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Sensation andSensation and
Perception Chapter 3Perception Chapter 3
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Basic DefinitionsBasic Definitions
SensationSensation is the process in which theis the process in which the
sense organs receptor cells aresense organs receptor cells are
stimulated and relay information tostimulated and relay information tohigher brain centershigher brain centers
PerceptionPerception is the process by which anis the process by which an
organism selects and interpretsorganism selects and interprets
sensory input so it can acquiresensory input so it can acquire
meaningmeaning
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Basic DefinitionsBasic Definitions
Perceptual systems are sets ofPerceptual systems are sets of
structures, functions andstructures, functions and
operations by which peopleoperations by which people
perceive the worldperceive the world
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Sensation and PerceptionSensation and Perception
ModalitiesModalities
DimensionsDimensions
Example: Vision
Form Color Motion Depth/Space
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PsychophysicsPsychophysics
TheThe absolute thresholdabsolute threshold is theis the
minimum level of stimulationminimum level of stimulation
necessary to excite a sensorynecessary to excite a sensorysystemsystem
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Sensory ThresholdsSensory Thresholds
TheThe difference thresholddifference thresholdis theis the
amount of change necessary toamount of change necessary to
report 50% of the time thatreport 50% of the time thatthe value of a stimulus hasthe value of a stimulus has
changedchanged
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Sensory ThresholdsSensory Thresholds
There are two methods of studyingThere are two methods of studying
sensory thresholdssensory thresholds
1.1. Method of limitsMethod of limits2.2. Method of constant stimuliMethod of constant stimuli
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Sensory ThresholdsSensory Thresholds
Signal detection theorySignal detection theory holds thatholds that
an observers perceptions dependan observers perceptions depend
on:on:
The intensity of a stimulusThe intensity of a stimulus
The observers motivation,The observers motivation,
criterion set by the observer, andcriterion set by the observer, and
background noisebackground noise
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The Visual SystemThe Visual System
Humans derive more informationHumans derive more information
through sight than any other sensethrough sight than any other sense
LightLight that is visible to the human eyethat is visible to the human eyeis a small part of the electromagneticis a small part of the electromagnetic
spectrumspectrum
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Figure 3.3 The Electromagnetic SpectrumFigure 3.3 The Electromagnetic Spectrum
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Figure 3.4 The Main Structures of the EyeFigure 3.4 The Main Structures of the Eye
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Structure of the EyeStructure of the Eye
TheThe corneacornea is a small, transparentis a small, transparent
bulge covering both thebulge covering both thepupilpupiland theand the
irisiris Behind the pupil is theBehind the pupil is the lenslens
Together, the cornea, the pupil, theTogether, the cornea, the pupil, the
iris, and the lens focus images ontoiris, and the lens focus images ontothe retinathe retina
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TheThe RetinaRetina
TheThe retinaretina consists of ten layers ofconsists of ten layers of
cells including:cells including:
PhotoreceptorsPhotoreceptors (light(light--sensitive cells)sensitive cells) Bipolar cellsBipolar cells
Ganglion cellsGanglion cells
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retinaretina
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The RetinaThe Retina
Two types of photoreceptors areTwo types of photoreceptors are
rodsrods andand conescones
When photopigments breakWhen photopigments break--down,down,electrochemical changes occur inelectrochemical changes occur in
the photoreceptorsthe photoreceptors
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The RetinaThe Retina
The process by which stimuli areThe process by which stimuli are
analyzed and converted intoanalyzed and converted into
electrical impulses is calledelectrical impulses is calledtransductiontransduction
In Rods transductionIn Rods transduction
involves the breakdown ofinvolves the breakdown ofRhodopsin into Opsin andRhodopsin into Opsin and
Retinol by light hiting the rodRetinol by light hiting the rod
receptor [vitamin A]receptor [vitamin A]
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The RetinaThe Retina
Through a process calledThrough a process called
convergenceconvergence, signals from many, signals from many
photoreceptors come together in aphotoreceptors come together in asingle bipolar cellsingle bipolar cell
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The RetinaThe Retina
From bipolar cells, the energy isFrom bipolar cells, the energy is
transferred totransferred to ganglion cellsganglion cells
The axons of the ganglion cellsThe axons of the ganglion cellsmake up themake up the optic nerveoptic nerve whichwhich
