si, Al, Ca, Mg and Na were also present at high concentrations: those of Si, 481
Al and Ca were 4678.5 ng/m3, 2488.7 ng/m3 and 2481.9 ng/m3, respectively. These 482
elements are added to fireworks in powder form to increase the burning temperature 483
and darken the color. In the 27 studies which analyzed Cu, Zn, Fe, and their mean 484
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respective concentrations were 103.0 ng/m3, 511.3 ng/m3 and 1263.7 ng/m3. These 485
elements are used to create a blue color, smoke effect and sparks. Cd and As were 486
also found in the particles released from fireworks, at mean concentrations of 179.3 487
ng/m3 and 21.5 ng/m3, which are lower than those of the other selected elements in this 488
review. This suggests that Cd and As are impurities associated with the industrial 489
process of adding specific metals (such as Pb or Zn) into fireworks (Licudine et al. 490
2012). 491
It should be noted that emission sources besides fireworks also contributed to the 492
reported concentrations of elements. K was additionally emitted from biomass burning 493
during festivals; Fe is associates with Zn suggesting that pollution emissions, in 494
particular incineration and fossil fuel combustion, may contribute to Fe during fireworks 495
burning, in addition to crustal soil. A variety of pollution sources including coal 496
combustion (As, Zn, S), waste incinerators (Sb, Cd, Cr, Zn), motor vehicles incineration 497
(Pb) and sewage sludge incineration also influenced the results (Xu et al. 2006; Ye et al. 498
2010; Shon et al. 2015). All of above were the major emission sources of Pb, besides, 499
the high background lead content had higher contribution from cement, metallurgic and 500
oil combustion dust, motor vehicles incineration and soil dust (the possible secondary 501
source) (Wang et al. 2002; Zheng et al. 2004). In addition, the major source of As with 502
toxic was industrial waste gas except coal burning. And the average background 503
concentrations of carcinogens Pb, Ba, As were 192 ng/m3, 22 ng/m3 (ranged from 1 to 504
70 ng/m3) and 15 ng/m3 (ranged from 7 to 29 ng/m3), respectively (detailed information 505
is provided in elements concentrations of the supplemental database). These sources 506
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could contribute significantly to the loadings of the elements during fireworks burning 507
and it is difficult to separate these complex pollution sources from fireworks sources. 508
For the online measurement of chemical components in fireworks, a compact509
time of flight Aerosol Mass Spectrometer (cToF-AMS) was firstly apply to perfor510
m measurements of organic aerosols (OA), sulfate (SO42-), nitrate (NO3
-), ammon511
ium (NH4+) and chloride (Cl-) (Drewnick et al. 2005). A High Resolution Time of 512
Flight Chemical Ionization Mass Spectrometer (HR-ToF-CIMS) was also used to 513
measure gas phase concentrations, using iodide as a reagent (Lee et al. 2014; 514
Reyes-Villegas et al. 2017). Once the original data were online obtained the AM515
S data would be further were post-processed by using the Igor-based standard T516
oF-AMS Analysis Toolkit SQUIRREL and PIKA, available at http://cires1.colorado.517
edu/jimenez-group/ToFAMSResources/ToFSoftware/index.html (Faber et al. 2013; 518
Drewnick et al. 2015;Wang et al. 2016). 519
According to Drewnick et al. (2015), a number of metals (mainly the alkali metals) 520
Cd, Cs, Hg, K, Na, Rb, Se in group I and Al, Ba, Bi, In, Li, Mg, Pb, Te, Tl, Sn, Sr, Zn in 521
group II. Due to very high melting point of metal oxides, they can not be measured with 522
the AMS. Thus, theoretically, the added pure metals for colorful displays in fireworks 523
after incomplete combustion which is likely to vaporize slowly but can probably still be 524
measured with AMS (McGuire et al. 2011). These metals can be used as tracers of 525
fireworks. Several studies had validated that strontium (88Sr+), barium (138Ba+, 526
154BaO+) can be used to distinguish the fireworks particles by TOF-AMS (Liu et al. 527
1997; McGuire et al. 2011; Li et al. 2017). Although Li et al. (2017) also mentioned that 528
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more species of metals of lead (206/207/208Pb+), copper (63/65Cu+) and aluminum 529
(27Al+) could be classified as fireworks-metal particles, the application of these metals 530
as tracers of fireworks should cautious. Actually, the sources of Pb, Cu and Al were 531
various, including bonfires (Vassura et al. 2014), traffic, soil dust etc. (Wang et al. 2002; 532
Zheng et al. 2004). Moreover, Drewnick et al. (2006) mentioned that potassium 533
(39/41K+) can be used as tracers of fireworks. Thus, the single application of K+ for 534
tracing of fireworks will also be affected by bonfires and other biomass burning. 535
In conclusion, we strongly recommend that potassium (39/41K+), strontium (88Sr+), 536
barium (138Ba+, 154BaO+) and their combinatory are reprehensive tracers of fireworks 537
in data post-processing of TOF-MS. 538
539
4.3 Carbonaceous and organic matter 540
Among the 145 articles, 19 papers reported the concentrations of organic carbon 541
(OC), elemental carbon (EC) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in particles 542
during fireworks burning (Table 6). Carbonaceous particles are important components 543
in the chemical composition of fireworks. Twelve studies suggested that OC increased 544
significantly during the fireworks burning, and that the OC originated from the 545
combustion of black powder with added charcoal along with the burning of external 546
encysted shell. The mean concentration of OC was 32.1 µg/m3 (ranging from 5.1 µg/m3 547
to 80.4 µg/m3), which is 1.5 - 6.3 times higher than the background value (pre-festival, 548
post-festival or normal day). The burning of different types of fireworks, made variously 549
from colorful papers and wool or other fibers, also contributed significantly to OC in the 550
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atmosphere (Pachauri et al. 2013). Although EC only represented a small proportion of 551
the aerosol mass concentration, it contributed more to the aerosol extinction and had 552
significant radiative forcing effects (Huang et al. 2012). The mean concentration of 553
reported EC was 9.6 µg/m3 during fireworks burning, which is 1.1 - 15 times higher than 554
the background values. The particulate OC / EC ratio peaked during festivals (ranging 555
from 1.3 to 7.9), and has been adopted as an indicator of fireworks burning in 556
atmospheric monitoring (Feng et al. 2012). 557
Eleven studies reported the levels of organics, most notably PAHs (7 studies in all). 558
Sixteen PAHs including naphthalene (Nap), acenaphthylene (Acy), acenaphthene 559
