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Land Ownership 1
Pakikibaka: A Foucauldian Discourse Analysis on
Land Ownership in the Philippines
Alonzo, Lucille
Britanico, Camille
Sy, aroline
Ateneo de !anila "ni#ersity
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Land Ownership $
%&'(OD"C'%O&
'he dawn o) the democratic and li*erated era *rou+ht with it a renewed #i+or )or
the promul+ation o) social ustice- .radually, the nations ha#e come to realize that the
path to +rowth is pa#ed *y e/ui#alence in the distri*ution o) the country0s resourcesone
o) which is land 2%nstitute o) 3uman (i+hts, n-d-4- Particularly, in the Philippines, the
newly esta*lished +o#ernment a)ter the !artial Law era committed itsel) to *rin+in+ *ac5
and sustainin+ societal inte+rity in the country, throu+h social and economic re)orm
2%nstitute o) 3uman (i+hts, n-d-4-
%n an attempt to alle#iate the ine/uita*le land distri*ution in the country, the
A/uino administration enacted the Comprehensi#e A+rarian (e)orm Pro+ram 2CA(P4 in
1677- CA(P promised the redistri*ution o) 7-$ million hectares o) land to millions o)
landless Filipino )armers 28orld Ban5, $9964- Accordin+ to Dr- Arsenio Balicasan 2$994,
the CA(P is considera*ly di))erent )rom all the pre#ious a+rarian re)orm pro+rams
implemented *y the state as the pro+ram co#ers e#ery a+ricultural land, re+ardless o) its
produce, and the pro+ram also ;+oes *eyond tenancy arran+ements to encompass other
alternati#e production arran+ements li5e production or pro)it<sharin+ and stoc5
distri*ution options= 2as cited in %nstitute o) 3uman (i+hts, n-d-, p- >4- 'he land re)orm
pro+ram was slated to last )or only 19 years? howe#er, the passa+e o) (-A- &o- 7@$ in
1667 +ranted it an etension o) 19 years, and was a+ain +i#en a )i#e<year etension
throu+h the CA(P( or (-A- 699 in $996 2Fa*ella, $914-
From the time o) its enactment, the )armers considera*ly #iewed the CA(P in a
positi#e li+ht- Accordin+ to a policy paper prepared *y the "ni#ersity o) the Philippines0
%nstitute o) 3uman (i+hts 2n-d-4, the )armers percei#ed the law as their way out o)
po#erty- 'his implies the )armers0 reco+nition o) the economic ad#anta+e that ownin+ the
land will +i#e them 2!artin, 16664- 'he landowners, on the other hand, #iewed the law as
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Land Ownership
a #iolation o) their ri+ht to own- Conse/uently, they deemed the law as somethin+ de#oid
o) pu*lic purpose as they did not see anythin+ purposi#e in handin+ o#er their properties
to another indi#idual 2%nstitute o) 3uman (i+hts, 16774- 'hese opposin+ sentiments
resulted to recurrin+ clashes *etween the title holders and the landless )armers 2shleman
E 3unt, 16614- %n turn, these disputes contri*uted to the delay o) land redistri*ution, with
se#eral million hectares o) land remainin+ undistri*uted to this day, and le)t millions o)
)armer *ene)iciaries landless and still under the power o) landowners 2Araa, $91?
Cer#antes, $914-
For this study, the researchers will concentrate on how )armers and title holders
construct land ownership, relati#e to the discourses *rou+ht a*out *y CA(P- %n addition,
the proponents o) this study will try to )ind out how their conceptualization o) land
ownership in)luences, rein)orces their *eha#ior, ;lan+ua+e,= and co+nition- 'he
researchers )ind it important to eplore this particular topic as this study can contri*ute in
eplainin+ how the pre#ailin+ 5nowled+e<power relations and )ormations in society are
capa*le o) constructin+ meanin+s, in etension, ways o) li)e and realities, )or di))erent
people, )rom di))erent contets, that it encompasses 2Foucault, 166@4- Additionally, this
study can also eplain how 5nowled+e )ormations, as well as its conse/uences in power,
a))ect psycholo+ical ownership- !oreo#er, in an a+ricultural country li5e the Philippines,
this study can allow us to )urther in#esti+ate and +i#e insi+ht to law conception,
)ormulation and implementation, especially with re+ard to laws a*out ownership and
la*or- %n connection to that, incidentally, this year, mar5ed the end o) the $> year
e))ecti#ity o) the Comprehensi#e A+rarian (e)orm Pro+ram 2CA(P4? a law 5nown to
ha#e +i#en rise to years o) le+al disputes and etra<udicial 5illin+s 2Cer#antes, $914-
.i#en this contet, this study may +i#e li+ht to the )ollowin+: 214 reason why the law did
not wor5, 2$4 the power im*alances that the law created and how it hindered its success,
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Land Ownership
and 24 the social practices the law rein)orced and etin+uished- 3ence, in understandin+
the actions, practices and identities that were rein)orced or created, there would *e a more
pro)ound understandin+ and analysis o) the issue and possi*ly, the way throu+h which it
can *e resol#ed-
Review of Related Literature
'o understand how the )armers and title holders construct land ownership, the
history o) land ownership and land re)orms in the Philippines must )irst *e put into
contet- Philippine history eposes the persistent compleity o) the issue o) land
ownership and +i#es insi+ht into the current state o) land re)orm and land distri*ution
today 2!artin, 16664- Additionally, to )urther enrich the historical discussion, the re#iew
will del#e into the importance o) land in the country, as this would pro#ide historical
contet )or the dispute *etween the )armers and titleholders- Such ;shared narrati#es or
storylines that emer+e )rom such discursi#e )ramewor5s pro#ide the )oundations )or
collecti#e identities= 2Diprose E !c.re+or, $996, p- @@4- !oreo#er, their
conceptualization o) land ownership must *e discussed in the contet o) psycholo+ical
ownership since ;psycholo+y o) possession is well rooted in people socialized *y a
8estern herita+e= 2Pierce, osto#a, E Dir5s, $99, p- 7@4-
The History of Agrarian Reform in the Philippines
'he pre<3ispanic perception o) land as a communal property was superseded *y
the idea o) pri#ate ownership introduced *y the Spaniards when they occupied the
country durin+ the start o) the 1>th century- 'his conceptualization o) land was not
eradicated durin+ the American occupation, rather, it was rein)orced *y their )riar land
resettlement pro+rams- Althou+h a homestead act was implemented in order to promote
the reallocation o) the )riar lands to the peasants and e#en allowed them to secure loans,
the su*stantial costs that comes with procurin+ a land title pro#ed to *e too costly )or
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them 2%yer E !aurer, $9964- As a result, the Spanish and American occupation led the
Filipino elites to own #ast tracts o) land throu+h ;royal +rants, land<+ra**in+ and
pri#ile+ed access to le+al )ormalities,= 2Putzel, 166$, p- >94, intensi)yin+ the disparity o)
wealth *etween the )armers and titleholders- 'his pro*lem persisted e#en a)ter the
declaration o) Philippine independence, +i#in+ the succeedin+ administrations the
dauntin+ tas5 o) cur*in+ such disparity throu+h the enactment o) a+rarian re)orm
pro+rams-
Land re)orm pro+rams were continually carried out durin+ the Guezon, (oas,
Guirino, !a+saysay, .arcia, !acapa+al, and !arcos administrations 2Fuwa, $9994-
3owe#er, due to a host o) )actors and circumstances, such as the lac5 o) )unds, the
*ene)iciaries0 am*i#alence, and the non<compliance o) the landowners, amon+ others,
these e))orts cannot *e considered as successes- Post<!artial Law, the newly esta*lished
+o#ernment epressed a renewed dedication to implementin+ socio<economic re)orms,
chie) o) which is land distri*ution- On the 19th o) Hune, 1677, the A/uino administration
passed (-A- >>@ or the Comprehensi#e A+rarian (e)orm Law 2CA(L4- 'his law ser#ed
as the le+al )oundation o) the Comprehensi#e A+rarian (e)orm Pro+ram 2CA(P4- 'his
pro+ram was desi+ned to stimulate a+ricultural pro+ress and decrease ;po#erty *y
terminatin+ ine))icient )eudal tenure<*ased relationships,= pertainin+ to the per#adin+
system o) land ownership, a system that has chan+ed e#en today 2Diprose E !c.re+or,
$996, p- @$4- %t epressly stipulated that the well<*ein+ o) the landless )armwor5ers and
)armers will *e +i#en utmost concern in order to promul+ate social ustice and to direct
the country toward a+ricultural de#elopment, and the institution o) ;owner culti#atorship
o) economic<sized )arms as the *asis o) Philippine a+riculture= 2%nstitute o) 3uman
(i+hts, 1677, p- @4- 3owe#er, pro*lems with its implementation, such as delay in
distri*ution, constant uprisin+s, and noncompliance *y the landowners, ust to name a
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Land Ownership >
)ew, resulted to its etension 2.arcia E !anuel, n-d-4- 3ence, the succeedin+
administrations were all tas5ed to implement the CA(P and all o) its pro#isions-
