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What is
chemistry?
Chemistry
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What is Chemistry? CuCl2 + NH3 What happens?
CuCl2 soluble
Cu(OH)2(s) insoluble
Cu(NH3)4+2
soluble
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Molecular
Interpretation
Cu+2 +2OH- Cu(OH)2
This course: understand & predict
Cu(OH)2 + 4NH3
Cu(NH3)4+2 + 2OH-
NH3 + H2O NH4+ + OH-
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Chemistry
•the study of matter
•and the changes
matter undergoes
Focus:
•Underlying principles
•Molecular point-of-view
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Classification of Matter
?? H2, cement, air, NaCl
Homo-geneous
Hetero-geneous
Mixture
Cmpd Element
Substance
Matter
“solution”
Physically
Separate
Chem. Separate.
Give examples of physical separation & chemical separation
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Physical vs. Chemical Change
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Physical change: no new substance is formed. e.g. melt, bend, cut, boil
Chemical change: new substance formed (always involves a chemical reaction).
e.g. Fe(s) + S(s) FeS(s)
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Units of Measurement
Quantity SI Unit Others
Length m cm
Mass kg g
Time s
Temperature K oC
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Metric Prefixes (know them!)
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giga- G E9 mega- M E6 kilo- k E3 deci- d E-1 centi- c E-2 milli- m E-3 nano- n E-9 pico- p E-12
How many grams is 14 pg?
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Derived Units
How many cm3 in 1 m3 ?
For example: volume
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Derived Units
Density = mass/volume
What is the mass of 17.4 mL
of ethanol (D = 0.798 g/mL)?
1 g H2O @ 4oC = 1 cm3 = 1mL
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Temperature Scales
Kelvin
0
273
373
(Size of
degree is
the same)
Celsius
Motion
stops -273
Water freezes
Water boils 100
0
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Temperature Scales
K = oC + 273.15
Try it:
1. 72oC = ? K
2. What is room temperature in oC?
3. If T changes by 37oC, what is
the change in Kelvin?
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Scientific Notation Avogadro’s Number:
602,200,000,000,000,000,000,000
6.022 x 1023 particles
Mass of H atom:
0.00000000000000000000000166 g
1.66 x 10-24 g
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Using Scientific Notation
N. x 10n
Add/subtract: n must be the same
Add 7.4 x 103 and 2.1 x 102
Multiply (divide): add (subtract) n’s
Divide 8.0 x 102 by 6.2 x 104
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Significant Figures
•All non-zeros are sig. 1.234 ? •Zeros between non-zeros are sig. 40,501 ?
How wide is this room?
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Significant Figures
Zeros to left are NOT sig. 0.000349 ?
Zeros to right are sig. if there is a decimal point. 0.09030 ? 400 ?
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Sig Figs in Calculations
Add/subtract: answer has same number of digits to right of decimal as the number with the fewest digits to right of decimal.
89.321 + 9.2 =
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Sig Figs in Calculations
Multiplication/division: answer has the same number of sig figs as the number with least number of sig figs.
2.8 x 4.5039 =
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Pure Numbers
How many sig figs in:
Five people?
2.54 cm = 1 in
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Conversion Factors
5 apples = $1.00
5 apples $1.00
= 1
In Wegman’s, apples cost 5 for a dollar.
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Conversion Factor
5 apples = 1 dollar
1 dollar = 100 pennies
10-2 m = 1 cm (or 1 m = 100 cm )
1 mole = 6.02 x 1023 atoms
1 g H2O = 1 mL H2O
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Conversion Factors: Try it.
Convert radius of Ca atom (0.197 nm) to cm. (Hint: go through the base unit.)
Adult has 5.2 L of blood. What is volume in m3 ?
What is 65 miles per hour (mph) in m/s ? (1609 m = 1 mi)
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Atoms, Molecules, Ions
Early chemists study the first known atom.
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Atomic Theory
Democritus vs. Dalton
500 BC 1808 AD
Pure
thought
Observation
+ Reason
Matter is not continuous!! Weird.