(Ace), fluoranthene (Flu), phenanthrene (Phe), anthracene (Ant), fluorantene (Fluor), 560
pyrene (Pyr), benz[a]anthracene (BaA), Chrysene (Chry), benzo[b]fluoranthene (BbF), 561
benzo[k]fluoranthene (BkF), benzo[a]pyrene (BaP), indeno[cd]pyrene (IcdP), 562
dibenzo[ah]anthracene (DahA) and benzo[ghi]perylene (BghP) were measured in 563
previous studies (Li et al. 2009; Croteau et al. 2010; Sarkar et al. 2010; Feng et al. 2012; 564
Shi et al. 2014; Kong et al. 2015). The mean concentration of PAHs was 82.0 ng/m3 565
and showed no obvious change from the background value of 56.7 ng/m3 during 566
fireworks event. Therefore, it has been demonstrated by several studies that PAHs are 567
not directly sourced from fireworks burning; instead, emissions from cooking, industry 568
and vehicles might be the principal contributors to PAHs during festivals (Shi et al. 569
2014). Betha et al. (2014) used an experimental steel chamber to collect PM2.5 emitted 570
from sparklers, and quantified the PAHs in fine particles released from three commonly 571
used sparklers (low smoke sparklers (LSS), Colored sparklers (CS), Whistling 572
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sparklers (WS)). Levels of PAHs in particles emitted from LSS were found to be 573
relatively higher (by 2.6 - 3.4 times) compared to those from CS and WS. 574
Other kinds of organics were also measured in previous studies, including 575
secondary organic aerosol (SOA), hydrocarbon-like organic aerosol (HOA) and 576
oxygenated organic aerosol (HOA) (such as aliphatic compounds and derivatives, 577
halogenated aliphatic compounds, organic acids, alcohols/ketones, caprolactam, 578
chlorobenzenes, chlorophenols and dioxins) (Drewnick et al. 2006; Nishanth et al. 2012; 579
Schmid et al. 2014; Jiang et al. 2015). It was observed that the concentrations of 580
hexachlorobenzene, pentachlorophenol and PCDD/Fs during festivals were of the 581
order of 10 times above the background value (before or after festival events). This 582
indicated that the higher levels of organics found in the particles were associated with 583
the fireworks burning (Nishanth et al. 2012). 584
585
4.4 Trace gas emissions from fireworks 586
By acting as the major atmospheric constituents affecting solar and thermal 587
radiative transfer, trace gases (O3, NOx, CO, SO2, CH4, etc.) can impact the 588
atmospheric chemistry and climate (Pathak et al. 2013). In addition, these gaseous 589
pollutants from fireworks also affect human health (which will be further discussed in 590
Section 5.2). The concentrations of gaseous pollutants during festivals in previous 591
studies were systemically compiled in Table 7. Mean concentrations were found to 592
decrease in the order CO > SO2 > NO > NO2 > O3. 593
There were 29 studies focusing on gaseous pollutants emitted from fireworks 594
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during festivals or celebration events. Only 8 papers reported the concentrations of CO, 595
overall reporting an obvious increase in mean concentration from the background value 596
(pre and post days) of 264 µg/m3 to 1298.9 µg/m3 (5 times) during fireworks burning. 597
CO is usually a product of the incomplete combustion of carbon in fireworks (He et al. 598
2014). The mean concentration of SO2 was 217.6 µg/m3, some 9.2 times higher than 599
the background value (23.7 µg/m3). The reported highest concentration of SO2 was 600
3470 µg/m3 (before 1995) in China, which is almost 44 times higher than the average 601
value of reported concentrations from studies that excluded the above highest value 602
(78.4 µg/m3). This steep decline shows the effectiveness of the policy of banning 603
fireworks, as well as improvements in the quality of fireworks and adopting the correct 604
method of sampling. 605
The average concentrations of NO2 and NO during fireworks burning were 46.2 606
µg/m3 and 99.9 µg/m3, respectively. This was 1.3 times higher than the background 607
value for NO2 (34.6 µg/m3). Note that the peak concentrations of NO and NO2 also 608
reflected the contribution of traffic sources during fireworks burning. Meanwhile, the 609
concentration of O3 showed smooth variations during fireworks burning, and only one 610
study reported a notable increase, to 1.4 times higher than the background value (30 611
µg/m3) (Attri et al. 2001). 612
613
5 Environmental effects 614
5.1 Noise 615
The noise made by fireworks contributes to their festive character (Betha et al. 616
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2014), but also to noise pollution, and may be detrimental to human hearing. Seven of 617
the included 145 papers focused on noise quality during festivals, most of which took 618
place in commercial zones (expect Ambade et al. (2013) in a residential zone). The 619
mean noise level was 90 dB (92 dB in the daytime and 78 dB at night), which is 1.2 620
times higher than background value (78 dB) in commercial areas. The ambient noise 621
level was also above the permissible limit in China (60 dB in the daytime and 78 dB at 622
night), India (65 dB in the daytime and 55 dB at night) and Spain (30 dB) in commercial 623
areas (Sun et al. 1995; Mahecha et al. 2012). The mean ambient noise level in the 624
residential zone was 97 dB (ranging from 89 dB to105 dB) during Diwali but was 86 dB 625
(ranging from 72 dB to 98 dB) on normal days. Compared to Central Pollution Control 626
Board (CPCB) in India, it was 1.7 times higher than the noise level in residential areas 627
where the mean noise level was 50 dB (Mandal et al. 2012). These figures suggest that 628
there was a high noise pressure caused by fireworks burning during festivals, and that 629
firework designs need to be modified to avoid nose pollution (Lad et al. 2012). 630
631
5.2 Health effects 632
The health effects from fireworks during festivals can be divided into physical 633
explosion injuries (Berger et al. 1985) and chemical pollutants exposure (Gouder et al. 634
2014). The explosion of fireworks often causes extensive trauma and burns (to areas 635
such as skin, eyes and hands), and even noise-induced hearing loss (Brookhouser et al. 636
1992; van Kamp et al. 2005). Ocular firework injuries cover a wide spectrum of types 637
and degrees, with injuries ranging from intrusions to loss of the eye (Sacu et al. 2002). 638
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Chan et al. (2004) reported serious fireworks-related eye and adnexal injuries in 639
Northern Ireland. There have also been studies of these eye injuries in Denmark, with a 640
mean of 0.012 cases of eye lesions per ton of fireworks (Thygesen et al. 2000), and in 641
Sweden where 38% patients had permanent damage to the eyes (Sundelin et al. 2000). 642
Many males reported eyes injured by fireworks on New Year’s Eve until the year 2002 643
