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PSYCHOLOGY
Chapter 8Learning
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Learning
Learning relatively permanent change in an organism’s behavior due to experience
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Association
We learn by association Our minds naturally connect events that
occur in sequence Aristotle 2000 years ago John Locke and David Hume 200 years
ago Associative Learning
learning that two events occur together two stimuli a response and its consequences
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Association
Learning to associate two events
Event 1 Event 2
Sea snail associates splash with a tail shock
Seal learns to expect a snack for its showy antics
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Classical or Pavlovian Conditioning
We learn to associate two stimuli
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Operant Conditioning
We learn to associate a response and its consequence
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Classical Conditioning: video clip
Ivan Pavlov 1849-1936 Russian
physician/ neurophysiologist
Nobel Prize in 1904
studied digestive secretions
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Pavlov’s Classic Experiment
Before Conditioning
During Conditioning After Conditioning
UCS (foodin mouth)
Neutralstimulus(tone)
Nosalivation
UCR (salivation)
Neutralstimulus(tone)
UCS (foodin mouth)
UCR(salivation)
CS(tone)
CR (salivation)
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Classical Conditioning
Pavlov’s device for recording salivation
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Classical Conditioning
Classical Conditioning organism comes to associate two
stimuli a neutral stimulus that signals an
unconditioned stimulus begins to produce a response that anticipates and prepares for the unconditioned stimulus
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Classical Conditioning
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) stimulus that unconditionally--
automatically and naturally--triggers a response
Unconditioned Response (UCR) unlearned, naturally occurring response
to the unconditioned stimulus salivation when food is in the mouth
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Classical Conditioning
Conditioned Stimulus (CS) originally irrelevant stimulus that, after
association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response
Conditioned Response (CR) learned response to a previously neutral
conditioned stimulus
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Classical Conditioning
Acquisition the initial stage in classical conditioning the phase associating a neutral stimulus
with an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus comes to elicit a conditioned response
in operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response
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Classical ConditioningUCS(passionate kiss) UCR
(sexualarousal)
CS(onionbreath)
CS(onion breath) CR
(sexualarousal)
UCS(passionate Kiss) UCR
(sexualarousal)
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Classical Conditioning
Extinction diminishing of a CR in classical conditioning, when
a UCS does not follow a CS in operant conditioning, when
a response is no longer reinforced
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Classical Conditioning
Spontaneous Recovery reappearance, after a rest
period, of an extinguished CR
Stimulus Generalization tendency for stimuli similar
to CS to elicit similar responses
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Classical Conditioning
Stimulus Discrimination in classical conditioning, the
learned ability to distinguish between a CS and other stimuli that do not signal a UCS
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Nausea Conditioning in Cancer Patients
UCS(drug)
UCR(nausea)
CS(waiting room)
CS(waitingroom) CR
(nausea)
UCS(drug)
UCR(nausea)
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Behaviorism
John B. Watson
viewed psychology as objective science generally agreed-upon
consensus today
recommended study of behavior without reference to unobservable mental processes not universally accepted
by all schools of thought today
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Behaviorism: John B. Watson continued….
Stimulus-Response Behavior Watson argued that psychology
should study only stimulus-response relationships
Watson on Sigmund Freud Watson was not pleased with the
growing acceptance of Freud’s psychoanalytic viewpoint
Watson believed Freud’s approach relied too heavily on the unconscious mind as a means to explain behavior
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Behaviorism: John B. Watson continued….
Watson on phobias phobias are disruptive, irrational
fears Freud said these phobias were
unconscious fears left over from childhood
Watson believed these fears were created by classical conditioning
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Behaviorism: John B. Watson & Rosalie Rayner
Little Albert Watson intentionally established a fear of
rats in an 11-month-old boy now known as Little Albert
Albert was not afraid of rats at first
Watson and his assistant Rayner were able to change this by sneaking up behind Albert when he was in the presence of the rat
They would bang a steel bar behind his head to make a startling noise
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Behaviorism: John B. Watson & Rosalie Rayner
Little Albert continued…. The banging of the steel bar was the UCS
which produced the UCR of fear in the form of crying
Because the UCS was paired with the rat, the rat became the CS which produced the same fear response in the form of crying which became the CR
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Behaviorism: John B. Watson & Rosalie Rayner
Little Albert continued…. Watson and Rayner were able to prove
that Little Albert’s fear was a predictable outcome of an environmental condition
In this case, it was proven that his response did not represent some sort of repressed, unconscious conflict (Freudian)
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Law of Effect: video clips
Edward Thorndike Law of Effect
Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely
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Operant Conditioning
Operant Conditioning type of learning in which behavior is
strengthened if followed by reinforcement or diminished if followed by punishment
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Operant Conditioning
Operant Behavior operates (acts) on environment produces consequences
Respondent Behavior occurs as an automatic
response to stimulus behavior learned through
classical conditioning
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Operant Conditioning
B.F. Skinner (1904-1990) elaborated
Thorndike’s Law of Effect
developed behavioral technology
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Operant Chamber
Skinner Box chamber with a
bar or key that an animal manipulates to obtain a food or water reinforcer
contains devices to record responses
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Operant Conditioning
Reinforcer any event that strengthens the
behavior it follows Shaping through successive
approximations operant conditioning procedure