3owe#er, none o) them, includin+ the present administration, were a*le to implement it
)ully 2Araa, $914-
%n summary, land re)orm in the Philippines is mar5ed *y a tumultuous history
2Franco E Borras, $994- 4- A)ter approimately )our centuries o) *ein+ under colonial
power, ;the Philippines inherited a land tenure system which *ene)ited mainly the landed
oli+archy= and predisposed the )armers to an implicit ser#itude *y means o)
;sharecroppin+ system and other )orms o) tenant )armin+= 2Draper, 16, p- 94- 'he
attempts to address the ine/uita*le distri*ution o) land in the country were pla+ued *y
series o) protests that placed land re)orm as an unwa#erin+ )iture on the national
+o#ernment0s pro+rams throu+hout the $9th century, in the midst o) etensi#e durations
o) political idleness 2Borras E Franco, $994- .i#en all o) this, it is e#ident how the series
o) land<related con)licts that ha#e marred the history o) land re)orm in the Philippines,
illustrates the #alue con)erred *y the )armers to land 2!ar/uez et al-, $99>4-
The Importance of Owning Land in the Philippines
For most o) the world0s population, land is a way and source o) li)e- Since
culti#a*le land is the most conclusi#e constructi#e aspect in a lar+ely rural community,
the system o) control )or this ara*le land is o) a*solute rele#ance concernin+ the social
structure o) this 5ind o) society 2(en+er, 166@4- 'his holds true )or the Philippines since it
is a principally a+ricultural nation? in essence, the su*ect o) land ownership and the
ensuin+ ri+hts to culti#ate and o*tain the har#est )rom the land are essential to the ;social,
political, and economic status o) the rural Filipino= 2!artin, 1666, p- 17$4- !oreo#er,
there are se#eral Filipino politicians who are landowners themsel#es or *elon+ to a )amily
o) landowners- 'hus, ownin+ land is a source o) *oth economic and political power-
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Land Ownership 7
)armers, access to the land has principal su*sistence *ene)it since it pro#ides a sa)e
dwellin+ and source o) li#elihood 2(utten, $9194- 8ith this re+ard, )armers may )eel an
ecessi#e +rasp on the land that they consider home and source o) li#in+-
3owe#er, it is important to note that there is a distinction *etween psycholo+ical
ownership and le+al ownership- For instance, le+al ownership is primarily ac5nowled+ed
*y society? thus, this 5ind o) ownership comes with speci)ied ri+hts which are
sa)e+uarded *y the country0s le+al system- Con#ersely, psycholo+ical ownership is
primarily reco+nized *y the person who holds this perception o) ownin+ an o*ect or
item- 3ence, the indi#idual himsel) is the one who ehi*its ;the )elt ri+hts associated with
psycholo+ical ownership= 2Pierce, osto#a E Dir5s, $99, p- 74- %n the same way, the
o*li+ations )or le+al and psycholo+ical ownership are di))erent- Le+al ownership
responsi*ilities o)ten stem )rom the le+al system, as opposed to those responsi*ilities with
the psycholo+ical state, that come )rom the indi#idualJs )eelin+s o) ha#in+ an o*li+ation
and an assertion to the o*ect as JmineJ 2Pierce, osto#a E Dir5s, $994- !oreo#er,
psycholo+ical ownership can persist e#en without the presence o) le+al ownership- 'he
concept o) psycholo+ical ownership and le+al ownership may then re)lect the )armers0
and titleholders0 source o) moti#ation )or assertin+ their ri+hts )or land-
Furthermore, studies ha#e stated that a 5ey component o) one0s desire to own is
showed *y one0s capa*ility to *uild intimate *onds 2Pierce, osto#a, E Dir5s, $994-
Still, ownin+ eceeds the concept o) *elon+in+, as it usually includes a separate entity that
also epresses a desire to own the tar+et o*ect 2Atlas<och E uchuc5, $91$4- 'his
separate entity can *est *e seen durin+ the etensi#e period when the Philippines was
under colonial rule- Such )eelin+s o) ownership are said to *e lin5ed to identity )ormation
as the thin+s we own are o)ten percei#ed as ;etensions o) the sel)-= 2ParK, Sicotte, E
Hac/ues, $99>, p- 1674-
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Land Ownership 6
.i#en all these, eaminin+ the rich history o) Philippine land re)orm allows )or a
*etter understandin+ o) the current situation o) land distri*ution- %t pro#ides a *irds eye
#iew o) how the Philippines +ot to where it is now- Comin+ )rom lon+ periods o) colonial
rule, the country has seen #arious acts o) a*use and eploitation o) the ri+hts o) )armers-
A)ter the proclamation o) independence, the succeedin+ administrations tried, and yet
)ailed to success)ully implement land re)orm pro+rams 2such as the CA(P4- A )actor that
may ha#e caused these attempts to )ail is the stron+ in)luence o) the elites not only in
society *ut also in the +o#ernment- 8hich is why, until today, a num*er o) )armers are
still )i+htin+ )or their ri+hts )or the land they *elie#e to *e ri+ht)ully theirs al*eit not
ha#in+ le+al documents- Such a))airs re)lect the impact o) the di))erences in the
mani)estation o) psycholo+ical and le+al ownership in the Philippines-
Theoretical Framework
'his paper will )ocus on how )armers and title holders construct the meanin+ o)
land ownership within the contet o) the Comprehensi#e A+rarian (e)orm Pro+ram
2CA(P4- 'his paper will also eamine how such meanin+s are rein)orced *y how they are
positioned within the scope o) the land re)orm pro+ram and *y how pre#ailin+ discursi#e
practices a))ect their su*ecti#e positions relati#e to the law- And lastly, the researchers
will also scrutinize how these constructed meanin+s, assumed positions, and discursi#e
practices in)luence their *eha#iors-
For this paper, the researchers *elie#e that the *est way to dissect the
a)orementioned topic is to use discourse analysis, particularly Foucauldian Discourse
Analysis 2FDA4, as this paper0s chassis- Foucault 216$4 stated that to ;tac5le the
ideolo+ical )unction o) a science in order to re#eal and modi)y it,= one should ;/uestion it
as a discursi#e )ormation?= this entails critically interro+atin+ the system which
proli)erati#ely produces distinct o*ects, as well as the ;types o) enunciations= 2p- $9@4-
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Land Ownership 19
Accordin+ to Deleuze 216774, a ;statement has a discursi#e o*ect0 which does not deri#e
in any sense )rom a particular state o) thin+s, *ut stems )rom the statement itsel)= 2as cited
in .raham, $99@, p- 74- 'his implies that the su*ects do not manu)acture the discourses?
rather, it is the discourses that produce the su*ects 28oda5 E !eyer, $9964- FDA then is
concerned in eaminin+ how discourse produces su*ects and o*ects- 3ence,
Foucauldian Discourse Analysis will *e utilized )or this study as a means o) determinin+
how the title holders and )armers construct landownership, and position and percei#e
themsel#es within the scope o) the Comprehensi#e A+rarian (e)orm Pro+ram- Accordin+
to 8oda5 and !eyer 2$9964, FDA re#ol#es around these )our /uestions: 1-4 what is #alid
5nowled+e at a particular place and timeM $-4 how was this 5nowled+e )ormed and passed
onM -4 what rationale does it ha#e )or producin+ su*ectsM And -4 what are its e))ects on
society0s )ormation and operationsM 'hese )our /uestions will *e a*le to help the
researchers dissect the research topic and o*tain insi+hts with re+ard to how landowners
and )armers construct landownership within the contet o) the CA(P-
What is valid knowledge at a particlar place and time! nowled+e re)ers to all
the types o) characterizations that helps and +uides people with their perception o) the
world- FDA0s +oal is to disco#er the 5nowled+e contained in and produced *y discourses
28oda5 E !eyer, $9964- As5in+ and answerin+ such /uestion will *e a*le to pro#ide us
more insi+hts on how the 5nowled+e that the )armers and title holders ha#e a*out the
CA(P in)luences their ;lan+ua+e,= co+nition, and *eha#iour-
How was this knowledge formed and passed on! Lin5 21674 re)ers to discourse
as ;an institutionalized way o) tal5in+ that re+ulates and rein)orces action there*y eerts
power= 2as cited in 8oda5 E !eyer, $996, p- @4- 'his implies that discourse is
5nowled+e that was molded throu+hout history- !oreo#er, &ietzschean philosophy states
that ;discourse cannot *e analyzed only in the present *ecause the power components and
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Land Ownership 11
the historical components create such tan+led 5nots o) shi)tin+ meanin+s, de)initions, and
interested parties o#er periods o) time= 2Powers, $99, p- $>4- Land re)orm in the
Philippines is 5nown to ha#e a rich history- aminin+ such history will not only help us
trace where shi)ts in the meanin+s attri*uted to land re)orm and land ownership stem
