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Top 10 Inventions of The Millennium
• Eraser• Hay• The Stirrup• Reading Glasses• Classical Music• Birth control pills• Transistor
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Sodium Polyacrylate Applications
• Absorbs 80x its molecular weight in water
• Used to fight forest fires
• Assists in germinating seeds in arid/dry environments
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Why Does Sodium Polyacrylate Work?
• Individual sodium polyacrylate molecules are virtually useless
• Connected into long chains, water molecules are trapped between sodium atoms
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Polyethylene
• Arrangement of styrene units into long chains
• Allows strength in longitudinal directions
• Lack of connections between chains makes lateral aspects weak
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What Is A Polymer?
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Polymers Defined
• Substances made of three or more identical units
• The individual unit is called a monomer; two units are called dimers
• As more monomers are linked, the properties of the substance changes
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Gunther VonHagens1993 Hamburg Exhibition of Polymer Art
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The Body As Polymer
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Four Classes of Biopolymers
• Carbohydrates
• Lipids
• Nucleic Acids
• Proteins
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Organic v. Inorganic
• INORGANIC• Lack the element
carbon
• Ex: NaCl, H20, HF
• ORGANIC• Contains the element
carbon
• Ex: CO2, C6H12O6
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Why Are All Four Biopolymer Classes Organic?
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The Molecular Architecture of Carbon
• High abundance in biosphere
• Tetravalent electron arrangement (4 e- in 2nd valence shell)
• Moderate electronegativity means carbon is unlikely to form ionic bonds
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Carbon The Compromiser
• Carbon shares 4 pairs of electrons with other atoms covalently
• This high number of bonds means many other atoms can be linked to carbon
• Covalent bonds useful in biopolymers for resisting entropy
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• Silicon is also tetravalent• Silicon (in the form of silica) is frequently
incorporated into living organisms as crystals, spikes or spines
• However, its lower abundance in the lithosphere may explain carbon’s dominance
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ISOMERIZATION• Because carbon can form
so many covalent bonds, substances with many carbon atoms can be arranged in many ways
• Isomers are substances with the same number and type of atoms but a different structural arrangement/formula
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Polymerization Reactions
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Polymerization By Condensation
• A hydrogen atom (H) is removed from one monomer
• A hydroxyl (-OH) group is removed from the other monomer
• Hydrogen and hydroxyl join to form water
• The remaining monomers are covalently linked to form a dimer
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Dehydration Synthesis Kinematics
• Energy required to make bonds form
• This is called an ENDERGONIC reaction
• About 200mL of water/day is synthesized in the human body as a result of endergonic reactions
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HYDROLYSIS
• Literally means “to split using water”
• The converse of dehydration synthesis
• A water molecule splits into H and OH- groups
• The polymer is divided into monomers
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The Kinematics of Hydrolysis
• Since the two monomers have less potential energy than the original polymer, energy is “released”
• This is called an EXERGONIC reaction
• Hydrolysis requires energy to be put in at the start but more energy is freed at the end
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If all biopolymers are constructed and destructed in the same way,
what makes them different?
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Different Organic Substances Have Different Functional Groups
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Carbohydrates
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General Characteristics of Carbohydrates
• Literally means ‘water added to carbon”
• Contains ONLY carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms in empirical formula
• Ratio of hydrogen to oxygen in empirical formulae is generally 2:1 (i.e. C6H12O6)
• Have caloric value of appx. 4 cal/gram
• May be used for energy flow or structure
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Monosaccharides
• Literally translates as “single sugars”
• Monomers/building blocks of carbohydrate polymers
• Three different forms/isomers: glucose, fructose and galactose
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Glucose
• Need 9grams/15 minutes of metabolism in bloodstream
• Can only be let into cells via the action of the hormone insulin
• Does not taste sweet
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Fructose
• Common natural sugar found in fruits and honey
• Does taste sweet
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Glucose v. Fructose
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Glucose v. Galactose
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Disaccharides
• “Double sugars”• Formed from the
condensation reaction between two monosaccharides
• Water is removed as a result of dehydration synthesis
• Examples: Maltose, Lactose, Sucrose
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The bond between monosaccharides is called a GLYCOSIDIC linkage
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Sucrose
• Formed from condensation of glucose and fructose
• Table sugar• Does taste sweet
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Lactose
• Formed by linking glucose to galactose
• 20% of U.S. population cannot hydrolyze the glycosidic linkage in lactose
• Lactose intolerance
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Maltose
• Formed by linking two glucose units together
• Common disaccharide in plants as intermediate storage form of glucose made in photosynthesis
• Does not taste sweet
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• Starches consist of hundreds of glucose units connected with an alpha glycosidic linkage
• Cellulose contains equal numbers of glucose units but has a beta glycosidic linkage
• The beta linkage is indigestible in most organisms without the proper enzymes
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Characteristics of Proteins
• Contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen atoms
• Are generally used for structural purposes in living organisms but may also be used for energy flow
• 4 cal/gram if used for metabolism• Highly folded structures held in place with
combination of strong covalent bonds and weak intermolecular forces
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There are 20 different Amino Acids: The building blocks of proteins
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Amino Acid Form & Function
• Contain CARBOXYL (COOH) and AMINE functional groups
• The 20 A.A. differ in the structure and complexity of their side groups (R-)
• 16 A.A. synthesized in body / 4 must come from diet
• All 20 needed to create the proteins necessary for life
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Phenylalanine
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Tryptophan
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Synthesis of A Dipeptide
• Two A.A. monomers are joined by removing the hydrogen from one amine group and a hydroxide ion from the carboxyl group of another atom
• One water molecule is formed/condensed
• The resulting linkage is a strong bond called a PEPTIDE BOND
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Polypeptide Formation
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Levels of Peptide Structure
• Primary: Sequence of A.A. held by peptide bonds
• Secondary: Coiled A.A. chain held by disulfide and hydrogen bonds
• Tertiary: Folded coil of A.A. held by hydrogen bonds
• Quaternary: Globular shape held by hydrogen, VanderWaal and other intermolecular forces
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Ex: Levels of Structure In Proteins
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Preserving this quaternary structure is one of the prime components of
homeostasis
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LIPIDS
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Characteristics of Lipids
• Comprised of only carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms
• Ratio of hydrogen to oxygen is always GREATER than 2:1
• Caloric value of lipids is appx. 9 cal/gram
• Lipids good for long-term storage of energy due to non-polar structure, high caloric value and density
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Lipids are comprised of 3 fatty acid monomers linked to a glycerol molecule
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Bonding In Fats
• Each fatty acid loses a hydroxyl (OH-) group
• The glycerol backbone loses 3 hydrogen atoms
• Three water molecules are condensed
• The fatty acids and glycerol combine as an ESTER LINKAGE
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Saturated v. Unsaturated Fats
• Saturated Fats• All carbon atoms are
bonded to four other atoms via single bonds
• Saturated fats tend to be solid and dense
• Often derived from animals
• Atherosclerosis and obesity may result from overconsumption
• Unsaturated Fats• Some carbon atoms
share more than one pair of electrons
• This is called a double bond or unsaturation
• Unsaturated fats tend to be liquids/oils and often come from plants or aquatic animals
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Saturated, Unsaturated and Polyunsaturated Fats
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Excess saturated fat is stored in large cells called Adipocytes
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Fatty acids may also combine with charged phosphate groups to create phospholipids, which
simultaneously attract and repel water
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If heated, the glycerol in fats is changed into a carcinogen called acrolein which causes
digestive distress/heartburn