carries information to the braincarries information to the brain
The first synapse of the ganglionThe first synapse of the ganglioncells in the brain is in thecells in the brain is in the
thalamus lateral geniculatethalamus lateral geniculate
nucleusnucleus
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The Visual CortexThe Visual Cortex
The axons of the ganglion cellsThe axons of the ganglion cells
make up themake up the optic nervesoptic nerves whichwhich
carries information to the braincarries information to the brain In the brain, information isIn the brain, information is
processed by the visual cortexprocessed by the visual cortex
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Duplicity TheoryDuplicity Theory
Duplicity theoryDuplicity theoryasserts there areasserts there are
two receptor systems in the retina,two receptor systems in the retina,
the rods and conesthe rods and cones
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Rods and ConesRods and Cones
Cones are used for day vision,Cones are used for day vision,colour vision, and finecolour vision, and fine
discriminationdiscrimination Rods are found in the rest of theRods are found in the rest of the
fovea and are used primarily forfovea and are used primarily for
night visionnight vision Eat your carrotsEat your carrots
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Rods and ConesRods and Cones
Dark adaptationDark adaptation is the increase inis the increase in
sensitivity to light when illuminationsensitivity to light when illumination
decreasesdecreases
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Higher PathwaysHigher Pathways
Each eye is connected to bothEach eye is connected to both
sides of the brainsides of the brain
Half an eyes optic nerve fibres goHalf an eyes optic nerve fibres goto the left side, and half to theto the left side, and half to the
rightright
The point of the crossover is theThe point of the crossover is theoptic chiasmoptic chiasm
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Figure 3.8 A Visual Image Is Projected to BothFigure 3.8 A Visual Image Is Projected to Both
Hemispheres of the BrainHemispheres of the Brain
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Electrochemical Basis ofElectrochemical Basis of
PerceptionPerception
Receptive fieldsReceptive fields are areas of theare areas of the
retina that, when stimulated,retina that, when stimulated,
produce a change in the firing ofproduce a change in the firing ofcells in the visual systemcells in the visual system
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Electrochemical Basis ofElectrochemical Basis of
PerceptionPerception
Hubel and Wiesel describe threeHubel and Wiesel describe three
types oftypes offeature detectorsfeature detectors
The first type is simple cellsThe first type is simple cells
The second type is complex cellsThe second type is complex cells
The third type is hypercomplex cellsThe third type is hypercomplex cells
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Eye MovementsEye Movements
SaccadesSaccades are rapid, voluntary eyeare rapid, voluntary eye
movements and the most commonmovements and the most common
type of eye movementstype of eye movements The delay of 200 to 250 msecsThe delay of 200 to 250 msecs
between saccades is abetween saccades is a fixationfixation
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Colour VisionColour Vision
When people speak of the color ofWhen people speak of the color of
an object, they are referring toan object, they are referring to
huehue Hue is a psychological term,Hue is a psychological term,
because objects themselves do notbecause objects themselves do not
possess colourpossess colour ColourColouris determined by how theis determined by how the
eyes and brain interpret reflectedeyes and brain interpret reflected
wavelengths of lightwavelengths of light
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Colour VisionColour Vision
One psychological dimension ofOne psychological dimension of
colour is huecolour is hue
A different hue is associated withA different hue is associated with
each wavelengtheach wavelength
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Colour VisionColour Vision
A second psychological dimensionA second psychological dimension
isis brightnessbrightness or how light or darkor how light or dark
the hue of an object appearsthe hue of an object appears The third psychological dimensionThe third psychological dimension
of colour isof colour is saturationsaturation ororpuritypurity
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Theories of Colour PerceptionTheories of Colour Perception
TheThe trichromatic theorytrichromatic theory developed bydeveloped by
Young and HelmholtzYoung and Helmholtz
TheThe opponent process theoryopponent process theorydeveloped by Herringdeveloped by Herring
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Trichromatic TheoryTrichromatic Theory
Trichromatic theory saysTrichromatic theory saysmixing three basic colours canmixing three basic colours can
make all coloursmake all colours
Three types of cones areThree types of cones areespecially sensitive to red,especially sensitive to red,
green, and bluegreen, and blue
If the neural output from oneIf the neural output from onetype of cone is greater than thetype of cone is greater than the
others, that receptor has aothers, that receptor has a