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Dalton’s Atomic Theory
Elements composed of atoms
Atoms of element are identical*
Compounds: simple integers of
atoms
Chem Rxn: rearrangement, not
creation, of atoms
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Dalton’s Theory
Law of Definite Proportions:
(mass of C and O in CO2)
Law of Multiple Proportions:
(CO and CO2)
Based on observations:
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Subatomic Particles
The Electron
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The Electron
Symbol: e-
Charge = -1 = -1.6 x 10-19C
Mass = 9.09 x 10-28 g
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The Proton
Ernest
Rutherford
1910
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The Proton
Charge = +1
Mass = 1.67 x 10–24 g
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The Neutron
Mass ratio of He/H problem
Chadwick 1932
(nuclear chemistry)
Charge = 0
Mass = 1.67 x 10–24 g
(similar to proton)
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Relative Proportions
Protons &
Neutrons
Electron cloud
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Atomic Number & Mass Number
Mass number
(#p + #n)
Atomic number
(#p)
X A
Z
H 1
1 H
2
1 H
3
1
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Practice
How many p, n, e- in:
Hg ? 200
80
-2 ion of Oxygen-16 ?
Hg-200 or
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Periodic Table
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Periodic Table
Group/Family vs. Period
Metals/Nonmetals/Metalloids
Key Groups
1 or 1A: Alkali Metals
2 or 2A: Alkaline Earth Metals
17 or 7A: Halogens
18 or 8A: Noble Gases
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Atoms, Molecules, Ions
Water Ammonia Methane
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Systematic Names: Why?
Common Name Formula
Water H2O
Lime CaO
Lye NaOH
Potash K2CO3
Laughing Gas N2O
Baking Soda NaHCO3
Muriatic Acid HCl
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Chemical Formulas
Molecular formula: Exact
numbers of atoms of each
element in a molecule.
Cl
H
C Chloroform
CHCl3
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Chemical Formulas Empirical: smallest whole number
ratio of atoms in a compound.
Glucose: C6H12O6 CH2O
Hydrogen Peroxide: H2O2 HO
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Molecular Compounds
Molecular cmpds: bonded nonmetals
Many molecular compounds
are binary (only 2 elements)
ending in ---ide.
HCl = hydrogen chloride
Organic compounds have a special naming system.
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Molecular Compounds
Name is:
prefix-atom-prefix-atom-ide mono 1
di 2
tri 3
tetra 4
penta 5
hexa 6
N2O dinitrogen monoxide
PCl3 phosphorus trichloride
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Molecular Compounds
SiCl4
AlCl3
H2O NH3 H2S
Try it!
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Ionic Compounds
Ionic Compounds: usually
a positive metal ion +
negative nonmetal ion.
Binary: NaCl = sodium chloride
Ternary: BaCO3 = barium carbonate
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Ions Ion: Charged atom or group of
atoms (monatomic or
polyatomic; Cl- vs CO3-2)
chlorine atom: 17 p & 17 e-
chloride ion: 17 p & 18 e-
Cation: +positive Anion: -negative
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Ionic Formulas
Sum of charges is zero.
e.g. Aluminum Oxide
Al2O3
“criss-cross”
2(+3) + 3(-2) = 0
Al3+ O2-
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Ionic Formulas Ionic compounds always use
empirical formulas.
Sodium Chloride: NaCl
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Polyatomic Ions (know them!)
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Memorize the ‘ate’ Ions
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ate: C2H3O2
- CO32- C2O4
2-
ClO3- CrO4
2- Cr2O72-
MnO4- NO3
- PO43-
SCN- SO42- S2O3
2-
Rule: if the non-oxygen atom is in an odd Group, charge is -1 (except PO4
3-)
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Figure Out the ‘hydrogen ---ate’ ions
50
CO32-
HCO3-
SO42- HSO4
-
Adding a hydrogen decreases the charge by 1.
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Figure Out ‘ite’ ions
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ClO4- perchlorate 1 more O
ClO3- know the ‘ate’
ClO2- chlorite 1 less O
ClO- hypochlorite 2 less O
Try it: name IO2-
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Memorize Some Others
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H3O+ Hg2
2+ NH4+
CN- O22- OH-
Have fun!