in Norway (Bull et al. 2011). There were also studies focused on ocular injuries due to 644
fireworks explosions in the United States (Walton et al. 1996; Wilson 1982; Canner et al. 645
2010; Tu and Granados 2015), UK (Knox et al. 2008), France (Marsal et al. 2010), 646
Austria (Sacu et al. 2002), New Zealand (Clarke et al. 1994), China (Wang et al. 2014), 647
India (Kumar et al. 2010; Elangovan et al. 2016) and Iran (Mansouri et al. 2007; Saadat 648
et al. 2010; Vaghardoost et al. 2013; Hatamabadi et al. 2013). These studies found that 649
over 80% patients were males and 70% patients were younger than 18 years, 650
indicating that ocular injuries resulting from fireworks are significantly a male and a 651
paediatric problem (Sundelin et al. 2000). Injuries to the hand, face and mouth were 652
also reported by clinical researchers (Dhir et al. 1991; Moore et al. 2000; Di Benedetto 653
et al. 2009; Al-Qattan and Al-Tamimi 2009). 654
The burning of fireworks may generate considerable amounts of sparks. These 655
sparks may drop on peoples’ clothes or combustible belongings, leading to a risk of 656
burns (Li et al. 2009). Noise pollution is another source of significant physical damage 657
caused by fireworks during festivals, leading to fatigue, increased psychological stress 658
(such as anxiety and depression), insomnia, raised cholesterol level and even the risk 659
of heart attacks. The most damaging result caused by fireworks was loss of hearing 660
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(Mandal et al. 2012; Mahecha et al. 2012). 661
Gaseous and particulate pollutants, including metals, emitted by fireworks are 662
expected to affect human health owing to their chemical properties (Ambade et al. 2013; 663
Baranyai et al. 2015). These pollutants may cause mobility and mortality, such as 664
respiratory and cardiovascular system diseases, cancer and even death (Curtis et al. 665
2006). The short-term health effects are mainly expressed as the inhalation of smoke 666
which contributes to coughs, fever and dyspnea, and even acute eosinophilic 667
pneumonia (AEP) (Hirai et al. 2000). Effects of PM10 emitted from fireworks were 668
reported to include acute lower respiratory symptoms (Hoek et al. 1998; Beig et al. 669
2013). Gouder et al. (2014) systematically reviewed the potential effect of fireworks on 670
asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). SO2 can be slowly 671
absorbed into fine particles and transported deeply into the lungs, thereby causing 672
long-term health effects. NO2 emitted from fireworks can generate biochemical 673
alterations and histological demonstrable lung damage leading to both acute and 674
chronic exposure (Bull et al. 2001; Ambade et al. 2013). The higher concentrations of 675
O3 and CO also may cause dyspnea (severe asthma) and lung diseases (such as 676
pneumonia) (Ganguly et al. 2009; Gouder et al. 2014). It has also been suggested that 677
elements like chlorine contained in fumes emitted by fireworks may cause mucosal 678
irritation and acute respiratory distress syndrome when inhaled into the respiratory 679
system (Babu et al. 2008). Health risks studies indicated that the carcinogenic potential 680
of whistling sparklers (WS) emissions were higher than it from low smoke sparklers and 681
colored sparklers and the carcinogenicity of emissions from WS was caused by metals 682
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(Betha et al. 2014). The metals in particles (such as Cd, Pb, Cr and Ni) have been 683
identified as human carcinogens and also have severe effects on asthmatics; they may 684
be associated with deaths caused by lung cancer (Verougstraete et al. 2003; Pearson 685
et al. 2005; Wang et al. 2006; Moreno et al. 2010). Only limited 4 papers focused on the 686
quantities evaluation for the health effects of heavy metals or PAHs in our compiled 687
database (Yang et al. 2014; Feng et al. 2016; Hamad et al. 2016; Harrison et al. 2017). 688
Heavy metals and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAHs) in PM2.5 released from 689
fireworks burning can raise non-carcinogenic risks and cancer risks to human health 690
through the respiratory system and dermal contact. Here, we only calculated the 691
inhalation risks because of the highly uncertainty of dermal contact area from fireworks. 692
The average exposure amount of heavy metals from fireworks by inhalation (Dinh) for 693
children and adults in a given time frame could be calculated using Eq. (1): 694
D��� =������
��� (1) 695
where Dinh is the heavy metals exposure from inhalation, mg kg-1 day-1; C is heavy 696
metal concentration, mg m-3. InhR is inhalation rate, 20 and 7.6 m3 day-1 for adult and 697
children, respectively; EF is exposure frequency, 2.1 day year-1; ED is exposure 698
duration for year, 24 and 6 year for adult and children, respectively; BW is average 699
body weight, 70 and 15 kg for adult and children; AT is the averaging time, AT(days) = 700
ED × 365. 701
However, the above formula recommended from (EPA) had been error applied to 702
evaluate the health risks of heavy metals in Feng et al. (2016), as the parameter of 703
exposure frequency (EF) of fireworks had been set to 180 days per year which 704
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obviously contrary to the objective facts. We slightly modify the Eq. (1) to represent the 705
effects of fireworks more reasonable as: 706
D��� =��������
��� (2) 707
Where, exposure time (ET) is assumed to 8 hours for each day with fireworks 708
displays, which could expressed as 0.3 days; EDY is the number of days with fireworks 709
display in each year, we set it to 7 days according to the duration of Diwali Festival and 710
Spring Festival. 711
The lifetime average daily dose (LADD) of heavy metals exposure by inhalation 712
could be used to assess health risks by the following equation: 713
LADD =��
��× (
����������������
������+
����������������
������) (3) 714
where InhR$��%& and InhR'&(%) are inhalation rate for children (7.6 m3 day-1) and 715
for adults, respectively; EDY$��%& and EDY'&(%) is exposure duration, 24 and 6 year for 716
adults and children, respectively; BW$��%& and BW'&(%) are average body weight, 70 717
and 15 kg for adults and children, respectively. 718
The cancer risk can be calculated by following equations: 719
R = LADD × SF' (4) 720
R) = ∑ R (5) 721
where SF' is slope factor, which are 42, 15.1, 9.8, 0.84 and 6.4mg kg−1 day−1 for 722
Cr, As, Co, Ni and Cd (Feng et al. 2012; Wang et al. 2007). The concentrations of Co, 723
Ni and Cd were not enough to study their cancer risks, so that we only calculated the 724
cancer risk of Cr and As in this study. 725
The results of the average amount, daily exposure values and health risks of heavy 726