stronger influence on the colourstronger influence on the colour
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Opponent Process TheoryOpponent Process Theory
Opponent process theory assumesOpponent process theory assumes
there are six colours and threethere are six colours and three
types of receptors: redtypes of receptors: red--green,green,blueblue--yellow, blackyellow, black--whitewhite
Each receptor fires in response toEach receptor fires in response to
all wavelengthsall wavelengths In each pair, one receptor firesIn each pair, one receptor fires
more strongly than the othermore strongly than the other
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ColourBlindnessColourBlindness
TrichromatsTrichromats are people who canare people who can
perceive all three primary coloursperceive all three primary colours
and can see any hueand can see any hue
MonochromatsMonochromats are totally colourare totally colour
blind (less than 1% of theblind (less than 1% of the
population)population)
DichromatsDichromats have difficultyhave difficulty
distinguishing either red and greendistinguishing either red and green
oror blue and yellowblue and yellow
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Visual PerceptionVisual Perception
Size constancySize constancy is the ability of theis the ability of thevisual perceptual system tovisual perceptual system to
recognize an object remainsrecognize an object remains
constant in size determined by:constant in size determined by: Previous experience with the truePrevious experience with the true
size of the objectsize of the object
Distance between the object andDistance between the object andthe personthe person
The presence of surroundingThe presence of surrounding
objectsobjects
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Visual PerceptionVisual Perception
Shape constancyShape constancy is the ability ofis the ability of
the visual system to recognize athe visual system to recognize a
shape despite changes in itsshape despite changes in itsorientation or the angle fromorientation or the angle from
which it is viewedwhich it is viewed
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Depth PerceptionDepth Perception
Depth perception allows a person toDepth perception allows a person to
estimate distance from an object,estimate distance from an object,
and the distance between objectsand the distance between objects
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Depth PerceptionDepth Perception
Monocular cuesMonocular cues do not dependdo not depend
on the use of both eyeson the use of both eyes
Motion parallaxMotion parallaxoccurs when aoccurs when a
moving observer stares at amoving observer stares at a
fixed pointfixed point
Objects behind the point appearObjects behind the point appear
to move in the same direction asto move in the same direction asthe observerthe observer
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Depth PerceptionDepth Perception
A second monocular depth cue isA second monocular depth cue is
thethe kinetic depth effectkinetic depth effect
In the kinetic depth effect, objectsIn the kinetic depth effect, objectswhich look flat when stationarywhich look flat when stationary
appear to be three dimensionalappear to be three dimensional
when set in motionwhen set in motion
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Depth PerceptionDepth Perception
Other monocular cues arise fromOther monocular cues arise from
the stimulus itselfthe stimulus itself
InIn linear perspectivelinear perspective, l, larger orarger ortaller objects are perceived astaller objects are perceived as
closercloser
Linear perspective makes distantLinear perspective makes distantobjects appear closer togetherobjects appear closer together
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Depth PerceptionDepth Perception
InterpositionInterposition is when one objectis when one object
blocks out another, it seemsblocks out another, it seems
closercloser TextureTexture is surfaces that haveis surfaces that have
little texture or detail seem morelittle texture or detail seem more
distantdistant
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Depth PerceptionDepth Perception
InIn highlighting and shadowing,highlighting and shadowing,
light objects appear near, darklight objects appear near, dark
objects seem distantobjects seem distant Atmospheric perspectiveAtmospheric perspective relatesrelates
to wavelengths of light, withto wavelengths of light, with
distant objects appearing moredistant objects appearing more
blueblue
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Depth PerceptionDepth Perception
AccommodationAccommodation is changes in theis changes in the
shape of the lens of the eye asshape of the lens of the eye as
distance to an object changesdistance to an object changes
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SoundSound
SoundSound is the psychologicalis the psychologicalexperience that occurs when changesexperience that occurs when changesin air pressure affect the receptivein air pressure affect the receptiveorgan for hearingorgan for hearing
FrequencyFrequency is the number of completeis the number of completechanges in air pressure that occurschanges in air pressure that occurs
during a given unit of timeduring a given unit of time
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SoundSound