)rom, this will also help us scrutinize the players that caused such shi)ts, and their
moti#ations )or pursuin+ such shi)ts- Additionally, ha#in+ a more enriched understandin+
o) the historical pro+ression o) land re)orm in the country, we can )urther loo5 into its
implications and lin+erin+ in)luences in the present condition o) a+rarian re)orm- And *y
etension, see how these implications and lin+erin+ in)luences a))ect how )armers and
title holders construct the meanin+ o) land ownership within the contet o) the CA(P-
What rationale does it "discorse# have for prodcing sb$ects! 'he power o)
discourse is rooted in the )act that ;discourses delineate a ran+e o) positi#e statements
which are saya*le,= implyin+ that they suppress certain statements that are deemed to *e
;unsaya*le= 28oda5 E !eyer, $996, p- 4- Foucault de)ines power as comple tapestry
o) )orces that could produce ;tensions *etween, within, and amon+ indi#iduals or +roups=
2Powers, $99, p- $74- %t is this /uestion that will help the researchers understand the
CA(P and the moti#ations that surround it, and *y etension disco#er how these
moti#ations produce su*ects 2)armers and landowners4- 'his /uestion will also pro#ide
the researchers o) this study more insi+hts as to the role o) implementation o) the CA(P
in the rein)orcement o) the landowners0 and )armers0 ;lan+ua+e,= co+nition, and
*eha#iour in relation to the landownership-
What are its effects on society%s formation and operations! Discourses, throu+h
their innate a*ility to eert power, are not ust mirrors o) reality? discourses themsel#es
are the lu*ricant that allows the +ears o) reality to mo#e, thus, indicatin+ that discourses
produce reality- Accordin+ to Foucault 2166@4, pre#ailin+ 5nowled+e<power relations and
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Land Ownership 1$
)ormations 2discourses and discursi#e practices4 in society are capa*le o) constructin+
meanin+s, in etension, ways o) li)e and realities, )or the di))erent people, )rom di))erent
contet, that it encompasses- 'his in/uiry will allow the researchers to pinpoint how the
discourses that is produced *y the CA(P a))ects the title holders0 and )armers0 social
reality, particularly, the social practices that they adhere to in relation to the land and to
their conceptualization o) the land-
3ence, usin+ Foucauldian Discourse Analysis as the theoretical )ramewor5 o) this
study will +i#e us a clear and encompassin+ perspecti#e on the processes in#ol#ed in the
manner )armers and landowners construct land ownership within the scope o) the CA(P-
And *y etension, )urther understand the *eha#iors or actions they carry out, that arise
)rom these constructed meanin+s-
Statement of the Problem
By means o) analyzin+ discourse, we are capa*le o) reco+nizin+ 5nowled+e,
power, and meanin+ produced in lan+ua+e- 'hrou+h the eamination o) the discourse
ehi*ited *y the )armers and landowners, it is possi*le to )ind meanin+ in how these two
parties construct land ownership within the contet o) CA(P- 'hrou+h Foucauldian
Discourse Analysis, this study see5s to answer the /uestion: 3ow do the )armers and
titleholders construct landownership within the contet o) CA(PM
METHOD
'his study utilized a /ualitati#e desi+n in order to eamine and understand how
landowners and )armers esta*lish landownership- By means o) Foucauldian Discourse
Analysis, the researchers in#esti+ated how )armers and titleholders esta*lish
landownership in the contet o) CA(P- %ndi#idual inter#iews were conducted with
)armers and titleholders who were a))ected and are still *ein+ a))ected *y CA(P- 'he aim
o) this study was to *e a*le to reco+nize the discourse produced, disco#er how )armers
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Land Ownership 1
and titleholders esta*lish landownership throu+h this discourse, and in addition, *e a*le to
discern the su*ecti#e positions and power play that will mani)est )rom the discourses that
will *e identi)ied-
Participant
Su*stantial di))erences in semantic models can *e o*tained )rom a limited num*er
o) indi#iduals? hence, a small sample size was recommended )or a discourse analysis
2Bondarou5 E (uel, $994- "sin+ the snow*all samplin+ method, a com*ined num*er o)
si indi#iduals a))ected *y the CA(P were selected as participants o) this study- Snow*all
samplin+ was employed *ecause it has *een said to *e in)ormati#e and enli+htenin+ not
only with respect to the o)ten mar+inalized and sti+matized +roups 2At5inson E Flint,
$9914 *ut also in relation to the ;elitist +roups= 2&oy, $997, p- 74- 'hese indi#iduals
comprised o) three married tenant<)armers, who ha#e *een tillin+ and residin+ in the land
)or at least ten years, and three married titleholders, who ha#e owned the land *ein+ )or at
least ten years-
Data !ollection
For this study, the researchers also made use o) pu*lic documents such as
eectment cases-
Meaure
&emi'&trctred Interview (estions
%n order to o*tain etensi#e /ualitati#e data )rom the participants, inter#iews were
conducted- %nitial /uestions were employed 2see Appendi A4 and )ollow<up /uestions
were #aried across participants which depended on the responses and inter#iew )low-
!oreo#er, since the researchers utilized Foucauldian Discourse Analysis as a )ramewor5,
strai+ht)orward pro*in+ /uestions were maneu#ered into the discussion-
Procedure
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Pilot phase
An indi#idual who matches the participant description o) a married person who
spea5s and understands the same lan+ua+edialect as the actual inter#iewees was chosen
to ta5e part in a semi<structured inter#iew which lasted around an hour- 'he schedulin+ o)
the inter#iew was settled in coordination with the pro#incial o))ice o) Department o)
A+rairian (e)orm Al*ay- Prior to the inter#iew proper, the participant was assured o)
con)identiality and anonymity- 'he participant was also as5ed to si+n a consent )orm 2See
Appendi B4- Permission to record the entire course o) the inter#iew throu+h a #oice
recorder was also re/uested )rom the participant- A)ter which, the inter#iew proper *e+an-
At the end o) the inter#iew, the participant was pro#ided with a to5en o) appreciation )or
contri*utin+ to the study-
'he pilot inter#iew was analyzed and e#aluated in order to identi)y and dispose o)
#a+ue, con)usin+, and insi+ni)icant /uestions- 'hrou+h this, the manner *y which the
inter#iew was conducted was also assessed in order to distin+uish aspects that need
)urther impro#ement-
"ctual Procedure
Participants were ac/uired throu+h snow*all samplin+- Potential participants were
as5ed whether they were willin+ to *e inter#iewed re+ardin+ their conceptualization o)
land ownership in the contet o) CA(P- 'he participants were also pro#ided a *rie)
description o) the nature o) the study- 'hey were assured o) the anonymity and
con)identiality o) their responses- 'he indi#idual inter#iews o) the participants ran
approimately )rom 9 minutes to 1 hour- Date, time, and place o) inter#iew was
determined *ased on the a#aila*ility o) *oth the inter#iewer and inter#iewee-
At the *e+innin+ o) the actual inter#iew, the inter#iewers +reeted the participant
and properly introduced themsel#es- 'he participant once a+ain were +i#en a *rie)
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Land Ownership 1@
description o) the study, and upon a+reement, were as5ed to si+n a consent )orm 2See
Appendi B4- Con)identiality was emphasized, and permission to employ a #oice recorder
durin+ the discussion was re/uested )rom the participant- A)ter which, the inter#iew
proper commenced- One o) the researchers ser#ed as the inter#iewer while the other two
recorded and too5 note o) the physical +estures and mannerisms o) the participant- 'he
inter#iewer threw pro*in+ /uestions when the answers o) the inter#iewee needed
clari)ication or ela*oration- A)ter the inter#iew, the inter#iewers epressed +ratitude and
reassured complete con)identiality- %n closin+, a to5en was *e pro#ided )or the su*ect )or
their participation in the study-
For the )acilitation o) data analysis, transcri*ed statements +athered )rom the inter#iew
was or+anized accordin+ to the participants0 classi)ication o) *ein+ a )armer or a
titleholder- ach o) the researchers had a copy o) the transcription, with the omission o)
the names o) the participants to pre#ent potential *ias- %t was initially su*ected to
indi#idual in#esti+ation, and was then *e cross<analyzed with the interpretations o) each
researcher to enhance inter<rater relia*ility-
Data "nal#i
'he researchers utilized Foucauldian Discourse Analysis 2FDA4 in the
eamination o) the data that is to *e collected )or this study- FDA in#ol#es the critical
interro+ations o) historical continuities and discontinuities 2+enealo+y4 that a))ected the