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metals are shown in Table 9. It indicated that it may ranged from 1.85 × 10-8 to 8.09 × 727
10−7 for adults and from 3.28 × 10-8 to 1.15 × 10−6 for children of the non-carcinogenic 728
heavy metals risk for exposure through the respiratory system. Here is the order of the 729
risk levels for the non-carcinogenic heavy metals: Pb>Zn>Sr>Cu>Mn>Ba>As>Cr. 730
Meanwhile, the carcinogenic risk for Cr is above 10-6 which showed an 731
unacceptable risk, while the carcinogenic risks for As (9.16 × 10-7) is almost lower than 732
10-6 which risks could be considered negligible by the US EPA. It indicated that Cr (the 733
carcinogenic heavy metal) is more dangerous than As and Cr is identified as the most 734
possible carcinogenic compound in fireworks, the result has been also verified in Betha 735
et al. (2014). 736
Although firework-related injuries have been studied both in terms of physical 737
injuries (29 papers) and chemical injuries (15 papers), the more explicit health effects of 738
particulate and gaseous pollutants (including metals) emitted from fireworks still need 739
further study to aid in the prevention and treatment of injuries caused by fireworks. 740
741
6 Emission control and management 742
Although festivals have a short duration, the use of fireworks creates a non-trivial, 743
unusual and serious impact on atmospheric pollution and human health (Moreno et al. 744
2007; Liu et al. 2014). Therefore, measures adopted to control and manage the burning 745
of fireworks are of considerable importance. 746
Preventative measures such as banning fireworks have been shown to be effective 747
in reducing the number of injuries resulting from fireworks. Wilson et al. (1982) 748
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compared the ocular trauma resulting from fireworks in three states in the United States, 749
finding that the number of physical injuries in Arkansas was ten times higher than in 750
Georgia and West Virginia: this showed that while banning fireworks had not been 751
totally effective (there were still injuries caused by fireworks), there was nevertheless 752
an important reduction in such injuries. Sheller et al. (1993) and D’Argenio et al. (1996) 753
reported a successful preventive measure in Denmark and Italy which roughly halved 754
the number of fireworks-related physical injuries. Chan et al. (2014) revealed an 755
increase in ocular trauma caused by fireworks burning after the lifting of the legislative 756
ban on fireworks in 1996 in Northern Ireland, followed by a reduction in the number of 757
injuries under measures reintroduced in 2002. Edwin et al. (2008) reported that the UK, 758
one of many countries introducing legislation on fireworks, banned banger fireworks 759
under the Firework Regulations of 1996/1997 and limited the sale of fireworks in 2003 760
(the Firework Act) and 2004 (the Fireworks Regulations). While these measures all 761
reduced injuries to children caused by fireworks, there remain a large number of cases 762
each year. Galea and Powles (2010) suggested that, in order to reduce the frequency 763
of firework injuries, it was necessary to burn fireworks in designated places and to only 764
sell fireworks on licensed premises in the UK. Fireworks were also regulated in South 765
Africa by Act 26 of 1956, requiring that retailers must sell fireworks with grant licenses 766
and banning the sale of fireworks to children younger than 16 years (Smittenberg et al. 767
2010). This legislation has an obvious impact on reducing children’s firework injuries, 768
similarly to the effect of legislation in the USA (Smith et al. 1996) and Hungary (Kuhn et 769
al. 2000). 770
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The environmental consequences of fireworks burning have been reported in771
previous studies and include adverse effects on air quality owing to the release772
of particulates and metals. This shows that banning fireworks is necessary to a773
void high levels of air pollution, especially the suffocating smog problem. The US774
A has already adopted measures to ban the use and sale of fireworks, or there 775
would be stricter controls on the sales and discharge period, following the State 776
Fireworks Law RCW 70.77.395 (http://www.wsp.wa.gov/fire/docs/fireworks/firework_777
bans_and_restrictions.pdf). In an attempt to limit air pollution, the Italian governm778
ent elected to limit or completely ban fireworks across all major cities ahead of 779
New Year’s Eve because of smog (http://www.dailymail.co.uk/wires/ap/article-33801780
49/Italian-cities-ban-New-Years-Eve-fireworks-smog.html). South Africa also banned781
the use and sales of fireworks during festivals in Cape Town (http://www.thepetit782
ionsite.Com/582/068/331/ban-fireworks-in-cape-town-south-africa/), and fireworks ar783
e now banned in Delhi because of severe air pollution (http://www.djvshow.com/h784
ome/fireworks-are-now-banned-in-delhi-thanks-to-air-pollution). In China, preventive 785
measures regarding fireworks have been implemented including banning fireworks786
and restricting the sale and use of fireworks (Jing et al. 2010). These measure787
s are often divided into two approaches: one is the conditional burning of firewor788
ks, involving regulated fireworks burning in designated places and times (such as789
permitted fireworks burning during the whole day of the Chinese New Year’s Ev790
e) such as the case in Beijing and Songyuan; the second is banning fireworks u791
se and sales in urban areas like Changchun and Hangzhou. 792
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In order to evaluate the effectiveness of preventive measures, we selected the 793
above four cities to conduct a comparison of hourly pollutant concentrations during the 794
Spring Festival of 2016 (Feb 7 - 8) (Figure 9a - 9d). There were obvious differences 795
between these cities because of the different regulations during Spring Festival. There 796
was a clear pollutants peak in cities adopting conditional burning (Figure 9a - 9b), with 797
the concentration of particles exceeding 600 µg/m3 (4 - 6 times higher than it in the 798
cities that banned burning) (Figure 9c - 9d). The high concentrations of particles lasted 799
for less than 6 hours during New Year’s Eve. The results clearly showed the strong 800
impact of fireworks, leading to severe air pollution, and demonstrate how the 801
implementation of strategies to control the use of fireworks can be effective in achieving 802
definite improvements during festivals. 803
The above discussion demonstrates the importance of implementing control 804
strategies to avoid the severe detrimental impacts of fireworks described in previous 805
studies. Firstly, close supervision and management of the fireworks industry is needed, 806