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Ionic Compounds
Some metals form
more than one cation:
Fe+2 Fe+3
Classical Ferrous Ferric
Stock Iron(II) Iron(III)
FeCl3 = Iron(III) chloride
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Common Metals with more than one charge (know them!)
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Cu+ copper(I) Sn2+ tin(II)
Cu2+ copper(II) Sn4+ tin(IV)
Fe2+ iron(II) Hg22+ mercury(I)
Fe3+ iron(III) Hg2+ mercury(II)
Pb2+ lead(II) Au+ gold(I)
Pb4+ lead(IV) Au3+ gold(III)
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Practice
NH4ClO3 calcium phosphate
PbO
cupric sulfite
iron(III) carbonate
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Naming Acids
Acid: substance yielding
H+ (proton) in water.
HCl = hydrogen chloride
HCl(aq) = hydrochloric acid
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Naming Acids
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Binary Acids
Anion Example
_ide Chloride Cl-
Acid Example
hydro_ic acid hydrochloric acid
HCl
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Oxyacids
Anion Example
_ite chlorite ClO2-
Acid Example
_ous acid chlorous acid
HClO2
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Oxyacids
Anion Example
_ate chlorate ClO3-
Acid Example
_ic acid chloric acid
HClO3
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61
Naming Acids
Anion Acid chloride HCl hydrochloric acid
hypochlorite HClO hypochlorous acid
chlorite HClO2 chlorous acid
chlorate HClO3 chloric acid
perchlorate HClO4 perchloric acid
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62
Acids: Try It !!!
H2SO4
HF
HNO3
HCN
H2SO3
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63
Have Some Fun
Read about naming bases,
and hydrates on your own.
Quiz on compound names and formulas.
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Mass Relationships in Chemical Reactions
The Mole
I
RULE !!!
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Masses (not weights)
• proton = 1.673 x 10-24 g
• neutron = 1.675 x 10-24 g
• electron = 9.109 x 10-28 g
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Atomic Mass Unit
1 amu 1/12 mass of C-12 atom
Mass of C-12 atom 12.00… amu
Mass of H 1 amu mass 1 p
Mass of O 16 amu
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Average Atomic Mass
Periodic Table lists
weighted-average
atomic mass of the
naturally occurring
isotopes.
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Determining Mass and Abundance of Isotopes.
68
Mass Spectrometry or Mass Spectroscopy
ion detector
vacuum pump
accel. field
ionizing e- beam
injection
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Mass Spectrometry
69
1. Substance injected into vacuum tube. 2. Particles are ionized by e- beam. 3. Ionized particles are accelerated in elec. field. 4. Particles are deflected by magnetic field
that can be varied in strength. 5. Deflection depends on particle mass-to-
charge ratio, particle speed, and magnetic field strength.
6. Particles enter ion detector.
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Strontium Example
70
Relative peak heights: • Sr-84 0.68 • Sr-86 12.00 • Sr-87 8.47 • Sr-88 100.00 Total 121.15
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Strontium Weighted Average
71
.68 121.15
x 84.0 amu = 0.47 amu
12.00 121.15
x 86.0 amu = 8.52 amu
8.47 121.15
x 87.0 amu = 6.08 amu
100.00 121.15
x 88.0 amu = 72.64 amu
87.71 amu
Fractional abundance
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Average Atomic Mass
e.g. Chlorine has 2 isotopes:
75.77% Cl-35 @34.969 amu
24.23% Cl-37 @36.966 amu
(.7577)(34.969 amu) +
(.2423)(36.966 amu) = 35.453 amu
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73
Average Atomic Mass TRY IT: Of every 100 atoms of
Cu, 69.09 are Cu-63 (62.93 amu)
and the rest are Cu-65 (64.93
amu). Calculate the mass of Cu
as given on the Periodic Table.
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74
Molecular Mass
The sum of atomic masses in amu
Molecular mass of HNO3:
H: 1 x 1.008 amu = 1.008 amu
N: 1 x 14.01 amu = 14.01 amu
O: 3 x 16.00 amu = 48.00 amu
= 63.02 amu
TRY IT: What is mass of N2O4?
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The Mole
Mole:
number of C atoms in
exactly 12 g of C-12.