de#elopment o) a concept, as well as the Nrules o) )ormationN 2*iopower4 that it produced,
which now +o#erns the discourses that eist within and in relation to the concept- 'his
in#ol#es scrutinizin+ the concepts o) Ndiscipline, de#elopment, and author,N as well as the
a*stractions o) Nri)ts and trans)ormationsN that happened durin+ the historical
de#elopment o) the concept- Studyin+ NstatementsN within this contet will allow us to
critically eamine the Nhistorical conditions o) the actual eistence o) statements-N
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Land Ownership 1>
Additionally, )or Foucauldian analysis o) discourse, Nto identi)y and to analyze discourses
is e/ui#alent to identi)yin+ and analyzin+ systems o) statements as *earers o) their rules
o) )ormation i-e- the rules that made the statements possi*le and that simultaneously
already reside in the 2system o) precedin+4 statements,N thus, analyzin+ discourses usin+
this method, also re/uires studyin+ the discursi#e practices that perpetuate them 2Diaz<
Bone et al-, $99, Art- 94-
%n line with 8illi+0s 2$9974 roposed sta+es o) FDA, the analysis o) data in this
study was anchored on the su*se/uent phases: 1-4 identi)yin+ the discursi#e constructions
$-4 reco+nizin+ discourses, -4 determinin+ the action orientation, -4 locatin+ su*ect
positions within the discourses, @-4 discernin+ the practices eercised *y the su*ects, and
>-4 delineatin+ su*ecti#ity-
(esults
'he researchers ha#e identi)ied a num*er o) discourses re+ardin+ land, land
ownership, and the Comprehensi#e A+rarian (e)orm Pro+ram 2CA(P4 )rom the
inter#iews that they ha#e conducted- 'he )ollowin+ ta*le summarizes the )indin+s o) this
study:
Table )
&mmary of Reslts
*ARP as a
form ofcommnism
*ARP as a
flawed law
*ARP as
pro'poor
*ARP as a
frameworkof formality
*ARP as
anabstraction
Discourse conomic Le+al Socio<
economic
Le+al Conceptual
Positionin+
s
'he ictim 'he
%n)ormed
'he
"nderdo+
'he
Claimant
'he
%+norant
Action
Orientation
Blamin+
authorities,
resentin+
)armers ,
pursuin+ a
pitia*le )ront
Blamin+
authorities
mphasizes
CA(P0s
*ene)icialit
y, a))irms
worthiness
to +et theland
Assertin+
)eelin+s o)
anti/uated
land
ownership
Dependenc
y on
landowners
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Land Ownership 1
Su*ecti#it
y
!ar+inalizatio
n, )rustration
(e+ret 'han5)ul,
u*ilant
Complacenc
y,
unapolo+etic
%ndi))erenc
e, apathy
Practice Le+al actions,
direct
ne+otiations
O*edience
to the law,
dialo+uewith
sta5eholder
s
O*edience
to the law,
le+alactions,
dialo+ue
with
sta5eholder
s, SS
comparison
Le+al
actions,
&on<compliance
to
re+ulations
!indless
compliance
tore+ulations
Constructio
n o) land
ownership
Family a))air,
possi*le only
when land is
not co#ered *y
CA(P
Le+al
matter
!eans o)
upli)tin+
SS
"tility, sel)<
proclaimed
ownership
Only
possi*le
when
permitted
*y le+al
owner
'hese discourses operate to primarily esta*lish CA(P as either harm)ul or
*ene)icial- Su*se/uently, these )unction to rationalize, preser#e, or *latantly reect such
*ene)its or hazards *y re<eaminin+ the limits and implications o) the concept o) ;land
ownership= within the speci)ic CA(P discourse that they ascri*e to- 'his su++ests that the
CA(P discourse that a )armer or a landowner complies with, is crucial and in)luential to
how he understands his role and his )unctions as re+ards to the realm o) a+rarian re)orm-
'he discourses that were unearthed were CA(P as a )orm o) communism, CA(P as a
)lawed law, CA(P as pro<poor, CA(P as a )ramewor5 o) )ormality, and CA(P as an
a*straction- "ltimately, these discourses )unction to determine how one +rasps the notion
o) land ownership- All o) these shall *e eplained )urther in the succeedin+ para+raphs-
*ARP as a form of commnism
'his economic discourse positions the landowners as the inured party, the
#ictims, and the disre+arded heirs- Adherin+ to this discourse allows the landowners to
place *lame on the +o#ernment )or ta5in+ their land away )rom them and to )eel
resentment towards their tenants )or applyin+ )or CA(P co#era+e- Additionally, this
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discourse empowers the landowners to pursue a pitia*le )ront- 'his was most apparent in
one o) the landowners0 statement: ;8eJre all co#ered *y CA(P- % said< % said we ha#e
)ied @ hectares )or the owner, hectares )or e#ery child- 'hat is a< bibili ka pa ng lpa!
Para knin nanaman 2So will you still *uy landM Hust )or them to se/uester it a+ainM4 So
thereJs< itJs communism eh-= %t can *e assumed that )eelin+s o) *etrayal, eclusion,
powerlessness, )rustration, and an+er are procura*le to the landowners positioned within
this particular discourse re+ardin+ CA(P- 'he landowners0 con)ormity to this discourse is
mani)ested *y ta5in+ le+al actions- An eample )or this is the )ilin+ o) eectment cases
that leads to the dis/uali)ication and remo#al o) a tenant, re+ardless o) eistin+ )amilial
ties- 'his was eempli)ied in the eectment case )iled *y Cellona a+ainst Bor*e where the
)ormer was the *rother<in<law o) the latter- 2pu*lic document4- One o) the landowners
ehi*ited this throu+h this statement: ; In<eect ko talaga siya 2% really had him eected4-
&o need )or me to say na 2that4 N+y, malis ka diyan 23ey, +et out4-N Order o) the court-=
Additionally, the landowners who are under this particular discourse also resorts to
personally as5in+ the )armers to a*stain )rom applyin+ )or CA(P co#era+e- 'his was
illustrated in one o) the landowners0 statement: ; Hwag na kayong magpalagay ng co#er
ng land trans)er 2Please don0t apply )or CA(P co#era+e4- &a akin din ang lpa, pero kayo
ang )armer 2'he land is still mine *ut you0ll still remain as the )armers4- Hindi kayo ang
aalis diyan habang kayo%y magbibigay ng rental ninyo, hindi baM 2Iou won0t *e let +o as
lon+ as you pay rent, ri+htM4= Landowners who comply with this discourse percei#e that
land ownership is a )amily a))air and is possi*le only when the land is not co#ered *y
CA(P- Such construction was e#ident throu+h this statement: ;Once you are co#ered,
ayan na 2that0s it4-=
'he )ore+oin+ implies that a titleholder who is located alon+ the spectrum o) this
particular economic discourse is predisposed to the role o) the #ictim? and *ein+ in such a
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Land Ownership 16
role, these landowners )ind pursuin+ lawsuits, ma5in+ personal appeals towards the
tenants usti)ied- 'hus, this discourse insinuates a completely anta+onistic stance towards
CA(P- Su*se/uently, not all landowners )all under this discourse as some act in
accordance to a more e#aluati#e discourse that esta*lishes CA(P as a )lawed law-
*ARP as a flawed law
Bein+ under this le+al discourse, the landowners, ha#in+ an etensi#e pro)iciency
a*out the law, are prescri*ed the role o) in)ormed and acti#e participants- A*idin+ *y this
discourse permits the landowners to attri*ute accounta*ility to the authorities with re+ard
to the inherent ine))iciencies and limitations o) the enactment o) CA(P- 'his was e#ident
in one o) the landowners0 statement: ;&a aking opinyon lang yan, ewan ko sa iba 2% don0t
5now a*out the others *ut in my opinion,4- But sa'sa ngayon, kng ang a+rarian policy
na yan, ssndin natin, maganda ang nasa libro. pero ang akin ngang apprehension eh
ang implementation, imonitor naman ng hsto ng gobyerno 2%) we were to )ollow the
a+rarian policy, in terms o) writin+, it0s impressi#e? howe#er, it )alls short in terms o)
implementation- 'he +o#ernment should conscientiously monitor it4-= Assumin+ an
in)ormed stance within the construction o) CA(P as a )lawed law leads the landowners to
*elie#e that it is usti)ia*le to ha#e )eelin+s o) re+ret o#er their percei#ed underutilization
o) CA(P0s potential- A landowner personi)ied this throu+h his utterance o) the succeedin+
statement: ;Oh, sa pro+ram, sa papel , napakaganda 2'he pro+ram, in paper, is #ery
outstandin+4- Pag <implement, wala na 2But its implementation does not li#e up to the
potential o) the law-4- /aya sayang lang, sayang lang lpa ng Pilipinas 2'hat0s why the
country0s lands are put to waste4-= Attendin+ landowner )orums, spea5in+ with authorities
and with the )armers, and )ollowin+ the law, concretizes the landowners0 compliance with
this discourse- 'his was ehi*ited in this particular statement *y one o) the landowners
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Land Ownership $9
that were inter#iewed: ;%n )act, % was present durin+ the landowners )orum- 0n din ang
ibinigay ko kay Secretary Delos (eyes 2'hat0s the same thin+ % told Secretary Delos
(eyes4- Ako mismo nagtanong 2% personally as5ed him4-= Landowners who adhere to this
discourse esta*lish land ownership as a le+al matter- 'his was encapsulated *y the