with the phasing-out of highly polluting models. Secondly, tight control is needed over 807
the time and location of fireworks displays. Thirdly, fireworks designs need to reduce 808
pollution emissions and explosion power (Han et al. 2007; Yan et al. 2011). 809
810
7 Summary and perspectives 811
According to our statistics, most of the papers were based on studies in Asia 812
(especially in China and India), with a few in America and Europe. However, only a few 813
of the studies in Asia focused on the health effects of fireworks. Further studies are 814
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needed in this respect to assess the occurrence of firework-related injuries and deaths 815
throughout the world. The ATOFMS should be used to study the chemical composition 816
along with the study of the size distribution of particles, and to identify correlations 817
between different types of particles released from fireworks, such as Faber et al. (2013), 818
this will help us to further evaluate the health risks of chemical in fireworks. 819
Furthermore, studies on the number concentration of particles are needed, and the 820
emission levels of particles should be monitored to establish an emissions inventory of 821
fireworks for use in numerical model-based forecasts of the burning of fireworks during 822
festivals and celebration events. 823
Very few of the studies focused on particle morphology (6/146) or noise generated 824
from fireworks (7/146). The following observations for future research are suggested to 825
study the morphology of particles resulting from fireworks, in order to better estimate 826
the shape correction factor and aerosol diameter. Noise quality also needs further 827
studies to provide recommendations to the fireworks industry with regard to reducing 828
noise pollution caused by fireworks burning. Meanwhile, some studies only focused on 829
ocular injuries and acute diseases associated with fireworks, yet injuries to the ear, face 830
and chronic diseases have received little attention, the risk levels for the 831
non-carcinogenic heavy metals in PM2.5 emitted from fireworks were observed in the 832
order Pb>Zn>Sr>Cu>Mn>Ba>As>Cr. Meanwhile, Cr (the carcinogenic heavy metal) 833
is identified as the most possible carcinogenic compound in fireworks. Additional 834
toxicological and epidemiological studies of fireworks addressing the health effects 835
from exposure to various chemical components of pollutants are also needed. 836
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Usually, fireworks only have short-term effects during festivals, and the 837
concentrations of pollutants decrease quickly after the end of the fireworks display. It is 838
still necessary to monitor the pollution caused by fireworks during this short-term period 839
and it must useful for the relevant departments to prevent and control air pollution 840
problems and human health effects resulting from fireworks displays during festivals. 841
842
Acknowledgements 843
This work was financially supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of 844
China (NSFC) (No. 41571063, 21407148 and 41771071) and National key R&D Plan 845
(No. 2017YFC0212304). 846
847
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Figure 1 Temporal and spatial patterns of publications referring to fireworks: (a) the time-series; (b) 1481
classified by country. 1482
Figure 2 Compilation of festivals reported in previous publications. 1483
Figure 3 Geographic and health effect distribution of studied firework events in previous publications. The 1484
red stars represent the cities with studies on the characteristics of fireworks; the yellow circles represent 1485
the countries with studies on firework-related injuries. 1486
Figure 4(a) Mean number size distribution affected by the burning of fireworks in different publications; (b) 1487
Mean volume size distribution affected by the burning of fireworks in different publications; (c) Mean 1488
number size distribution affected by the burning of fireworks in different publications in 2009, Shanghai; 1489
(d) Mean number size distribution affected by the burning of fireworks in different publications in 2012, 1490
Nanjing. 1491
Figure 5 Mass-size distributions of particulates emitted from fireworks during Mascletà and background 1492
days for K, S, Cu and Ca, which adopted from Crespo et al. (2012). 1493
Figure 6 The morphology of particles in flash powder and particles emitted from fireworks burning 1494
(Further merged from Figure 2a. of Azhagurajan et al. (2014), Figure 1a. of Agrawal et al. (2011), Figure 1495
4. and Figure 7. of Grima et al. (2012)) 1496
Figure 7 The concentration of water-soluble ions in particles emitted from fireworks during pre-burning, 1497
burning and post-burning days (µg/m3). More detailed information is provided in water-soluble 1498
concentrations of the supplement. 1499
Figure 8 The concentration of elements in particles emitted from fireworks during pre-burning, burning 1500
and post-burning days (ng/m3). More detailed information is provided in elements concentrations of the 1501
supplemental database. 1502
Figure 9 Temporal variations of pollutants and meteological conditions in different cities during New 1503
Year’s Eve, 2016. (a-b): Conditional-burning cities; (c-d): Banned-burning cities. 1504
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Table 1 Compilation of the mass and number concentrations of TSP particles during firework events (µg/m3)
Festival City Date
TSP
Reference Mean
(BG value)
Max
(pre-days)
Min
(post-days)
Spring Festival Dalian, China 1990-1994† 30200 39800 23760 Sun et al. 1995
Spring Festival Lanzhou, China Jan 31-Mar 5, 2007 459(437) Li et al. 2008
Spring Festival Lanzhou, China Jan 31-Mar 5, 2007 590 1170 90 Zhang et al. 2013
Diwali Festival Hisar, India Dec, 1999 455.8 (360.1) (375.1) Ravindra et al. 2003
Diwali Festival Delhi, India 2002-2007† 425.3 (195.1) (254) Singh et al. 2010
Diwali Festival Unknown Nov 10-15, 2012 1.2×105 $ (0.7×105 $) (0.8×105 $) Pervez et al. 2015
Diwali Festival Delhi, India Oct 16-21, 2009 571.1 852.0 430.1 Agrawal et al. 2011
Diwali Festival Agra, India Feb, 2009-Jun, 2010 330.5 Pachauri et al. 2013
Diwali Festival Jhansi, India Nov 1-5, 2013# 670.8(235.9) (243.0) (255.9) Chauhan et al. 2014
Hoili Festival Agra, India Feb, 2009-Jun, 2010 414.1 Pachauri et al. 2013
Millennium Leipzig, Germany Dec 31, 1999-Jan 1, 2000 40.5 244.0 6.4 Wehner et al. 2000
† Average value for multiple years, for more detailed information for each year see TSP concentrations of the supplement.al database.
# Average value for commercial and residential areas. More detailed information is listed in TSP concentrations of the supplemental database.