“chemist’s dozen”
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76
Avogadro’s Number
1 mole =
6.022 x 1023 particles
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77
Avogadro’s Number
602,204,500,000,000,000,000,000 # of grains of sand in the world!
# of stars in the universe!
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The Mole
1 mole C atoms = 6.02 x 1023 atoms
1 mole CO2 molecules = 6.02 x 1023
molecules
1 mole pencils = 6.02 x 1023 pencils
1 mole Br- ions = 6.02 x 1023 ions
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Molar Mass
Molar Mass
mass (in g) of one mole
e.g. 1 mol C atoms
= 6.02 x 1023 atoms C
= 12.0 g C
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80
(6 x 12.0 g) + (12 x 1.0 g) + (6 x 16.0 g)
= 180.0 g
Mass of one mole of glucose,
C6H12O6
Molar Mass
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81
Molar Mass: Other Terms
Gram atomic mass:
gam of Fe is 55.9 g
Gram molecular mass:
gmm of CO2 is 44.0 g
Gram formula mass:
gfm of NaCl is 58.4 g
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82
Molar Mass
Mass (g) # Particles
Molar mass
g/mol
6.02 x 1023
part./mol Moles
Conversion Factors
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83
Mole Practice
What is mass in g of one C-12 atom?
How many grams in one amu? (Hint: use carbon as an example.)
What is the molar mass of C6H8O6 ?
How many H atoms in 25.6 g urea?
(NH2)2CO
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84
Percent Composition
% by mass of each element in a cmpd
= n x molar mass of element
molar mass of cmpd X 100
where n = element subscript
CO2
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85
Percent Composition
What is % of O in CO2?
= n x molar mass of element
molar mass of cmpd X 100 %O
= 2 x 16.00
44.01 X 100
= 72.71%
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86
Percent Composition
What is the mass of Cu (in kg)
in 3.71 x 103 kg of
chalcopyrite (CuFeS2)?
TRY IT !!
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87
Percent Composition
If % composition is known,
a compound’s empirical formula
can be determined.
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88
Empirical Formula
What is empirical formula of compound:
24.75% K 34.77% Mn 40.51% O?
Divide by smallest number KMnO4
assume 100 g
24.75 g 34.77 g 40.51g
.6330 mol .6330 mol 2.532 mol
go to moles
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89
Empirical Formula
Sometimes it is not so easy!
What is emp. formula of Vitamin C?
C = 40.92%
H = 4.58%
O = 54.50%
Try it.
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90
Empirical Formulas of C-H-O Compounds
Heat
O2
H2O CO2 absorber absorber
Sample
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91
Example
If combustion of an 11.5 g sample
of ethanol produced 22.0 g of CO2
and 13.5 g of H2O, what is the
empirical formula of ethanol?
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Try It
92
If combustion of a 21.4 g sample
of an unknown C-H-O compound
produced 29.5 g of CO2 and 24.1 g
of H2O, what is the empirical
formula of the compound?
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93
Molecular Formulas
If the empirical formula and
approximate molar mass are
known, molecular formula can
be determined.
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94
Molecular Formulas
Problem: A compound contains
only 1.52 g N and 3.47 g O and
has molar mass 95. What is it’s
molecular formula?
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95
Molecular Formulas
N: 1.52 g 0.108 mol
O: 3.47 g 0.217 mol NO2
NO2 has empirical molar mass of
46.02 g compared to molar mass 95 g.
Molar mass
Emp.mol.mass = 95 g
46.02 g N2O4
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Molecular Formulas
Problem: 200 g of a compound
contains 77.34 g C, 32.44 g H and
90.22 g N and has molar mass .
What is it’s molecular formula?
TRY IT !!
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97
Chemical Equations
Chemical Reaction:
Atoms & molecules
react to form
new substances.
A chemical reaction is represented
by a chemical equation.
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Evidence of Reactions
• Macroscopic evidence of chemical
reactions:
Heat Light
Gas Solid (precipitate)
Color change
• Chemical change involves creation of
new substances with new properties,
usually accompanied by a noticeable
energy change.