PitchPitch is the psychologicalis the psychologicalexperience that correspondsexperience that corresponds
with the frequency of anwith the frequency of anauditory stimulusauditory stimulus
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SoundSound
AmplitudeAmplitude ((intensity)intensity) is the totalis the total
energy of a sound waveenergy of a sound wave
Amplitude determines the loudnessAmplitude determines the loudnessof soundof sound
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SoundSound
TimbreTimbre is the quality of a soundis the quality of a sound
(the specific mixture of amplitudes(the specific mixture of amplitudes
and frequencies that makeand frequencies that make--up aup asound)sound)
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Structure of the EarStructure of the Ear
The receptive organ forThe receptive organ for auditionaudition
is the earis the ear
The ear translates physicalThe ear translates physicalstimuli (sound waves) intostimuli (sound waves) into
electrical impulses the brain canelectrical impulses the brain can
interpretinterpret The ear has three major parts:The ear has three major parts:
the outer ear, middle ear, andthe outer ear, middle ear, and
inner earinner ear
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Figure 3.24 The Major Structures of the Ear
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Structure of the EarStructure of the Ear
The eardrum (The eardrum (tympanictympanic
membrane)membrane) is the boundaryis the boundary
between the outer and middlebetween the outer and middleearear
The eardrum responds toThe eardrum responds to
sound waves by vibratingsound waves by vibrating
Large forces striking theLarge forces striking the
eardrum are converted toeardrum are converted to
smaller forces by the bonessmaller forces by the bones
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Structure of the EarStructure of the Ear
The three bones of the middle earThe three bones of the middle ear
stimulate thestimulate the basilar membranebasilar membrane,,
which runs down the middle of thewhich runs down the middle of thecochleacochlea
Sound waves of differentSound waves of different
frequencies stimulate differentfrequencies stimulate differentareas of the basilar membraneareas of the basilar membrane
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Structure of the EarStructure of the Ear
The cells are responsible for theThe cells are responsible for the
transduction of mechanical energytransduction of mechanical energy
into neural impulsesinto neural impulses Neural impulses travel via theNeural impulses travel via the
auditory nerve to the midbrain,auditory nerve to the midbrain,
then to the auditory cortexthen to the auditory cortex
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Theories ofHearingTheories ofHearing
Place theoriesPlace theories claim the analysisclaim the analysis
of sound occurs in the basilarof sound occurs in the basilar
membranemembrane Different frequencies andDifferent frequencies and
intensities effect different partsintensities effect different parts
(places) of the membrane(places) of the membrane
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Sound LocalizationSound Localization
Sound localization involvesSound localization involves
detecting where a sound comesdetecting where a sound comes
fromfrom
Sounds produced to the left of theSounds produced to the left of the
head arrive at the left ear beforehead arrive at the left ear before
the right sidethe right side
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Hearing ImpairmentsHearing Impairments
Conduction deafnessConduction deafness results fromresults from
interference with the transmissioninterference with the transmission
of sound to the neural mechanismof sound to the neural mechanism
of the inner earof the inner ear
Sensorineural deafnessSensorineural deafness resultsresults
from damage to the cochlea, thefrom damage to the cochlea, the
auditory nerve, or higher auditoryauditory nerve, or higher auditory
processing centresprocessing centres
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TasteTaste
Taste is a chemical sense inTaste is a chemical sense inwhich food partially dissolved inwhich food partially dissolved in
saliva stimulatessaliva stimulates taste budstaste buds
All taste cells are sensitive to allAll taste cells are sensitive to alltaste stimuli, but some are moretaste stimuli, but some are more
sensitive to specific taste stimulisensitive to specific taste stimuli
There are four basic taste stimuli:There are four basic taste stimuli:sweet, sour, salty, bittersweet, sour, salty, bitter
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TasteTaste
Taste sensitivity seems to beTaste sensitivity seems to be
genetically determinedgenetically determined
Taste also depends on the numberTaste also depends on the numberof taste buds a person hasof taste buds a person has
Past experience is also importantPast experience is also important
in the taste of foodsin the taste of foods
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SmellSmell
Like taste,Like taste, olfactionolfaction (the sense of(the sense of
smell) is a chemical sensesmell) is a chemical sense
The receptors for smell are theThe receptors for smell are theolfactory receptor cellsolfactory receptor cells contained incontained in
thethe olfactory epitheliumolfactory epithelium