$ The unit of these data is particles/cm3
BG value: background value
Table 2 Compilation of the mass and number concentrations for PM10 particles during firework events (µg/m3)
Festival City Date
PM10
Reference Mean
(BG value)
Max
(pre-days)
Min
(post-days)
Midautumn Festival Tainan, Taiwan Sep 7-27, 2011 25.4 Tsai et al. 2015
New Year's Eve Wuhan, China Feb, 2013 96.6 526.5 42.3 Han et al. 2014
Spring Festival Lanzhou, China Jan 31-Mar 5, 2007 470 1140 160 Zhang et al. 2013
Spring festival Shanghai, China Jan 25-Feb 12, 2009 89.8 1000 4.2 Huang et al. 2012
Spring Festival Lanzhou, China Jan 31-Mar 5, 2007 349(225) Li et al. 2008
Spring Festival Dandong, China Jan 24-Feb 11, 2009 88 132 53 Liang et al. 2013
Spring Festival Tianjin, China Jan 30-Feb 24, 2013 220.1 567.4 56 Shi et al. 2014
Spring Festival Xi'an, China 2002-2007† 212.7 (144.5) (131.9) Wang et al. 2008
Spring Festival Shenyang, China Jan 29-Feb 16, 2008 160 400 20 Hong et al. 2010
Spring Festival Hohhot, China 2005-2009† 182.9 777.4 45.2 Han et al. 2010
Spring Festival Dandong, China Feb 17-19, 2007 100 Li et al. 2009
Spring Festival Dandong, China Feb 6-8, 2008 187 Li et al. 2009
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Spring Festival Zhengzhou, China 2014 365 1000 32 Liu et al. 2014
Spring Festival Nanning, China Feb 2-20, 2011 145 276 19 Yan et al. 2011
Spring Festival Tianjin, China Jan 30-Feb 24, 2013 213 Tian et al. 2014
Lantern festival Beijing, China Feb 12-15, 2006 338.4 466.2 85.6 Wang et al. 2007
Lantern festival Beijing, China Feb 17-18, 2011 469.3 687 23 He et al. 2012
Busan Culture Busan, Korea 2011-2013† 29.0 Shon et al. 2015
New Year's Eve Nagpur, India Dec 28, 2008-Jan 3, 281 430 131.6 Khaparde et al. 2012
Diwali Festival Jhansi, India Nov 1-5, 2013# 349.9 (116.5) 124.5 133.3 Chauhan et al. 2014
Diwali Festival Hisar, India Dec, 1999 174.5 134.4 167.8 Ravindra et al. 2003
Diwali Festival Lucknow, India Oct 31-Nov 2, 2005 753.3 963.3 527.5 Barman et al. 2008
Diwali Festival Delhi, India 2002-2007† 286.4 (122.1) (167.8) Singh et al. 2010
Diwali Festival Delhi, India Oct 27-31, 2008 767 (276) (282) Perrino et al. 2011
Diwali Festival Delhi, India Oct 16-29, 2009 620 (394) (278) Perrino et al. 2011
Diwali Festival Kolkata, India Nov, 2010 542.5(137.5) (261) (487.5) Chatterjee. 2013
Diwali Festival eastern India Oct-Nov, 2011 555.5 (212.8) (284.4) Nirmalker et al. 2013
Diwali Festival Delhi, India Oct 9-18, 2009 507.2 (244.3) (346.7) (339.8) Sarkar et al. 2010
Diwali Festival Delhi, India 2010-2013† 864(336) Ganguly et al. 2015
Diwali Festival Jabalpur, India 2012-2014† 128 (93.6) (103.1) Srivastava et al. 2015
Diwali Festival Nagpur, India Oct 25-Nov 6, 2008 283.7 526.2 166.8 Khaparde et al. 2012
Diwali Festival Brahmaputra, 2009 49.8 Deka et al. 2013
Diwali Festival Salkia, India Nov 7-25, 2008 2237.3 (529.1) (538.0) Thakur et al. 2010
Diwali Festival Nagpur, India Oct 22-28, 2011 930 (251.1) (591.9) Rao et al. 2012
Vishnu Festival Kannur, India Apr 12-17, 2011 71.2 118.3 52.0 Nishanth et al. 2012
Festas Malta Jul-Oct, 2005 38.9 58 25.1 Camilleri et al. 2010
Festas Gozo, Malta Jul-Oct, 2005 20.5 39.6 10.2 Camilleri et al. 2010
Las Fallas Valencia, Spain Mar 15-20, 2005 79 (37.7) (41.5) Moreno et al. 2007
2006 FIFA World Milan, Italy Jul 10, 2006 63.9(29.3) Vecchi et al. 2008
† Average values for multiple years, for detailed information for each year see PM10 concentrations of the supplement.al database.
# Average values for commercial and residential areas, for more detailed information for each area see PM10 concentrations of the supplemental database.
BG value: background value.
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Table 3 Compilation of the mass and number concentrations of PM2.5 particles during firework events (µg/m3)
Festival City Date PM2.5
Reference
Mean Max (pre) Min(post)
New Year's Eve Wuhan, China Feb, 2013 75.2 216.9 31.8 Han et al. 2014
New Year Jinan, China Jan 27-Feb 8, 2011 183.0 217 117 Li et al. 2013
Spring Festival Tianjin, China Jan 30-Feb 24, 2013 153.0 430.6 32.6 Shi et al. 2014
Spring Festival Beijing, China 2010-2013† 139.2 773.0 5.9 Ye et al. 2015
Spring Festival Zhengzhou, China 2014 173 500 17 Liu et al. 2014
Spring Festival Nanjing, China Jan 24-Feb 21, 2014 318 (119.6) (88.9) Kong et al. 2014
Spring Festival Jinan, China 2008 464.0 Yang et al. 2014
Spring Festival Suzhou, China Feb 9-15, 2013 100.9 592.1 21.1 Zou et al. 2014
Spring Festival Shanghai, China Jan 25-Feb 12, 2009 61.5 950 2.11 Huang et al. 2012
Spring Festival Shanghai, China Jan 21 –Feb 6, 2009 91 382 33 Feng et al. 2012
Spring Festival Chengdu, China Feb 10-28, 2010 155.5 321.8 42.2 Tang et al. 2013
Spring Festival Tianjin, China Jan 30-Feb 24, 2013 140.6 Tian et al. 2014
Lantern Festival Nanjing, China Feb 14, 2014 118.4 Kong et al. 2015
Lantern Festival Beijing, China Feb 12-15, 2006 122.7 184.3 26.1 Wang et al. 2007
Diwali Festival Delhi, India Oct 27-31, 2008 448 (94) (110) Perrino et al. 2011
Diwali Festival Delhi, India Oct 16-29, 2009 365 (148) (135) Perrino et al. 2011
Diwali Festival Jabalpur, India 2012-2014† 87.3 (53.4) (72.1) Srivastava et al. 2015
Diwali Festival eastern India Oct-Nov, 2011 395.4 (136.7) (98.6) Nirmalker et al. 2013
Diwali Festival Nagpur, India Oct 22-28, 2011 271 (139.0) (251.1) Rao et al. 2012
Diwali Festival Salkia, India Nov 7-25, 2008 1199.7 (388.1) (344.1) Thakur et al. 2010
Fireworks event Nagpur, India 4464472$ (1344598)$ (1118739)$ Majumdar et al. 2011
International fireworks
Competition Montréal, Canada Jun-Jul, 2007 6378.6 9941.2 3215.7 Joly et al. 2010
Independence Day Ogden, USA Jul 4, 2006-2013 61 96 17 Seidel et al. 2015
Mascletàs Alicante, Spain Jun 19-24, 2013 629 1261 41 Caballero et al. 2015
New Year Mainz, Germany Dec 28, 2004-Jan 4, 2005 111.4 611.1 3.4 Dreunick et al. 2006
$ The units of these data are particles/L
† Average values for multi-years. More detailed information for each year are included in PM2.5 concentrations of the supplemental database.
