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The Chemistry of LifeChapter 2
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2-1 Element
Substance that cannot be broken down into simpler substances
91 occur naturally– #1-92 found naturally; except 43, 61– #93 and above are synthetic– Only 25 needed for life
Only 4 elements make up 96% of human mass: C, H, O, N
4% are Ca, P, K, S, Na, trace elements
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Atoms
Smallest particle of an element Structure
– Center is the nucleus, contains protons (+) and neutrons (0)
– Electrons (-) form a cloud around the nucleus
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Electron energy fields
Electrons travel around the nucleus in energy levels– 1st holds 2 electrons– 2nd holds 8– 3rd holds 18
Atoms have equal numbers of electrons and protons (make up a neutral atom)
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Isotopes
Atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons
Ex carbon-12 and carbon-14
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Compound
Substance composed of atoms of different elements chemically combined
3 ways to combine elements– Covalent bond– Ionic bond– Hydrogen bond
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Covalent bonds
Atoms share electrons equally Bonding makes atoms more stable Covalent bonds produce molecules
– Sugar– Fat – Protein– Water
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Covalent bond
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Ionic bonds
Atoms combine by gaining or losing electrons in the outer energy levels
Ions-atoms that have gained or lost electrons
Attractive force between ions of opposite charges produces ionic bond
Important for biological processes– Transmission of nerve impulses– Muscle contraction
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Ionic Bond
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Hydrogen bonds
Bond between hydrogen of one molecule and the negative ion of another molecule
Strongest MOLECULAR bond Important in biological molecules like
protein or nucleic acids
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Hydrogen bonds
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Mixture
Combination of substances in which individual substances retain their own properties– Stir sand and sugar together– do not combine chemically– Do no change
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Solution
A mixture in which one or more substances are distributed evenly in another substance– Kool-Aid is evenly distributed in water– Kool-Aid (solute) will dissolve– Water (solvent) does the dissolving
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2-2 Importance of water
Makes up 70%-95% of most organisms
Used to transport materials in organisms
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Water molecule
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Water’s polarity
Covalent bonds between oxygen and hydrogen of water do not share electrons equally– Oxygen attracts electrons more strongly– Oxygen will be more negative– Hydrogen will be more positive– Creates an unequal distribution of
charge or polarity– Gives water its dissolving power
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Other water properties governed by hydrogen bonding
Adhesion-an attraction between molecules of different substances
Cohesion-attraction between molecules of the same substance
High specific heat-water resists changes in temperature; must absorb more heat to increase in temperature
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pH
Measures amount of H+ ions in solution (the concentration of H+ determines whether a solution is acidic or basic)
Scale ranges from 0 to 14 0-6.9 is acidic 7.1-14 is basic
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pH scale
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Acids
Forms hydrogen ions (H+) in water Hydrogen chloride added to water
makes H+ and Cl- As a solution this would be
hydrochloric acid (HCl)
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Bases
Form hydroxide ions (OH-) in water Sodium hydroxide in water forms
Na+ and OH-
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Buffers
Weak acids or bases that react with strong acids or bases
Prevent sudden changes in pH
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2-3 Carbon atoms
When bonded to each other can form– Straight chains– Branched chains– rings
Can also form isomers– Compounds with the same formula but
different 3-D arrangement
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Carbon structures
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Macromolecules
Contain ten, hundreds, or thousands of carbon atoms
Used by cells for biological processes Made by bonding small units
together to make polymers
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Carbohydrates
Store and release energy Composed of C, H, and O Single unit called monosaccharide Largest are polysaccharides Examples
– Starch-branched chain of glucose in plants
– Glycogen-highly branched chain of glucose in animals
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Carbohydrates
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Lipids
Contain large amounts of C, H, but less amounts of O
Called fats and oils Insoluble in water Used for long-term energy storage,
insulation, protective coverings Major components of membranes
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Lipids
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Proteins
Build structure and carry out metabolism
Made of C, H, O, N, S Basic units are amino acids (20)
– Linked by condensation reactions– Release water as waste product– Covalent bond between amino acids is
called a peptide bond– Protein determined by order of acids
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Proteins
Building blocks structural components of organisms
Important for– Muscle contractions– Transport of oxygen– Immunity– metabolism
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Protein (peptide bond)
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Proteins
Enzymes– Speeds up metabolic reactions– Help with food digestion– Synthesis of molecules– Storage and release of energy
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Nucleic Acids
Stores information in code form Units called nucleotides Made of C, H, O, N, P arranged in 3
groups– Base– Simple sugar– Phosphate group
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Nucleic Acids
DNA-deoxyribonucleic acid– Master copy of organism’s code– Forms genetic code– Contributes to physical traits
RNA-ribonucleic acid– Copy of DNA– Used for protein synthesis
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Nucleic acid
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2-4 Chemical reactions
In organisms are called metabolism Break down and build molecules Atoms are never created or
destroyed, just rearranged Reactants are on the left Products are on the right
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Chemical reaction
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Energy in reactions
Some reactions release energy and are called spontaneous (exothermic)
Some require energy and must get it from another source (endothermic)
Activation energy is the energy required to get a reaction started
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Chemical equilibrium
Can be seen in reactions that are reversible
Equilibrium is reached when the reaction takes place at an equal rate in both directions
So both reactants and products are made at the same time
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Enzymes
Proteins that act as catalysts in reactions
Work by lowering the activation energy
So not as much energy is needed to get the product
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Enzymes
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Enzyme regulation
Enzymes can be controlled or affected by– pH– Temperature– Other proteins