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SmellSmell
The olfactory bulbs areThe olfactory bulbs are
enlargements of the olfactoryenlargements of the olfactory
nervenerve
The olfactory nerve transmitsThe olfactory nerve transmits
information to the braininformation to the brain
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Smell and CommunicationSmell and Communication
Pheromones may influence thePheromones may influence the
physiology of another animalphysiology of another animal
They are widely recognized asThey are widely recognized asinitiators of sexual activity amonginitiators of sexual activity among
animalsanimals
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TouchTouch
The skins consists of three layers:The skins consists of three layers:
The epidermis, the top layer,The epidermis, the top layer,
consists primarily of dead cellsconsists primarily of dead cells The second layer, the dermis,The second layer, the dermis,
contains living cellscontains living cells
The inner layer, the hypodermis,The inner layer, the hypodermis,is a thick, insulating cushionis a thick, insulating cushion
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PainPain
Pain is due to the operation ofPain is due to the operation offreefree
nerve endings,nerve endings, microscopic ends ofmicroscopic ends of
afferent neurons not connected toafferent neurons not connected to
any specific organany specific organ
The perception of pain is bothThe perception of pain is both
physical and psychologicalphysical and psychological
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PainPain
Neuromatrix theoryNeuromatrix theorycontends thecontends the
brain possesses a neural network,brain possesses a neural network,
the bodythe body--self neuromatrix (BSN)self neuromatrix (BSN)
The BSN integrates inputs toThe BSN integrates inputs to
produce an output pattern weproduce an output pattern we
experience as painexperience as pain
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PainPain
A second influence is visual andA second influence is visual and
other sensory inputs thatother sensory inputs that
influence the interpretation ofinfluence the interpretation ofthe situationthe situation
A third influence is activity ofA third influence is activity of
the bodys stress regulationthe bodys stress regulation
systemsystem
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EndorphinsEndorphins
EndorphinsEndorphins are painkillers that areare painkillers that are
produced naturally in the brain andproduced naturally in the brain and
pituitary glandpituitary gland
Endorphins bind themselves toEndorphins bind themselves to
receptor sites in the brain andreceptor sites in the brain and
spinal cordspinal cord
Endorphins prevent pain signalsEndorphins prevent pain signals
from passing to higher levels offrom passing to higher levels of
the nervous systemthe nervous system
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AcupunctureAcupuncture
In acupuncture, long, slenderIn acupuncture, long, slender
needles are inserted into theneedles are inserted into the
body at specific locationsbody at specific locations
Acupuncture may stimulate aAcupuncture may stimulate a
release of endorphinsrelease of endorphins
It may be effective withIt may be effective withmigraines, arthritis, andmigraines, arthritis, and
postoperative pain from dentalpostoperative pain from dental
surgerysurgery
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Pain ManagementPain Management
For people with chronic pain, drugFor people with chronic pain, drug
treatment may be ineffective or eventreatment may be ineffective or even
dangerous because high doses maydangerous because high doses may
be neededbe needed
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KinesthesisKinesthesis
KinesthesisKinesthesis is the awareness ofis the awareness of
movements of the muscles, tendons,movements of the muscles, tendons,
and jointsand joints
Kinesthesis is based onKinesthesis is based on
proprioceptive cuesproprioceptive cues oror ssensory cuesensory cues
that come from within the bodythat come from within the body
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The Vestibular SenseThe Vestibular Sense
TheThe vestibular sensevestibular sense is the senseis the sense
of bodily orientation and posturalof bodily orientation and postural
adjustmentadjustment
It helps maintain balance andIt helps maintain balance and
sense of equilibrium, andsense of equilibrium, and
provides information aboutprovides information about
orientations of head and bodyorientations of head and body
Essential structures are in theEssential structures are in the
earear
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Extrasensory PerceptionExtrasensory Perception
ESP includes four phenomenon:ESP includes four phenomenon:
TelepathyTelepathy(transfer of thoughts(transfer of thoughts
from one person to another)from one person to another) ClairvoyanceClairvoyance (recognizing objects(recognizing objects
or events not discernable byor events not discernable by
normal sensory receptors)normal sensory receptors)
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Extrasensory PerceptionExtrasensory Perception
PrecognitionPrecognition (inexplicable(inexplicable
knowledge of future events)knowledge of future events)
PsychokinesisPsychokinesis (ability to move(ability to moveobjects with mental powersobjects with mental powers