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Table 4 The ratios of TSP, PM10, PM2.5, and PM1.0 particles during different firework events
Festival City Date PM10/TSP PM2.5/PM10 PM1.0/PM2.5
Reference
(pre, post) (pre, post) (pre, post)
Lantern festival Beijing, China Feb 12-15, 2006 0.76
Wang et al. 2007 (0.70,0.59)
Spring Festival Beijing, China Jan 31-Feb 25, 2003 0.71 Xu et al. 2006
Spring Festival Nanjing, China Jan 19-31, 2012 0.6 0.68 Wang et al. 2014
Spring Festival Chengdu, China Feb 9-14, 2013 0.75 He et al. 2014
New Year’s Eve Wuhan, China Feb, 2013 0.78
Han et al. 2014 (0.41,0.75)
Spring festival Tianjin, China Jan 30-Feb 24, 2013 0.76
Shi et al. 2014 (0.70,0.58)
Lantern festival Yanshui, Taiwan Feb 21-25, 2013 0.76 0.73
Lin et al. 2014 (0.63,0.68) (0.71,0.42)
Diwali Festival eastern India Oct-Nov, 2011 0.71 0.53
Nirmalker et al. 2013 (0.64,0.35) (0.33,0.59)
Diwali Festival Delhi, India 2002 0.63
Singh et al. 2010 (0.67,0.60)
Diwali Festival Delhi, India 2003 0.61
Singh et al. 2010 (1.06,0.76)
Diwali Festival Delhi, India 2004 0.60
Singh et al. 2010 (0.52,0.61)
Diwali Festival Delhi, India 2005 0.83
Singh et al. 2010 (0.54,0.70)
Diwali Festival Delhi, India 2006 0.86
Singh et al. 2010 (0.84,0.85)
Diwali Festival Delhi, India 2007 0.66
Singh et al. 2010 (0.41,0.57
Diwali Festival Jabalpur, India Nov 10-16, 2012 0.75
Srivastava et al. 2015 (0.58,0.79)
Diwali Festival Jabalpur, India Oct 31-Nov 6, 2013 0.62
Srivastava et al. 2015 (0.57,0.66)
Diwali Festival Jabalpur, India Oct 20-26, 2014 0.67
Srivastava et al. 2015 (0.55,0.61)
Diwali Festival Jhansi, India Nov 1-5, 2013 0.53
Chauhan et al. 2014 (0.51,0.52)
Diwali Festival Hisar, India Dec, 1999 0.38
Ravindra et al. 2003 (0.37,0.45)
Diwali Festival Salkia, India Nov 7-25, 2008 0.76
Thakur et al. 2010 (0.70,0.58)
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Fireworks event 0.99$ Majumdar et al. 2011
$:The ratio between number concentrations.
Table 5 The sampling instruments and their specific models along with outputed data type
Type Instruments (Model) Size range Data type Reference
Aerosol
multi-stage
sampler
8-stage cascade impactor (Anderson TE20-800) 0 – 10 µm M
Chelani et al. 2010
Khaparde et al. 2012
Nirmalkar et al. 2013
Wang et al. 2014
13-stage cascade impactor (Dekati DLPI) 30 nm – 10 µm M Remškar et al. 2014
12-satge cascade impactor (Dekati SDI) 45 nm – 8.5µm M Crespo et al. 2012
10-stage Model 100-R (MSP MOUDI) 56 nm – 18µm M Lin et al. 2014
Online particle
size
spectrometer
DMAs (TSI 3025) + CPC (TSI 3010) 3 nm - 800 nm N, V Wehner et al. 2000
DMA (TSI 3080) + CPC (TSI 3785) 14 nm – 700 nm N Remškar et al. 2014
DMA (TSI 3080) + CPC (TSI 3788) + EC (TSI 3080) 14 nm – 661 nm M Jing et al. 2014
DMA + CPC + OPC (GRIMM 5.403C, 1.108) 10 nm – 20 µm N Joshi et al. 2015
WPS (MSP 1000XP-A) 10 nm – 10 µm N Wang et al. 2014
APS (TSI 3321) 500 nm – 20 µm N, S, V Zhao et al. 2012
ELPI (Dekati ELPI) 6 nm – 10 µm N Wang et al. 2011
ATOFMS 2 nm – 1 µm M Liu et al. 1997
Drewnick et al. 2006
DLPI: Dekati® Low Pressure Impactor; SDI: Small Deposit Area Impactor; MOUDI: Micro-Orifice Uniform Deposit Impactors; APS:
Aerodynamic Particle Sizer Spectrometer; DMA: Differential Mobility Analyzer; CPC: Condensation Particle Counters; OPC: Scanning
Mobility Particle Sizer; ELPI: Electrical Low Pressure Impactor; WPS: Wide-range Particle Spectrometer; ATOFMS: Aerosol time-of-flight
mass spectrometer
Table 6 Carbonaceous and organic pollutants emitted from fireworks during festivals
References Cities
OC/EC (µg/m3) Organics (ng/m3)
Instrument OC EC OC/EC Type Concentration
Huang et al. 2012 China TOR (DRI 2001) 11.7(7.7,5.2)
Tian et al. 2014 China DRI/OGC 11.6(7.7) 4.4(4.2) 2.6(1.8)
Yang et al. 2014 China Semi-continuous OC/EC analyser (Sunset 19.6(14.5) 3.6(1.6) 5.4(9.1)
Cheng et al. 2014 China TOR (DRI 2001) 26(24) 8.6(6.5) 3.0(3.7)
Tsai et al. 2015 China CHN-O-Rapid elemental analyzer 5.1(6.8,2.7) 4.0(3.8,1.4) 1.3(1.8,1.9
Agrawal et al. 2011 India OT21 (Magee scientific, USA) 5.0
Perrino et al. 2011 India TOR (DRI) 39 4.8 8.1
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Pachauri et al. 2013 India TOR (DRI) 80.4(30.3) 10.2(5.0) 7.9(6.1)
Moreno et al. 2007 Spain LECO elemental analyser 14.2(7.2,10.4)
Vecchi et al. 2008 Italy TOT 10.9 3.2 3.4
Feng et al. 2012 China TOR (DRI 2001A) 21.5(9.7,6.4) 3.7(3.9,2.9) 5.8(2.5,2.3 PAHs 75.8(40.7,15)
Kong et al. 2015 China TH-150C on quartz fiber filters (Wuhan) 56.9(18.2,9.0) 8.3(6.9,3.0) 6.9(2.6,3.0 PAHs 70.9(50.6,29)
Sarkar et al. 2010 India CHNS-O analyzer 70.5(54.4,92.4) 40.5(12.7,18.6) 1.7(4.3,5.0 PAHs 44.3(102.6,42.6)
Li et al. 2009 China PAHs 111.3(95.9,
Shi et al. 2014 China PAHs 107.8(74.3,56.9)
Schmid et al. 2014 Swiss
hexachlorobenzene 0.3(0.067)
pentachloropheno 0.2(0.02)
PCDD/Fs 6x10-5
Betha et al. 2014
PAHs
1622.5 (CS)
2161.8 (WS)
5541.8 (LSS)
Jiang et al. 2015 China SOA, OOA
Nishanth et al. 2012 India aliphatic
Drewnick et al. 2006 German HOA, OOA
Croteau et al. 2010 U.S.A PAHs
TOR: Thermal optical reflectance; DRI/OGC: Desert research institute/Oregon graduate center; TH-150C: Medium-volume air samplers; TOT: Thermal-optical; OT21: Optical
transmissionometer Model
SOA: secondary organic aerosol; HOA: hydrocarbon-like organic aerosol; OOA: oxygenated organic aerosol
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Table 7 The concentration of gaseous pollutants emitted from fireworks (µg/m3)