pronouncement o) one o) the landowners statin+, ;!asasa*i mo yun+ lupa pa+ le+ally,
pa+ hawa5 mo an+ titulo, pa+ nasa posisyon 2Iou can only claim ownership o) the land i)
you possess the deed4-=
'he a)orementioned su++ests that landowners who are positioned under this le+al
discourse are inclined to assume the role o) the in)ormed and acti#e participants- 'hese
landowners who )eel dismay o#er the wasted potential o) CA(P en+a+e in )orums,
discuss with authorities and )armers, and o*ey the law- 'here)ore, this discourse proposes
a conditional a))irmati#e stance towards CA(P- 8hereas all o) the discourses identi)ied
)rom the )armer<inter#iewees ta5e on a purely pro<CA(P stance- 'he )irst o) which, #iews
the CA(P as ha#in+ a pre)erence )or the destitute-
*ARP as pro'poor
'his socio<economic discourse situates the )armers as the underdo+s- Concurrin+
to this discourse ena*les )armers to emphasize CA(P0s *ene)iciality and a))irms their
worthiness to +et the land- 'his was most pronounced in one o) the )armer0s statement:
; /ahit sabi ko ganito na ang edad ko at least makakaranas din kami ng ano nng
pinaghirapan 2#en at this a+e, at least % can say that we will ha#e a chance to eperience
what we ha#e wor5ed )or4-= %t can *e in)erred that )eelin+s o) than5)ulness and u*ilance
are o*taina*le to the )armers who comply with this discourse- 'he inter#iewed )armers
epressed this in their account: ;&a twa ko, na'' sabi ko talagang napasaamin 2Out o)
happiness and oy, we were )inally a*le to claim ownership to the land4-= 'he )armers0
a*idance to this discourse is displayed *y their )ollowin+ o) the law, applyin+ )or
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Land Ownership $1
co#era+e, and tal5in+ to the authorities- 'his was eempli)ied *y one o) the )armers0
articulation: ; 1aisipan namin yn nng lmabas na yng mga ganitong mga patakaran
kaya kami lmapit para makha yng 2lpa3 2Durin+ the time when land re)orm policies
came out, we thou+ht o) see5in+ assistance )rom DA( to ac/uire the land4-= %n addition,
the )armers also communicate with landowners and other )armers, and constantly reiterate
their )inancial and educational inade/uacies as eplicitly a))irmed *y the )armers
responses when as5ed- 'here)ore, the su*ect positions dispensed *y this construction are
those o) underdo+s who *elie#e that despite their lac5 o) pro)iciency, land ownership is a
#ehicle that can upli)t their current situation in the socioeconomic hierarchy- And this was
particularly e#idenced in the )armers0 assertion sayin+: ; 4ay habol rin kami dahil mag'
wala naman kaming ibang pinag'anohan''pinag'aralan, kndi magtanim lang 28e also
ha#e a +oal, since we were only tau+ht how to )arm4- Para sa amin-- Ano interesado rin
kami sa lpa, siyempre mapagka mapagkahanap bhay namin 2For us, we are interested
in the land, *ecause it is a source o) li#elihood )or us4 -=
'he precedin+ para+raph proposes that )armers who ascri*e to this socio<
economic discourse are oriented to ta5e the role o) the underdo+s- 'his means that
)armers who )eel +ratitude and elation respond *y actin+ in accordance to law- 3ence, this
discourse o))ers a completely pro<stance towards CA(P- Furthermore, there are )armers
who su*mit to a discourse which denotes CA(P as a )ramewor5 o) )ormality-
*ARP as a framework of formality
A*idin+ *y the le+al discourse that CA(P is a )ramewor5 o) )ormality, assumes
that the )armers ha#e considered the land to *e theirs )or a lon+ time e#en without law)ul
*asis- 'he )armers utilize words that connote possession o) the land that they are rentin+
such as ;bkid namin 2our )armland4-= 'hus, this discourse esta*lishes the )armers as the
claimant o) the land- Con)ormin+ to this discourse allows the )armers to assert their
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Land Ownership $$
)eelin+s o) anti/uated ownership with re+ard to the land in /uestion- 'his is apparent in
the )armers0 statement: ; 1oong araw pa yan nagplano, matagal na matagal na yan
pigplano pero ngnyan lang 2%t was planned years a+o, *ut it0s only now that it0s actually
pursued4-= Conse/uently, adherence to this particular discourse ma5es practices such as
applyin+ )or DA( co#era+e and not payin+ the )ull amount o) rent usti)ied- %t can *e
postulated that )eelin+s o) complacency and *ein+ unapolo+etic are )elt *y the )armers
who are positioned under this particular discourse- 'hese were made *latant as the
)armers )ound humor in the )act that they ha#e not paid the ri+ht amount o) rent as
displayed in this statement: ; /ami nga meron din, may tang din yng father namin pero
ano, hindi mo yan maiwasan 2lau+hs4 2#en in our )amily, our )ather also has outstandin+
de*t *ut you can0t really a#oid that4-5 'he )armers under this discourse percei#e land
ownership as somethin+ achie#ed *y utility and is su*stantiated *y their sel)<proclaimed
ownership o) the land- 'his was o*#ious in the )armers0 ac/uiescent response when as5ed
whether they thin5 they deser#e the land a)ter years o) tillin+ it-
'he antecedent clause stipulates that the )armers who con)orm to this le+al
discourse are directed to assume the position o) the claimant- 'hese )armers who )eel
complacent and unapolo+etic eercise noncompliance with the settled rental arran+ement-
r+o, this discourse ar+ues a pro<CA(P stance- %n contrast, there are )armers who remain
detached )rom CA(P as the law )ailed to reach them- Simply put, they o*ser#e a
discourse which presents CA(P as an a*straction-
*ARP as an abstraction
By acceptin+ the conceptual discourse that CA(P is nothin+ *ut an a*straction,
the )armers are conditioned to *ecome nai#e, i+norant or unin)ormed- 'his was si+ni)ied
in the )armers0 in/uiry, ;Ano po yun+ CA(PM 28hat is CA(PM4-= !oreo#er, this
discourse propels the )armers to de#elop e#en more dependency towards the landowners-
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Land Ownership $
'his is demonstrated *y *lindly )ollowin+ the stipulations o) the landowners as denoted in
the )armers0 proclamation: ; 6epende po sa may'ari kng partehan 2%t depends i) the
owners decide to +rant us a portion o) their land4-= 3ence, )eelin+s o) indi))erence and
apathy are )ound amon+ )armers who adhere to this certain discourse- Land ownership
then is deemed *y the )armers as somethin+ that is only possi*le i) permitted *y the le+al
owner- 'his is saliently #isi*le in the )armer0s statement: ;&yempre kasi matagal na ---
6epende sa may'ari kng ibigay nila-=
'he prior passa+e con#eys that the )armers who are ruled *y this conceptual
discourse are propelled to ta5e an i+norant part- 'hey are the )armers who )eel indi))erent
and apathetic toward CA(P which *rin+s a*out +reat reliance to their respecti#e
leaseholders- 'herea)ter, this discourse is de#oid o) a stance with respect to CA(P-
Dicuion
For this study, ele#en )armers and landowners were inter#iewed, and a num*er
o) pu*lic documents were consulted to +arner insi+hts on pre#ailin+ CA(P discourses
and their in)luence on the construction o) landownership amon+ tenants and titleholders-
Foucauldian Discourse Analysis 2FDA4 was utilized as the theoretical )ramewor5 o) the
study- 'he researchers, throu+h this )ramewor5, ha#e arri#ed at )i#e discourses that shape
such construction o) land ownership- 'he discourses that sur)aced are CA(P as a )orm o)
communism, CA(P as a )lawed law, CA(P as pro<poor, CA(P as a )ramewor5 o)
)ormality and CA(P as an a*straction-
*ARP as a form of commnism
'he results o) this study concur with the )indin+s o) the "ni#ersity o) the
Philippines0 %nstitute o) 3uman (i+hts 2n-d-4 that landowners su))er persecution and
mar+inalization due to CA(P- 'itleholders percei#e that CA(P *reaches their
constitutional ri+hts ;to property,= )air compensation, and to li)e 2%nstitute o) 3uman
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Land Ownership $
(i+hts, n-d-, p- 164- Landowners )eel cheated *y the amount and mode o) compensation
o))ered to them *y the +o#ernment, and *y the *y the manner in which their source o)
li#elihood is ta5en away )rom them 2%nstitute o) 3uman (i+hts, n-d-4- 'his percei#ed
eperience o) oppression leads them to employ a #ictimized )ront- %ndeed, ad#erse
)eelin+s o) landowners towards he CA(P were mani)ested *y their direct utterance o)
statements li5e, ;8e are #ictims o) CA(P-= (esearch has shown that accounts o)
#ictimhood start )rom a ;moralized= narrati#e o) eperienced su))erin+Q;somethin+
wron+ has *een done to me? someone else was responsi*le )or this= 28illiams, $997, p-
794- %n response, landowners resort to ta5in+ le+al actions such as )ilin+ eectment cases
in order to reclaim their sole ri+ht to their lands- By doin+ so, they are a*le o*tain a sense