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99
Chemical Equations
H2 + O2 H2O
But mass must be conserved!
Hydrogen burns to form water.
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100
Chemical Equations
Balanced: 2H2 + O2 2H2O
Also show state:
2H2 (g) + O2 (g) 2H2O (l)
2H2 O2 2H2O
+
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101
Balancing Equations
Identify reactants & products
Write correct formulas first
Change only coefficients
2H2 + 1O2 2H2O
Double check
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102
Balancing Equations
Potassium chlorate decomposes
upon heating to yield oxygen
and potassium chloride:
KClO3 KCl + O2 3 2 2
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103
Balancing Equations
Complete combustion of
Ethane (C2H6) yields carbon
dioxide and water.
Try it.
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104
Types of Reactions
• Combination
• Decomposition
• Single Replacement
• Double Replacement
• Combustion
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105
Combination
2 Br2 + 2 NaBr Na
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106
Decomposition
CaCO3 CaO + CO2
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107
Single Replacement
Cu AgNO3 2 Cu(NO3)2 2 + Ag
Cu + ZnCl2 No Reaction
+
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108
Double Replacement
BaCl2 + H2SO4 2 BaSO4 + HCl
3 CrCl3(aq) + NaOH(aq)
3 Cr(OH)3(s) + NaCl(aq)
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Soluble Ionic Compounds
109
Ionic compounds that are soluble in
water actually exist as separated ions.
CrCl3(aq) is actually:
Cr+3(aq) + 3Cl-(aq)
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Net Ionic Equations
110
CrCl3(aq) + 3NaOH(aq)
Written as a net ionic equation is:
Cr(OH)3(s) + 3NaCl(aq)
Cr3+(aq) + 3 OH-(aq) Cr(OH)3(s)
Cl- and Na+ are “spectator ions”
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111
Combustion
C2H5OH + 3 O2 2 CO2 + 3 H2O
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112
Stoichiometry
The quantitative study of reactants
and products in a chemical reaction.
Interpret coefficients in chemical
equation as molecules or moles.
2H2 + O2 2H2O
2 mol H2 + 1 mol O2 2 mol H2O
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113
Stoichiometry
2H2 + O2 2H2O
2 mol H2 1 mol O2 2 mol H2O
means stoichiometrically
equivalent to
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114
Stoichiometry
2Li + 2H2O 2LiOH + H2
How many moles of H2 are
obtained from complete
reaction of 6.23 moles of Li ?
6.23 mol Li 1 mol H2 = 3.12 mol H2 x 2 mol Li
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115
Stoichiometry
2Li + 2H2O 2LiOH + H2
How many g H2 from 81 g Li ?
81 g Li 1 mol Li 6.9 g Li
1 mol H2 2 mol Li
2.0 g H2 1 mol H2
= 12 g H2
x x
x
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116
Stoichiometry
You try it! A key reaction in smog formation is:
2NO + O2 2NO2 1. How many g NO2 formed by
complete reaction of 1.44 g NO ?
2. How many molecules of NO2
formed from 0.00052 mg of NO ?
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117
Limiting Reagents
How many cheese sandwiches
can be made from:
25 slices of cheese
12 tomatoes
7 heads of lettuce
4 slices of bread
Bread is the “limiting reagent”
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118
Burn S in F2: S + 3F2 SF6
What if 4 mol S added to 20 mol F2 ?
Since 1 mol S 3 mol F2
Then 4 mol S 12 mol F2
Thus S is limiting and F2 is excess.
Limiting Reagents
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119
Limiting Reagents
Urea is made by reacting
ammonia and carbon dioxide:
2NH3 + CO2 (NH2)2CO + H2O
If 641 g NH3 reacts with 1140 g CO2 •Which chemical is limiting ?
•How much urea is formed ?
•How many g of excess reagent is left ?