Festival City Date SO2 NO2 NO CO O3 Reference
Spring Festival Shanghai, China 2009 53 (91,14) 21(77,1) 31(89,2) Zhang et al. 2010
Spring Festival Dandong, China 2009 72 (101,49) 24 (33,17) Liang et al. 2010
Spring Festival Xi'an, China 2002-2007† 48(68,58) 38 (42,31) Wang et al. 2008
Spring Festival Nanning, China 2011 30 (75,11) 32 (39,24) 1348 (1661,976) Yan et al. 2011
Spring Festival Luoyang, China 2006 68 51 Han et al. 2007
Spring Festival Luoyang, China 2007 59 48 Han et al. 2007
Spring Festival Hohhot, China 2007 210(339,94) 81(274,39) Han et al. 2010
Spring Festival Wuhan, China 2013 29 (82,7) 40(63,21) 15(38,3) 1333(2944,629) 27(62,4) Han et al. 2014
Spring Festival Chengdu, China 2013 60 30 1253 35 He et al. 2014
Spring Festival Dandong, China 2007 177 33 Li et al. 2009
Spring Festival Dandong, China 2008 310 68 Li et al. 2009
Spring Festival Dalian, China 1990-1994† 3470 Sun et al. 1995
Spring Festival Xi'an, China 2012 200 Zhang et al. 2013
Spring festival Erdos, China 2011 65 32 Deng et al. 2011
Lantern festival Beijing, China 2011 71 1796 31 He et al. 2012
Busan Culture Busan, Korea 2011 46 Shon et al. 2015
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Busan Culture Busan, Korea 2012 47 Shon et al. 2015
Busan Culture Busan, Korea 2013 48 Shon et al. 2015
Vishu festival Kannur, India 2010 3(6,1) 2 35(76,8) Nishanth et al. 2012
Vishu festival Kannur, India 2011 5(10,2) 2 21(71,7) Nishanth et al. 2012
Diwali Festival Rajnandgaon, India 2011 13(10,12) 100(88,93) Ambade et al. 2013
Diwali Festival Nagpur, India Oct 22-28 17 70 Rao et al. 2012
Diwali Festival Lucknow, India 2005 139(120,164) Barman et al. 2008
Diwali Festival Jhansi, India 2013 30(10,11) 60(22,21) Chauhan et al. 2014
Diwali Festival Delhi, India 2004 41(83,11) Ganguly et al. 2009
Diwali Festival Delhi, India 2006 92 4729 63 (180,22) Ganguly et al. 2009
Diwali Festival Dibrugarh, India 2012 8(16,3) 12(31,2) 94 940 (2191,140) 25(55,2) Pathak et al. 2013
Diwali Festival Hisar, India 1999 17 (12,9) 26 (19,38) Ravindra et al. 2003
Diwali Festival Delhi, India 2002-2007† 50(13,29) 62 (25,33) Singh et al. 2010
Diwali Festival Salkia, India 2008 12 (10,10) 98(86,80) Thakur et al. 2010
Diwali Festival Hyderabad, India 2009-2011† 15(11,17) 26 (24,36) Yerramsetti et al. 2013
Diwali Festival Delhi, India 2010 53 Ganguly et al. 2015
Diwali Festival Delhi, India 2014 669(860,524) 86 (160,56) Ganguly et al. 2015
Diwali Festival Jabalpur, India 2012 43(30,32) 470 (331,370) Srivastava et al. 2015
Diwali Festival Jabalpur, India 2013 20 (18,24) 150 (150,141) Srivastava et al. 2015
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Diwali Festival Jabalpur, India 2014 19(11,15) 301(300,290) Srivastava et al. 2015
Millennium Leipzig, Germany 1999- 2000 6 Wehner et al. 2000
Mascletàs Alicante, Spain 2013 20 (178,0) 559 51(153,9) Caballero et al. 2015
† Average values for multi-years. More detailed information for each year seen gaseous concentrations of the supplemental database.
The italics represented the value before festivals or celebrations and the bold represented the value after festivals or celebrations.
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Table 8 Summary of reported noise levels during firework events around the world
Festival City Date Noise(dB)
Reference during(D,N)m pre(D,N)m post(D,N)m
Spring
Festival
Dandong, China Feb 17-18, 2007 80
Li et al.2009
(108,66)
Spring
Festival
Dalian, China 1990-1994 103
Sun et al.1995
(110,86)
Diwali Festival Kolhapur, India Oct 17-19, 2009 71
Lad et al. 2012
(70,72)
Diwali Festival Rajasthan, India Nov, 2010 73 63
Mahecha et al. 2012
(68,78) (64,63)
Diwali Festival Delhi, India 2006-2008 78 Mandal et al. 2012
Diwali Festival Rajnandgaon, India(R) Oct 24-28, 2011 97 87 84
Ambade et al. 2013
(105,89) (97,77) (99,67)
Mascletàs Alicante, Spain Jun 19-24, 2007 120 Crespo et al. 2012
Table 9 Daily exposure values (mg kg−1
day−1
) and health risks of heavy metals.
Elements Dinh of children Dinh of adult LADD HIchildren HIadult Rt
Zn 1.15E-06 6.51E-07 1.81E-06 3.83E-06 2.16E-06
Sr 5.71E-07 3.22E-07 8.94E-07 1.90E-03 1.07E-03
Ba 1.99E-07 1.12E-07 3.11E-07 1.39E-03 7.85E-04
Mn 3.14E-07 1.77E-07 4.91E-07 4.49E-05 2.53E-05
Cr 3.28E-08 1.85E-08 5.13E-08 1.15E-03 6.47E-04 2.15E-06
As 5.98E-08 3.37E-08 9.35E-08
9.16E-07
Cu 5.04E-07 2.84E-07 7.89E-07 1.25E-05 7.07E-06
Pb 1.43E-06 8.09E-07 2.24E-06 4.08E-04 2.30E-04
∑ 4.26E-06 2.41E-06 6.68E-06 3.52E-03 1.98E-03 2.29E-06
Dinh represented the exposure by respiratory inhalation, mg kg-1 day-1.
HIchildren and HIadult are represented the hazard index of children and adult, respectively.
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172x65mm (300 x 300 DPI)
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300x237mm (300 x 300 DPI)
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101x70mm (300 x 300 DPI)
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393x337mm (300 x 300 DPI)
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531x749mm (300 x 300 DPI)
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431x185mm (300 x 300 DPI)
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306x238mm (300 x 300 DPI)
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424x698mm (300 x 300 DPI)
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