o) ustice- !ore interestin+ly, the results o) this study show that )eelin+s o) inustice )elt
*y landowners transcend )amilial ties as there ha#e *een eectment cases )iled a+ainst
)amily mem*ers- All these prompted these landowners to ultimately assume an
anta+onistic stance towards CA(P- As a result, landowners esta*lish land ownership as
possi*le only when the land is not under the co#era+e o) CA(P- 3owe#er, this study also
disco#ered that not all landowners share this particular mindset-
*ARP as a flawed law
%n contrast with prior literature, )indin+s o) this study su++est that there are
landowners who positi#ely percei#e CA(P on paper, *ut criticizes its implementation-
Land re)orm pro+rams are *elie#ed to *e instruments )or social ustice that would
;chan+e the pre#ailin+ situation o) unust and ine/uita*le ownership o) land and resources
*y a )ew indi#iduals in the society= 2Putzel, 166$, as cited *y l#inia, $91$, p- 4-
Landowners reco+nize this potentiality o) CA(P to *e a means o) upli)tin+ po#erty<
stric5en )armers- 3owe#er, they also #iew some o) its policies li5e the land retention limit
and payment system to *e unust and ine))icient- 'hus, landowners attri*ute these +litches
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Land Ownership $@
o) CA(P and it0s eecution to those in authority- 'he %nstitute o) 3uman (i+hts 2n-d-4
)urther note that ;there is a non<o*ser#ance o) proper procedures in the implementation as
well as the lac5 o) standards and the non<uni)orm application o) such= 2%nstitute o)
3uman (i+hts, n-d-, p- $94- Due to these issues and complications attached with CA(P,
landowners )eel disappointed o#er CA(P0s hampered potential- Furthermore, in an e))ort
to impro#e the law0s situation, landowners resort to o*eyin+ the law, participatin+ in
)orums, and en+a+in+ in dialo+ue with )ellow landowners, )armers and authorities-
"ltimately, landowners ascri*in+ to this discourse a+ree with CA(P0s purpose as their
opinion hin+es on the impro#ement o) implementation? and they construct land ownership
as a le+al matter as they percei#e it to *e tied with policy ma5in+ and law eecution- 8ith
this re+ard, it is necessary to consider the contets )rom which landowners who adhere to
this discourse hail )rom-
*ARP as pro'poor
(esults o) this study resonate with pre#ious literature statin+ that CA(P was
enacted in accordance with post<!artial Law Philippines0 ;renewed commitment to social
and economic re)orm= 2%nstitute o) 3uman (i+hts, n-d-, p- @4- %t can *e recalled that
durin+ the dictatorial period in the Philippine history, the landed oli+archy were put into
power as crony capitalism was widely prominent, lea#in+ the destitute e#en more
powerless- %n an e))ort to address this, President Cory A/uino particularly esta*lished
institutions that will help her administration restore ustice and democracy in the
PhilippinesR institutions that will aid her in resol#in+ the ine/uita*ility o) land
distri*ution in the country-
'he issue o) land ownership is indispensa*le to the ;social, political, and
economic status o) the rural Filipino= 2!artin, 1666, p- 7$4- 'his supports the results o)
this study depictin+ that )armers construct land ownership as a means )or them to upli)t
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Land Ownership $>
their status in the social hierarchy- As a result, they percei#e CA(P as inherently
)a#ora*le )or them and as an assertion o) their worthiness to own the land- 'his, in turn,
leads them to resort to le+al actions, a*idance with the law, and dialo+ues with
sta5eholders- %n connection with this, there are also )armers who deem that CA(P is
merely a )ormality )or their percei#ed ownership towards the land-
*ARP as a framework of formality
%n a+reement with Pierce, osto#a, and Dir5s 2$994, psycholo+ical ownership
ser#es as the dri#in+ )orce )or the )armers to apply )or CA(P co#era+e- Farmers
reco+nize that throu+h their la*or, they ha#e de#oted ;not only their time and physical
e))ort *ut also their psychic ener+y into the product o) that la*or= 2Pierce, osto#a, E
Dir5s, $99, p- 64- Findin+s o) this study mani)est that )armers percei#e that their years
o) hard wor5 merits them ri+ht)ul ownership o) the land- 'his is supported *y Pierce,
osto#a, and Dir5s0 2$994 statement that ;throu+h our la*or, we in#est not only our time
and physical e))ort *ut also our psychic ener+y into the product o) that la*or= 2p- 64-
Conse/uently, )armers construct land ownership as merely somethin+ that can *e
accorded with )eelin+s o) attachment towards the land- %n e))ect, noncompliance with the
leasehold payment arran+ements are usti)ied while le+al actions, such as applyin+ )or
CA(P co#era+e, are encoura+ed- %t is important to note that since they already ha#e a
sense o) sel)<proclaimed ownership towards the land, CA(P *ecomes moot and
academic- 8hile this discourse may seem to resonate amon+ )armers, there are still some
who remain disconnected to CA(P-
*ARP as an abstraction
Accordin+ to 3irtz 216674, indi#iduals who eert time and ener+y on land which
are not their own, are ;in principle, dependent, and thus, insecure= 2p- $64- Furthermore,
he ar+ues that this trepidation impels )armers to reect e#ery opportunity which could
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Land Ownership $
potentially ad#ance their indi#idual outputs, an eample o) which is land re)orm- 'his
indicates that hesitancy and uncertainty are contri*utory to the sta+nation or li*eration o)
)armers )rom po#erty 23irtz, 16674- Hutaposin+ the discourse statin+ that CA(P is an
a*straction to 3irtz0 216674 rationale, one can in)er that the )armers0 eperience o)
detachment )rom the land re)orm policy may ha#e *een e#o5ed *y their unintentional
re)utation o) su*ectin+ their land, and )undamentally, their way o) li)e, to CA(P- 'his
insinuates that *y adherin+ to this discourse, the )armers are predisposed to a nai#e
stance? a stance that could possi*ly lead them to de#elop more dependence towards their
landowners- And such position could +radually trap them to de#elop a mindset which
)eeds on reectin+ any means aimed at increased producti#ity, and e#en possi*ly, a chance
to escape destitution- "ltimately, a*idin+ *y this discourse push the )armers to ha#e no
particular stance towards CA(P-
The *onstrction of Landownership
'he discourses which ha#e *een disco#ered and discussed in this study not only
prescri*e a stance, and a set o) ideals to the )armers and landowners, they also shape how
the leaseholders and title holders conceptualize land ownership- 'his indicates that these
discourses ser#e as the matri in which the concept o) land ownership is constructed *y
)armers and landowners-
'he succeedin+ section consists o) the practical and theoretical implications o) the
results o) this study- %t will *e )ollowed *y a discussion on its limitations, alon+ with a
num*er o) 5ey points and recommendations- #entually, )inishin+ with the researchers0
re)lei#e eposition o) the entire research process-
Implications to Theory and Practice
Se#eral studies on CA(P discourses ha#e *een done, yet no research has )la+rantly
implicated a lin5 *etween the pre#ailin+ CA(P discourses and the construction o) land
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Land Ownership $7
ownership in the Philippines- (esearch on this particular area could pro#ide #ia*le
insi+hts on decipherin+ the power dynamics inherent in landowner<tenant relationships, as
well as implications on mediation proceedin+s and policy implementation )or the
Department o) A+rarian (e)orm-
Furthermore, the results o) this study, particularly those re+ardin+ the inherent
nuances in the construction o) landownership *etween )armers and landowners, puts
)orward a new perspecti#e with re+ard to the chan+in+ nature o) landownership- Prior
studies ha#e indicated that the country0s history o) recurrent colonization esta*lished a
structure o) land ownership that de#iates )rom the pre<colonial interpretation o)
landownership as a state which does not necessitate le+al *asis 2!artin, 16664- 'he
)indin+s o) this study ar+ue that residual presences o) the primiti#e notion o)
landownership are still apparent in contemporary Philippines seein+ that *oth )armers and
landowners ehi*it this certain supposition-
Conse/uently, this study may contri*ute to ;how )ar tenure re)orm re)lects a shi)t
in powers o#er property )rom the center to periphery= 28ily, $999, p- 14- Be)ore, the
Supreme Court used the *attle *etween 3ercules and a mythical creature as a metaphor
)or the epic<li5e stru++le o) Filipino )armer *ene)iciaries )or e#en<handed land re)orm
2%nstitute o) 3uman (i+hts, n-d-4- Due to CA(P0s pre)erential option )or the )armers, they