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120
2NH3 + CO2 (NH2)2CO + H2O
641 g 1140 g
Start with NH3 & convert to urea:
641 g NH3 1 mol NH3 17.0 g NH3 2 mol NH3
1 mol urea
1 mol NH3
60.1 g urea = 1130 g urea
x x
x
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121
2NH3 + CO2 (NH2)2CO + H2O
641 g 1140 g
Start with CO2 & convert to urea:
1140 g CO2 1 mol CO2 44.0 g CO2 1 mol CO2
1 mol urea
1 mol urea 60.1 g urea = 1560 g urea
x x
x
1130 g
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122
2NH3 + CO2 (NH2)2CO + H2O
641 g 1140 g
1130 g
1560 g
Since NH3 yields less urea, it is
the limiting reagent, and 1130 g
urea will be produced.
CO2 is the excess reagent.
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123
To calculate the excess amount of
CO2, start with limiting reagent, NH3.
641 g NH3 1 mol NH3 17.0 g NH3 2 mol NH3
1 mol CO2
1 mol CO2 44.0 g CO2
= 829 g CO2
2NH3 + CO2 (NH2)2CO + H2O
1140 g – 829 g = 311g excess CO2
x x
x
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124
Limiting Reagents
You try one!
Al reacts with iron(III) oxide highly
exothermically. If 124 g Al reacts with
601 g iron(III) oxide:
•Write a balanced equation.
•How much aluminum oxide is formed ?
•How much excess reagent is left ?
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125
Reaction Yield
from limiting reagent calculation
from experiment
% Yield = Actual Yield
Theoretical Yield x 100%
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126
Reaction Yield Ammonia is produced by the Haber
process by reacting nitrogen gas and
hydrogen gas:
N2 + 3H2 2NH3
What is the % yield if 254 g NH3
are produced by reacting 246 g of N2 with 62 g of H2 ?
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127
N2 + 3H2 2NH3 246 g 62 g 254 g
1. Determine limiting reagent
246 g N2 28.0 g N2
1 mol N2
1 mol N2
3 mol H2
2.02 g H2
1 mol H2 = 53.2 g H2
Thus N2 is the limiting reagent.
x x
x
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128
2. Calculate theoretical yield of NH3
246 g N2 28.0 g N2
1 mol N2 1 mol N2
2 mol NH3
17.0 g NH3
1 mol NH3 = 299 g NH3
limiting
N2 + 3H2 2NH3 246 g 62 g 254 g
x x
x
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129
3. Calculate % yield of NH3
vs.
299 g theo.
= 254 g
299 g x 100%
= 85.0 % yield
N2 + 3H2 2NH3 246 g 62 g 254 g
% Yield = Actual Yield
Theoretical Yield x 100%
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130
TRY IT !!
Methanol is made by reacting hydrogen
gas and carbon monoxide gas.
Write balanced equation.
Calculate the % yield if 3.57 x 104 g of
CH3OH is produced by reacting 68.5 kg
carbon monoxide and 8.60 kg hydrogen.
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Warm-up
132
What is 65 miles per hour in m/s?
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Warm-up
133
Read the volume in the graduated cylinder.
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Warm-up
134
The density of aluminum is 2.7g/mL.
What is its density in kg/m3?
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Warm-up
135
Name or give formula:
Cl2O lithium nitride KMnO4 strontium phosphite NH3 AuSCN Hg2(NO3)2 Cu2O
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Warm-up
136
Name or give formula:
HCN(aq) SnCl4
carbonic acid N2O4
magnesium nitride AlI3
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Warm-up
137
What is the mass in grams of one water molecule?
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Warm-up
138
83 g of a compound contains 36 g phosphorous, the remainder being oxygen. Its molar mass is 280 g/mol. What is its molecular formula?
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Warm-up
139
For the reaction:
CH4(g) + 2O2(g) CO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
How many mL of water is produced by burning 17g CH4 in excess O2?
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Warm-up
140
N2 is prepared by passing ammonia over solid copper(II)oxide. If 18.1 g NH3 reacts with 90.4 g copper(II)oxide, how many grams of N2 are formed?
2NH3(g) + 3CuO(s)
N2(g) +3Cu(s) + 3H2O(g)
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Lab 2: Empirical Formula CuI or CuI2?
141
Beaker + clean Cu strip 56.1065 g
Beaker + CuxIy product 56.1245 g
Beaker after removing CuxIy 56.0978 g
• How do you determine mass iodine? • How do you determine mass copper?