in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer approximations of a desired goal
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Operant Conditioning
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Principles of Reinforcement
Primary Reinforcer innately reinforcing stimulus i.e., satisfies a biological need-
food Conditioned Reinforcer
stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with primary reinforcer
secondary reinforcer- money
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Schedules of Reinforcement
Continuous Reinforcement reinforcing the desired response each
time it occurs Partial (Intermitent) Reinforcement
reinforcing a response only part of the time
results in slower acquisition greater resistance to extinction
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Schedules of Reinforcement
Fixed Ratio (FR) reinforces a response only after a specified
number of responses faster you respond the more rewards you get different ratios very high rate of responding like piecework pay in which people get paid
based on the number of items they produce and not by the amount of time that they are at work
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Schedules of Reinforcement
Variable Ratio (VR) reinforces a response after an
unpredictable number of responses
average ratios like gambling, fishing very hard to extinguish because of
unpredictability
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Schedules of Reinforcement
Fixed Interval (FI) reinforces a response only after a
specified time has elapsed response occurs more frequently as the
anticipated time for reward draws near like people checking more frequently as
the “normal” time for their mail delivery approaches
like people checking to see if the JELLO is ready to eat because the time stated on the box has almost elapsed
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Schedules of Reinforcement
Variable Interval (VI) reinforces a response at
unpredictable time intervals produces slow steady responding like a pop quiz like checking for an email like checking for a text message
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Schedules of Reinforcement
Variable Interval
Number of responses
1000
750
500
250
010 20 30 40 50 60 70
Time (minutes)
Fixed Ratio
Variable Ratio
Fixed Interval
Steady responding
Rapid respondingnear time forreinforcement
80
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Punishment
Punishment aversive event that
decreases the behavior that it follows
powerful controller of unwanted behavior
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Punishment An undesirable event following the
behavior a toddler puts his hand on a
painfully hot stove burner the behavior of touching the
burner is punished, because it leads to an undesirable event: getting burned
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Punishment A desirable state or event ENDS
following the behavior traffic fines are another example
of punishment a revoked driver’s license is
another example of punishment
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Problems with Punishment
Many learning experts oppose the use of punishment These experts feel that punishment is
likely to back fire in the long run
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Problems with Punishment
Punishment does not end the desire to engage in the behavior Children punished for using bad language
often continue to use bad language- just not in the presence of the one who punished them for it
Punishment can lead to fear, anxiety, and lower self-esteem Frequently punished children or animals may
learn to engage in avoidance behaviors: Run away from home Drop out of school
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Problems with Punishment
Punishment is aggressive behavior when adult role models use aggression to
solve their problems, children learn to model that aggressive behavior is a problem-solving strategy
This may help explain why abusive parents tend to come from abusive families
Although, most abused children do not go on to be abusive parents
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How Punishment is effective
Punishment can effectively control certain behaviors Punishment can effectively certain
behaviors especially if the punisher’s goal is to protect a child from a dangerous situation
For example, if a toddler has developed the bad habit of running into the street, a harsh reprimand or a smack on the hand may be appropriate
A young child needs to develop some fear and avoidance of the street
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Cognition and Operant Conditioning
Cognitive Map mental representation of the layout of
one’s environment Example: after exploring a maze, rats
act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it
Latent Learning learning that occurs, but is not
apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it
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Cognition and Operant Conditioning
Intrinsic Motivation Desire to perform a behavior for
its own sake and to be effective Extrinsic Motivation
Desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishments
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Cognition and Operant Conditioning
Overjustification Effect the effect of promising a reward
for doing what one already likes to do
the person may now see the reward, rather than intrinsic interest, as the motivation for performing the task
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Observational Learning
Observational Learning learning by observing others Albert Bandura conducted the now famous
Bobo doll experiment children observed adults acting aggressively
toward the Bobo doll and imitated that behavior when provided with their own Bobo doll
Modeling process of observing and imitating a specific
behavior
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Observational Learning
Prosocial Behavior positive, constructive, helpful behavior opposite of antisocial behavior Mahatma Gandhi & Martin Luther King, Jr.
drew on the power of modeling they made nonviolent action a powerful force
for social change by modeling the actions of previous historical figures who had also acted nonviolently
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Observational Learning
Mirror Neurons Neuroscientists have discovered
these mirror neurons frontal lobe neurons that fire when
performing certain actions or when observing another doing so
may enable imitation, language learning, and empathy
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Observational Learning
Mirror Neurons When a monkey performs a task such as
grasping, holding, or tearing, these neurons fire
But they also fire when the monkey observes another monkey performing the same task
Thus the phrase, “Monkey see, monkey do.”
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Observational Learning
Mirror Neurons examples…… Mimicry
yawning sticking out your tongue Laughter smiling
Language development- mirror neurons help children learn by observation how to mimic lip and tongue movements when forming new words
Empathy- brain activity related to actual pain is mirrored in the brain of an observing loved one; you can emapthize with them and “feel their pain”