*ecome more asserti#e in their pursuit )or landownership-
!oreo#er, ;the shared narrati#es or storylines that emer+e )rom such discursi#e
)ramewor5s pro#ide the )oundations )or collecti#e identities= 2Diprose E !c.re+or,
$996, p- @@4- %n 5nowin+ how the )armers and the title holders percei#e land ownership in
the contet o) CA(P, there can *e a +reater understandin+ o) where *oth parties are
comin+ )rom- Furthermore, ;the cru o) the acute pro*lem o) landlord<tenant
relationships in the Philippines lies in the sharin+ o) crops and )armin+ epenses and in
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Land Ownership $6
credit arran+ements= 2!c!illan, 16@@, p- $4- Because CA(P in#ol#es the +rantin+ o)
lands which are )ormerly owned *y title owners to the )armers, ac/uirin+ 5nowled+e
a*out the )armers0 and the title owners0 concept o) land ownership is essential in
anticipatin+ possi*le con)licts and comprehendin+ presently eistin+ issues-
'he study contri*utes to literature and theories related to policy )ormation and
implementation- 'his could also enrich research on psycholo+ical ownership 2Pierce,
osto#a, E Dir5s, $994- Furthermore, this study will ena*le us to 5now what the
si+ni)icance and impact o) land re)orm hold on the producti#ity and #alue o) land
2Deinin+er, Hin, E Iada#, $9114-
Limitations and Recommendations
'he researchers ha#e identi)ied se#eral limitations in this study- First o) which
was the )act that the study0s data source was con)ined to Al*ayano )armers and
landowners- 'he results cannot *e +eneralized to )armers and landowners outside o)
Al*ay- 'his is why, the researchers propose that )uture replications o) this study should
+ather respondents )rom other pro#inces or re+ions to ha#e more comprehensi#e )indin+s-
Another limitation to this study is the employment o) Foucauldian Discourse Analysis
2FDA4- FDA +i#es utmost importance to statements without considerin+ the respondent0s
in)lection, +estures, and )acial epressions- 'his su++ests that )alse statements that the
respondents may ha#e imparted, delimits the study- %n return, the researchers recommends
that )uture research attempts o) the same issue should deli*erate on usin+ a di))erent
)ramewor5? particularly, one that +i#es re+ard to the aspects that the current )ramewor5
o#erloo5s- Lastly, the utilization o) the Comprehensi#e A+rarian (e)orm Pro+ram
2CA(P4 as the pre#ailin+ contet )or this study can also *e percei#ed as a limitation- 'he
statements o*tained are utaposed to CA(P, meanin+, these statements are interpreted
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Land Ownership 9
relati#e to CA(P-'herea)ter, the alternati#e ways that these statements could ha#e *een
interpreted are disre+arded-
Refle7ivity
'his section is the researchers0 attempt to present a su))icient and personal
eposition )or this entire research
Lucille $utine "lon%o- #en prior to the nitty<+ritty o) this study, % was /uite
uneasy with the topic as % )elt li5e it was *eyond my interests and capa*ilities- 'hese
apprehensions o) mine were )ueled *y the countless times people ha#e as5ed me why %
decided to del#e into this topic )or my under+raduate thesis- %t is *ad enou+h that % am
dou*tin+ mysel) as /uali)ied )or such a pro)ound and contro#ersial topic- And so sensin+
the same sentiment )rom others worried me e#en more and yet at the same time,
encoura+ed me to pro#e mysel) and others wron+- Admittedly, *ein+ immersed in this
topic had *een nothin+ short o) di))icult- ach step re/uires meticulousness and patience-
But +oin+ *eyond the di))iculty, % was still a*le to learn insi+hts a*out aspects o) this topic
and surprisin+ly, a*out mysel) as well- One is that despite hailin+ )rom a pri#ile+ed
position, % )ound it interestin+ how instead o) ha#in+ a preconcei#ed notion that relates
and empathizes with the landowners, % had this inclination to ta5e the side o) the )armers,
especially when % was readin+ up on related literature and inter#iewin+ respondents- But
upon hearin+ the side o) the landowners, % can say that years o) *elie#in+ that the
landowners are the #illains o) the story came crashin+ *e)ore my eyes, pretty much the
same way % reacted to Snape0s re#elation- % can say that the whole eperience is rather
eye<openin+ as % was )inally a*le to see *eyond my *iases and apprehensions-
!amille "trid &ritanico- 'hrou+hout this study, %0#e had days when % thou+ht
a*out chan+in+ the topic, not *ecause %0#e had dou*ts a*out the su*ect0s worthiness, *ut
*ecause % was not sure i) % would *e a*le to +i#e ustice to this particular topic- But, %
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Land Ownership 1
lo#ed this topic- % +ot )ascinated and intri+ued *y it *ecause o) my philosophy pro)essors-
Additionally, *ein+ a dau+hter o) a DA( o))icer, and *ein+ a))iliated to a )amily who
owns land, this topic somewhat hits home- 'hus, one o) my worries durin+ the course o)
this study was whether % could set aside my presuppositions, and actually *ecome open to
new perspecti#es- % could only hope that % was a*le to *rac5et such presuppositions
*ecause althou+h, % dou*ted my capacity to uphold this topic, ne#er ha#e % had /ualms
a*out the people to whom this paper is )or-
'aroline S#( 8hen my thesis mates and % were still decidin+ on a research topic, %
was uneasy and uncertain a*out choosin+ this one- % was worried i) % could sustain my
interest and enthusiasm in the proect until the end? and more importantly, % was worried
whether or not % was capa*le o) de)tly handlin+ such a sensiti#e issue li5e CA(P-
3owe#er, decidin+ to ta5e on the challen+e o) this study pro#ed to *e a +ood choice-
% initially sided with the tenant )armers *ut as % went throu+h this research, % )ound mysel)
understandin+ some o) the many apprehensions o) landowners a*out CA(P- % realized
that % was *iased and didn0t +i#e much thou+ht to the landowners and their circumstances-
% had a romanticized notion o) the whole issue and researchin+ on this particular topic
opened my eyes to the reality o) the situation )or *oth sides- % can only hope that the
)indin+s o) this study can contri*ute in some way to the de#elopment o) the Philippines-
(F(&CS
n-a- 2$9964- Land re)orm, rural de#elopment, and po#erty reduction in the Philippines:(e#isitin+ the a+enda- World 8ank -
n-a- 2$994- ;Lumad= )armers )rom Sumilao to march on )oot )or >9 days to reclaim land-
(etrie#ed )rom http:asian)armers-or+Mp16-
Alli, "-P- 2$914- 'he political economy o) neoli*eralism in the Philippines: 'he A/uino
re+ime- Paper presented at the th %%P Con)erence, %nternational %nitiati#e )or
Promotin+ Political conomy, %nstitute )or Social Studies, 'he 3a+ue, ðerlands-
(etrie#ed )rom http:iippe-or+wpwp<contentuploads$919>Paul<Alli-pd)-
Araa, (-&- 2$91, Hune $64- CA(P ends? DA( chie) told: 'ime to pac5 up- 4anila&tandard Today- (etrie#ed )rom http:manilastandardtoday-com-
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Land Ownership $
At5inson, (- E Flint, H- 2$9914- Accessin+ hidden and hard<to<reach populations:
Snow*all research strate+ies- &ocial Research +pdate, 99, 1<-
Atlas<och, .- E uchuc5, S- 2$91$4- 'o ha#e and to hold: Psychoanalytic dialo+ues on
the desire to own- Psychoanalytic 6ialoges, ::, 6T19@-
Borras Hr-, S-!- E Franco, H-C- 2$994- 'he national campai+n )or land re)orm in the
Philippines- Institte of 6evelopment &tdies-
Borras Hr-, S-!- E Franco, H-C- 2$994- Stru++les o#er land re)orm in the Philippines-
Peace Review, );214, ><@-
Ca*i+ao, S-S- 2$91, April 94- ;%t runs in the )amily=: 'he ma5in+ o) political dynasties
in the Philippines- (etrie#ed )rom http:www-up-edu-ph-
Cer#antes, D- 2$91, Hune 94- A)ter $> years, CA(P ends- The Philippine &tar - (etrie#ed)rom www-philstar-com-
Comprehensi#e A+rarian (e)orm Pro+ram- (epu*lic Act >>@ 216774-
Diaz<Bone, (-, BUhrmann, A-D-, .utiKrrez -, Schneider, 8-, endall, .-, E 'irado, F-
2$994- 'he )ield o) )oucauldian discourse analysis: Structures, de#elopments, and
perspecti#es V@$ para+raphsW- <orm (alitative &o=ialforschng > <orm?
(alitative &ocial Research, @2$4, Art- 9- (etrie#ed )rom http:n*n<
resol#in+-deurn:n*n:de:911<)/s99$9@-
Draper %%, H- A- 2164- Land re)orm law and policy in the Philippines: De#elopment
toward a post<colonial )ramewor5 o) land tenure ri+hts- Philippine Law ornal , B:,
9<-
Diprose, .-, E !c.re+or, A- 2$9964- Dissol#in+ the su+ar )ields: Land re)orm and
resistance identities in the Philippines- &ingapore ornal Of Tropical Ceography,
9D214, @$<>6-
shleman, H-, E 3unt, C- L- 216614- Demo+raphic and cultural constraints on the
Comprehensi#e A+rarian (e)orm Pro+ram in the Philippines- &OO+R1? ornal
Of &ocial Isses In &otheast Asia, E 214, $$<-
Fa*ella, (- 2$914- Comprehensi#e a+rarian re)orm pro+ram: 'ime to let +o- (etrie#ed
