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Why You Should Make Smart Flashcards
Mark Mitchell & Janina Jolley, 2014Clarion University of [email protected]@clarion.edu
How Can You Learn a Concept?
Three Models of Concept Learning
Key Attributes Model
Prototype (Best Example)
ModelExemplar
Model
Learn concepts by
learning their defining
characteristics.
Knowing the key elements
of the concept’s definition.
1. Learn the Key Attributes
Example of Learning Attributes
Key Attributes Model
• Know the key elements of the definition.
Example of Negative Reinforcement• Definition: Negative
reinforcement occurs when a behavior is increased by taking away an aversive stimulus.
• Key Elements 1. It must increase behavior 2. It must involve taking away an
aversive stimulus.
Problem With Learning Key Attributes
Identifying the key elements means thinking in abstract ways that are removed from reality.
We typically think in more concrete ways by using real world examples.
Love Love
How Can You Learn a Concept?
Three models of concept learning
• 1.Key Attributes Model• 2. Prototype (Best Example) Model• 3. Exemplar Model
2. Learn Prototypes
Learn a concept by learning a “best example” of it.
• Best =• Common• Typical
Example of Using Prototypes
Prototype Model
• Learn a concept by learning a “best example” of it.
Sources of Examples – Class Lectures– Textbook
Example
“Negative reinforcement occurs when a parent hears crying until the parent holds the baby and so the parent is constantly holding the baby.”
Problem With Learning Prototypes
Concepts are too general to have one example that captures the concept.
For example, no one dog is a perfect example of the concept “dog.”
How Can You Learn a Concept?
Three models of concept learning
• 1.Key Attributes Model• 2. Prototype (Best Example) Model• 3. Exemplar Model
3. Learn exemplars
You learn a concept by learning many examples of that concept.
Example of Exemplar Model
Exemplar Model
• You learn a concept by learning many examples of that concept.
Common Source for Model
– Observation – you have seen many examples.
ExampleBecause you have seen so many examples of dogs, you know what a dog is, and you can recognize many kinds of dogs as dogs–even if you don’t have a definition of “dog” memorized.
Two Problems With Learning from Exemplars
1. For all the concepts you need to learn in a course, will you be able to study enough examples to cover each concept?
2. From examples alone, will you be able to figure out the key features of a concept?
POSITIVE
REINFORCEMENT
NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT
POSITIVE
PUNISHMENT
SCHEDULES OF
REINFORCEMENT
FIXED SCHEDULE
VARIABLE RATIO SCHEDULE
?
Review: Models of Concept Learning and Their Implications for Studying
Model Study by
Key Attributes Memorizing the concept’s defining characteristics (know its definition).
Prototype Memorizing a typical, characteristic example of the concept.
Exemplar Memorizing several varied examples.
Overgeneralizing: A Big Problem in Concept Formation
Even when learning a concept from definitions, prototypes, and exemplars, people often fail to see how that concept differs from related concepts. For example, young children often call horses
“doggies” because horses, like dogs, have four legs. This kind of overgeneralization is called an overextension error.*
Dog?
Overextension Errors
Overextension errors are likely when a word is used one way in ordinary language, but has a more specific meaning in a specific field.
Meaning in psychology Common meaning
Random Due to chance—free from systematic bias.
Arbitrary – based on a whim that may reflect systematic bias.
Experiment A study that usually uses random assignment to disentangle treatment effects from natural differences between groups.
Any type of study.
How Can You Avoid Overextension Errors?
• It is not enough to learn from positive instances: examples of what the concept is.
• You must also learn from negative instances: examples of what the concept is not.
How Can You Avoid Overextension Errors?
– Getting feedback about negative instances (“that’s not a doggie, that’s a horse”) helps people avoid the overextension error.
“Doggie”
Conclusions Based on Theory and Research on Concept Learning for Making Flashcards
To put new information into your head, you need cards that will help you
1. Have a meaningful definition of the term;2. Have relevant, representative, varied,
visual, and meaningful examples of the term; and
3. Avoid overextension errors.
Designing Flashcards That Help You Learn Concepts
Strategy Helps you to learn Particularly useful for questions that ask you
Make “Definition cards” that break down definitions into their key parts.
defining features of the concept
to recognize the correct definition of a concept or to understand the definition of the concept
Make “Examples” cards that give you a typical example and a variety of examples that fit the definition.
Prototypes and exemplars of the concept
to apply the concept
Add notes to cards that help you tell the difference between the concept and related concepts.
to avoid overextension errors
to distinguish the concept from related concepts (most multiple-choice questions)
Example and Elements of an Intelligent Definition Flashcard
Negative reinforcement
(2)Definition{Positive
punishment}
occurs when a ____________ (1) behavior is increased by__ (2) taking away an aversive__ stimulus._____ ___________ ________________________“aversive”means unpleasant. ________________________________________________
Front Back
To avoid ignoring key parts of the definition, definition’s elements are underlined and numbered.
Words and terms that are not understood are defined.
Number of definition’s key elements you should recall.
Term you should not confuse with your term.
Example of What Might Be Added to the Back of a Definition Card
Text definition: “Occurs when a (1) behavior is increased by_____ (2) taking away an aversive stimulus after the undesired behavior occurs.”_______________________________________________Warning: I confuse positive punishment with negative reinforcement. They are similar in that both are ways of altering behavior through the use of aversive stimuli._____________________They are different because negative (-)_reinforcement increases (reinforces) behavior by taking away (-) an aversive stimulus after the desired behavior occurs whereas positive (+) punishment decreases behavior by adding (+) an aversive stimulus after the undesired behavior has occurred.__
An Example of an Examples Card
BackFront
Negative reinforcement
Examples
Text/professor example: (2) A baby cries until Mom picks it up. ________ (1)Mom picks it up to stop the crying. ______________________________ ______________________________My example: (2) My dog whines until I start scratching her ears, so (1) I ___scratch her ears more than I used to because I want to stop the whining. ______________________________
Two examples
The key elements from the definition card have been matched to each example and those elements have been underlined and numbered.
What Could Be Added to An Examples Card
Terms Negative reinforcement Positive Punishment
Difference 1: Their effects
Increases behavior. Decreases behavior.
Difference 2:Timing of unpleasant event
Unpleasantness occurs before desired behavior.
Unpleasantness starts after undesired behavior
Example Ex: Parent yells before and until child starts cleaning up room so child starts cleaning up room
Ex: Parent yells after child writes on walls so child stops writing on walls.
Final Thoughts Learning concepts is difficult because a concept can’t
be captured by a single example and because you will tend to confuse concepts that sound similar of have similar meanings.
You will tend to think you know a concept when you don’t. This may lead to you being surprised on tests.
Designing your flashcards can help you learn terms. To learn how to make flashcards that will help you
learn terms, see our powerpoint presentation: “Making Flashcards.”
ReferencesAppleby, D. C. (2013). A flashcard strategy to help students prepare for three types of multiple choice questions commonly found on introductory psychology tests. Retrieved from http://teachpsych.org/Resources/ Documents/otrp/resources/appleby13flashcard.pdf
Brown, P. C., Roediger, H. L., III, McDaniel, M. A. (2014). Make it stick: The science of successful learning. Cambridge, MA: Belknap. Young, S. (2010). Learn more, study less! Publisher: Author.
Acknowledgments
We would like to thank Dr. Jeanne Slattery, Dr. Jamie Phillips, Mr. Ryan Devlin, and Dr. Scott Kuehn for their insightful comments on earlier versions of this presentation.