)rom http:www-econ-upd-edu-phdpinde-phpdparticle#iew1@@6$-
Foucault, !- 2166@4- The Archeology of /nowledge 2(- Sheridan, 'rans-4- London:
(outled+e- 2Ori+inal wor5 pu*lished in 16$4
France<Presse, A- 2$91, !arch 4- Philippines0 elite swallows country0s new wealth-
Philippine 6aily InFirer - (etrie#ed )rom
http:*usiness-in/uirer-net1191philippines<elite<swallow<countrys<new<wealth-
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Land Ownership
Franco, H-C- E Borras Hr-, S-!- 2$994- Stru++les o#er land resources in the Philippines-
Peace Review, );214, ><@-
Fuwa, &- 2$9994- Politics and economics o) land re)orm in the Philippines: A sur#ey-
(etrie#ed )rom http:mpra-u*-uni<muenchen-de$61FuwaLand(e)orm-pd)
.arcia, A- E !anuel, !- 2n-d-4- Position paper on re)orm and etend a+rarian re)orm-
(etrie#ed )rom http:www-sali+an-or+docsPositionX$9onX$9CA(P
X$9tensionX$9withX$9(e)orms-pd)
.raham, L-H- 2$99@, &o#em*er<Decem*er4- Discourse analysis and the critical use o)
Foucault- Paper presented at the Australian Association )or (esearch in ducation,
Annual Con)erence, Sydney, Australia- (etrie#ed )rom
http:eprints-/ut-edu-au$>761$>76-pd)-
.reen, A- E 8hite, (- 2$994- Attachment to Place? &ocial 1etworks, 4obility and
Prospects of yong people- Ior5: Ior5 Pu*lishin+ Ser#ices Ltd-
%+nacio, H- 2n-d-4- Land rights- (etrie#ed )rom
http:www1-umn-eduhumanrtsedumat%3(%Pcirclemodulesmodule17-htmYZedn
1
%nstitute o) 3uman (i+hts- 2n-d-4- (e#isitin+ the Philippine Comprehensi#e A+rarian
(e)orm Pro+ram: Lessons )rom eperience and policy recommendations towards a
ri+hts<*ased approach to a+rarian re)orm- (etrie#ed )rom
http:law-upd-edu-ph)ilespd)CA(P<PolicyX$9Paper-pd)
aye, H-L- E Iahya, !- 2$91$4- 'ool5it and +uidance )or pre#entin+ and mana+in+ land
and natural resources con)lict: Land and con)lict- (etrie#ed )rom
http:www-un-or+ene#entsen#ironmentcon)lictdaypd).&ZLandZConsultation-p
d) -
eenan, H- 2$91, !ay 4- 'he +rim reality *ehind the PhilippinesJ economic +rowth- The
Atlantic- (etrie#ed )rom http:www-theatlantic-com
ilusan+ !a+*u*u5id n+ Pilipinas- 2$91, Hune $4- *ARP failed to defend Arora
farmers from Angara%s APG*O- (etrie#ed )rom
http:5ilusan+ma+*u*u5idn+pilipinas-or+carp<)ailed<to<de)end<aurora<)armers<)rom<an+aras<apeco<proect
Lape[a, C- E Pulum*arit, - 2$91$, Hanuary 164- &rvivor reconts horror :B years later -
(etrie#ed )rom
http:www-+manetwor5-comnewsstory$@99newsspecialreportsmendiola<
massacre<sur#i#or<recounts<horror<$@<years<later
Lopez, A- 2$997, Hanuary $14- Lim clari)ies role in !endiola massacre- Philippine 6aily
InFirer - (etrie#ed )rom
http:newsin)o-in/uirer-net*rea5in+newsnation#iew$99791$1<1176Lim<
clari)ies<role<in<!endiola<!assacre
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Land Ownership
!anahan, !- 2$914- The state of agrarian reform nder President 8enigno AFino III%s
government? 8eyond the nmbers? A strggle for social $stice and inclsive rral
development - Guezon City: FCA Printhouse-
!artin, A- 216664- Philippine land re)orm cycles: Perpetuatin+ "S colonial policy-
Philippine &tdies, 2$4, 171<$9@-
!ar/uez, &-, 'olentino, !-, E De*u/ue, !- 2$99>4- Stru++les in implementin+ a+rarian
re)orm in the Philippines- %n A Resorce 8ook on Gnhancing Access of the Poor to
Land and *ommon Property Resorces- !anila: A&.OC-
!cCrac5en, .- 2167>4- Culture and consumption: A theoretical account o) the structure
and mo#ement o) the cultural meanin+ o) consumer +oods- ornal of *onsmer
Research, )9, 1T7-
!c!illan, (- '- 216@@4- Land tenure in the Philippines- Rral &ociology, :D214, $@<-
&oy, C- 2$9974- Samplin+ 5nowled+e: 'he hermeneutics o) snow*all samplin+ in
/ualitati#e research- International ornal of &ocial Research 4ethodology, ))24,
$<-
Pa5isama- 2n-d-4- 'he sumilao )armers0 case- (etrie#ed )rom
http:www-pa5isama-com(esearchX$9PapersSumilaoX$9FarmersX$9Case
X$9Study-pd)
ParK, .-, Sicotte, C-, E Hac/ues, 3- 2$99>4- 'he e))ects o) creatin+ psycholo+ical
ownership on physiciansJ acceptance o) clinical in)ormation systems- Am 4ed
Inform Assoc- )9, 16T$9@- (etrie#ed )rom:
http:www-nc*i-nlm-nih-+o#pmcarticlesP!C1@6
Pierce, H-L-, osto#a, '-, E Dir5s, -'- 2$994- 'he state o) psycholo+ical ownership:
%nte+ratin+ and etendin+ a century o) research- Review of Ceneral Psychology,
214, 7<19- doi:19-191976<$>79--1-7
Powers, P- 2$994- 'he philosophical )oundations o) Foucaultian discourse analysis-
*ritical Approaches to 6iscorse Analysis Across 6isciplines, )2$4, 17<-
Putzel, Hames 2166$4- A captive land? The politics of agrarian reform in the Philippines- &ew Ior5: !onthly (e#iew Press-
(en+er, H- 2166@4- %nstitutional, communal, and indi#idual ownership or possession o)
ara*le land in ncient !esopotamia )rom the end o) the )ourth to the end o) the )irst
millenium B-C- *hicago'/ent Review, )214- $>6<16-
(utten, (- 2$9194- 8ho shall *ene)itM Con)licts amon+ the landless poor in a Philippine
A+rarian (e)orm Pro+ramme- Asian ornal of &ocial &cience, 9@2$4, $9<$16-
doi:19-11>1@>7@119\69697
'homas, A- E Sawhill, %- 2$99@4- For lo#e and moneyM 'he impact o))amily structure on )amily income- The <tre of *hildren, )B2$4, @<-
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Land Ownership @
'upaz, - 2$914- 'he power o) hacienda #otes in &e+ros- Rappler-com- (etrie#ed )rom
http:www-rappler-comnationpoliticselections<$91$$<the<power<o)<
hacienda<#otes<in<ne+ros
8illi+, C- 2$9974- Introdcing Falitative research in psychology? Adventres in theoryand method 2$nd ed-4- &ew Ior5, &I: Open "ni#ersity Press-
8ily, L- A- 2$9994- Land tenure re)orm and the *alance o) power in eastern and southern
A)rica- 1atral Resorce Perspective, B@, 1<- (etrie#ed )rom
http:www-)ace*oo5-coml-phpMuhttpXAX$FX$Fwww-odi-or+X$Fsites
X$Fodi-or+-u5X$F)ilesX$Fodi<assetsX$Fpu*lications<opinion<)iles
X$F$76-pd)EhAGziZ
8oda5, (- E !eyer, !- 2$9964- 4ethods for critical discorse analysis- London: SA.-
"PPE)D*+ES
Appendi A
%nter#iew .uide:1-4 Pano po nindo nahihilin+ an da+a na pi+atanuman nindoM Ano po para saindo an da+a
nainiM
"Ano po ang tingin ninyo sa lpa! Ano ang halaga ng lpa para sainyo!#
$-4 Pano niyo po naintindihan an+ pa+mamay<ari 5i da+aM
Pro*e: Para po saindo, pano o 5inano niyo po masasa*i na saindo an+ dana na itoM
"Ano po ang pagkaintindi niyo sa Jland ownership5 o pag'ari ng lpa!
Probe? &a tingin niyo po ba, paano magkaroon ng RICHT sa lpa!#
7/17/2019 ThesisManuscript_KALUCA
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/thesismanuscriptkaluca 36/37
Land Ownership >
-4 &adan+u+ na po *a nindo an+ pro+rama nin+ DA( na CA(PM Ano po an+
pa+5a5aaram at pa+5a5aintindi nindo sa CA(PM
"Alam ninyo po ba ang *omprehensive Agrarian Reform! Ano po ang tingin o pag'
intindi ninyo dito!
Probe? Positive or 1egative attitde towards *ARP#
-4 &apa+<uurunan po *a nindo at nin+ i*a pan+ para<uma an CA(PM Pararehas po *a an
pa+5a5aintindi nindo sa CA(PM
2 1apag'sapan niyo po ba ang *ARP sa inyong mga kapwa magsasaka!
Probe? Pare'parehas po ba ang tingin at pag'intindi ninyo sa *ARP!#
Appendi B
Permio n, Pahintulot
ami po ay m+a estudyante mula sa Ateneo de !anila- ami po ay na+sasali5si5
tun+5ol sa proseso n+ pa+*uo n+ m+a ma+sasa5a at n+ m+a na+mamay<ari n+ lupa n+
5onsepto n+ pa+mamay<ari- Sa pa+<aaral na ito, 5ayo po ay amin+ 5apapanayamin u5ol
sa opinyon ninyo sa pa+mamay<ari n+ lupa at sa CA(P- An+ panayam ay maaarin+
tuma+al n+ 5alahatin+ oras han++an+ isan+ oras- &+unit, 5un+ +usto po ninyon+
palawa5in an+ pa5sa o may m+a tanon+ po na hindi 5ayo 5umporta*len+ sa+utin, malaya
po 5ayon+ ipaalam sa amin an+ m+a saloo*in+ ito-
7/17/2019 ThesisManuscript_KALUCA
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/thesismanuscriptkaluca 37/37
Land Ownership
ZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZ
A5o, ZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZ, ay *oluntaryon+ sumasan+<ayon na lumaho5
sa pa+<aaral na ito- &auunawaan 5o na sa 5ahit anon+ punto n+ panayam na ito ay maaari
a5on+ umuron+ sa a5in+ pa5i5ilaho5 sa pa+<aaral na ito nan+ walan+ 5ahit anon+
multa5aparusahan-
An+ a5in+ pa5i5ilaho5 ay na5a*atay sa m+a sumusunod na 5ondisyon:
1- Sapat na pansan++alan+ ay i*i*i+ay upan+ matiya5 an+ pa+papanatili n+
privacy
at pa+i+in+ 5umpedensyal n+ a5in+ m+a sa+ot-
$- An+ a5in+ pan+alan ay hindi +a+amitin para sa pa+5a5a5ilanlan n+ a5in+ m+a
sa+ot-
A5in+ na*asa an+ m+a impormasyon na nasa itaas, at nauunawaan 5o rin na maari
a5on+ umuron+ sa panayam sa 5ahit anon+ oras, at sa 5ahit anon+ 5adahilanan-
%*ini*i+ay 5o an+ a5in+ pahintulot sa pa+laho5 sa panayam na ito-
ZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZ ZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZ ZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZ
La+da n+ alaho5 Petsa La+da n+ !ananali5si5