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BeforetheUnitedStatesHouseCommitteeonScience,Space,andTechnologySubcommitteeontheEnvironment
HistoryandImplementationoftheCleanAirActVisibilityProtectionProvisions
TestimonyofBrucePolkowskyEnvironmentalScience,TechnologyandPolicyConsultant
March23,2016
ChairmanBridenstine,RankingMemberBonamiciandMembersoftheSubcommittee,thankyoufortheopportunitytotestifyabouttheU.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency’sRegionalHazeRegulations.MynameisBrucePolkowsky.IamanindependentcontractorworkingwithmanypartiestofindinnovativewaystoimplementprovisionsofEPA’svisibilityprotectionrequirementsandrelatedenvironmentalprotectionprograms.IpreviouslyservedasapolicyanalystwiththeNationalParkService’sAirResourcesDivision,andbeforethatasanEnvironmentalEngineerintheU.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency’sOfficeofAirQualityPlanningandStandards.Inbothpositions,IservedunderRepublicanandDemocraticAdministrations.Thenation’slargenationalparksandwildernessareasaretreasuresofimmenseimportancetoallAmericansandtheworld.UponvisitingtheGrandCanyonin1903,PresidentTheodoreRooseveltremarked,“Leaveitasitis.Youcannotimproveonit.Theageshavebeenatworkonitandmancanonlymarit.Whatyoucandoiskeepitforyouchildren,andforallwhocomeafteryou,astheonegreatsightwhicheveryAmerican…shouldsee.”StartingwiththeOrganicActin1916creatingtheNationalParkService,expandedbythe1964WildnessActandspecificallyinthe1977AmendmentstotheCleanAirAct,theCongresshasrecognized,withoverwhelmingbipartisansupport,theneedtoprotectthescenicviewsoflargenationalparksandwildernessareas,leavingthem“unimpaired”fortheenjoymentoffuturegenerations.1Ninety-fivepercentoftheNationalParkServicevisitorstudiesconductedinthenationalparksprotectedbythevisibilityprotectionregulationsoverthelast20years,coveringover10,000groupsofvisitors,listscenicviewsasextremelyimportantorveryimportant,with95percentrankingscenicviewsasthefirst,second,orthirdmostimportantattributeoutof14totalchoices.2
116U.S.C.§1,NationalParkServiceOrganicActandPublicLaw88-577(16U.S.C.1131-1136)WildernessAct2NationalParkServiceVisitorValues&PerceptionsofCleanAir,ScenicViews&DarkNightSkies,1988-2011,NaturalResourceReportNPS/NRSS/ARD/NRR-2013/632
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Thenear40-yearimplementationoftheCleanAirAct’svisibilityprotectionprovisionshasbeenbasedonacarefulexaminationofscience,incrementalpromulgationofregulatoryrequirements,andextraordinaryinteragencycooperationthatincludesotherfederalagencies,tribesandStates.Startingwithamonitoringprogramin1985,theStateshavebeenpartofthemanagementanddevelopmentofscienceandpolicydecisions.TheGrandCanyonVisibilityTransportCommission(1991-1996)provideddirectinputtotheRegionalHazeRegulations.TheCommissionwasledbytheGovernorsofeightStatesandtheleadersoffourIndianTribes,withfiveFederalAgencieshavingnon-votingadvisoryroles.3From2000to2009,EPAprovidedfundingforfiveRegionalPlanningOrganizations(RPOs)thatprovidedforumsforallStatesandTribestobuildscientificinformationonthecausesofvisibilityimpairmentintheirregionandtodevelopcooperativestrategiestoincorporateinStateImplementationPlans.TheNationalParkService,U.S.FishandWildlifeService,ForestServiceandBureauofLandManagement,allsupportedtheRPO’swithtechnicalassistance.In1993,theNationalAcademyofSciences(NAS)reviewedthestateofthescienceforvisibilityprotectionanddeterminedthat“[p]rogresstowardthenationalgoalofremedyingandpreventingman-madevisibilityimpairmentinClassIareas(CleanAirAct,Section169(a))willrequireregionalprogramsthatoperateoverlargegeographicareasandlimitemissionsofpollutantsthatcancauseregionalhaze.”TheNASalsoconcludedthat“[r]educingemissionsforvisibilityimprovementcouldhelpalleviateotherair-qualityproblems,justasothertypesofair-qualityimprovementscouldhelpvisibility”4.Thedesignandimplementationofcontrolstrategiesforvisibilityprotectionshouldalsoaccountforcollateralimprovementsinhumanhealthandecosystemconditions.Protectionofvisibilityatourmosttreasuredparksandwildernessareasdriveseconomicprogressinthoseregionsandnationally.TheNationalParkServiceestimatesthenationalparksystemreceivedover292millionrecreationalvisitsandthosevisitorsspent$15.7billioninlocalgatewaycommunities.Thecontributionofthisspendingtothenationaleconomywas277thousandjobs,$10.3billioninlaborincome,$17.1billioninaddedvalue,and$29.7billioninoutput.5Asnotedabovethevastmajorityofthesevisitorsgeneratingthiseconomicbenefitvaluetheprotectionofscenicviews.ACleanAirTaskForcereportestimatesthatimprovingvisibilityatnationalparkswouldincreasespendingsignificantly.63TheGrandCanyonVisibilityTransportCommission,RecommendationsforImprovingWesternVistas,June10,19964ProtectingVisibilityinNationalParksanWildernessAreas,NationalResearchCouncil,NationalAcademyPress,Washington,D.C.199352014NationalparkVisitorSpendingEffects,NPS,NaturalResourceReportNPS/NRSS/EQD/NRR-2015/9476OutofSight:TheScienceandEconomicsofVisibilityImpairment,AbtAssociates,Inc.,2000
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Thevisibilityprotectionprogramisbuiltonfirmscienceandhasreflectedadatadrivenapproachtoprotectingournation’sgrandvistasanchoredinapartnershipwithfederalagencies,statesandtribes.Nearly40yearsafterCongressestablishedthenationalgoalofpreventingandremedyingairpollutiontoprotectscenicvistasinournationalparks,EPAismovingaheadwiththelongoverduemeasurestoaddresstheregionalhazeimpairment.I. 1977CleanAirActAmendmentsestablishaNationalGoalandmandateEPARegulationsinSection169AThe1977CleanAirActAmendmentsdeclaredasanationalgoalthepreventionofanyfuture,andtheremedyingofanyexisting,impairmentofvisibilityinmandatoryclassIFederalareaswhichimpairmentresultsfrommanmadeairpollution.7Congressspecificallyrecognizedthatthe“visibilityproblemiscaused(?)primarilybyemissionintotheatmosphereSO2,oxidesofnitrogen,andparticulatematter,especiallyfineparticulatematterfrominadequate[ly]controlledsources.”8The1977amendmentsrecognizedthatthenationalambientairqualitystandardswouldnotpreventairqualityinverycleanareas,suchasthedesertsouthwest,fromseriousdegradationwhichwouldthreatenthecharacteroftheregionaswellasthescenicqualitiesthatwerebehindformationofmanyofthenation’snationalparksandwildernessareas.Inits1979ReporttoCongressonthenatureandcausesofvisibilityimpairment,EPAstatedthatduetothephysicsoflighttransmissionthroughtheatmosphere,averysmallamountoffineparticulatesaddedtoacleanatmospherewilldegradethevistamorethanthesameamountaddedtoanalreadyimpairedatmosphere.Theadditionof1microgrampercubicmeteroffineparticles,spreadthroughouttheviewingpath,toacleanatmospherecouldreducevisualrangebyabout30miles,fromapproximately200to170miles.Addingthesameamountoffineparticlestoconditionsof20-milevisibilitywoulddecreasevisualrangelessthan1mile.9Sowhilethepollutantsofconcernarethesameforprotectionofvisibilityasthosefortheprotectionofhumanhealth,itisnecessarytohavearegulatorystructurethatspecificallyaddressesvisibilityprotectiontoassurethatappropriatestrategiesaddressthefullspectrumofatmosphericconditionsandadvancetheobjectiveofrestoringnaturalairqualitytoprotectedpubliclands.In1980,theEPApromulgatedregulationstoaddressmanmadeimpairmentassociatedwithspecificsourceslocatednearclassIFederalareas,butdelayedactiononimpairmentassociatedwithemissionsfrommultitudesofsourcesoverbroadgeographicareasuntilthescienceofvisibilitymonitoringandregional-scaleairqualitymodelingadvanced.10742U.S.C.§7491(a)(1).8H.R.Rep.No.95-294at204(1977).9“ProtectingVisibility,AnEPAReporttoCongress”19791045FR80086.
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The1980regulationsestablishedrequirementsforthe35StatesandoneterritorycontainingmandatoryclassIFederalareastoaddressvisibilityprotection.ThevisibilityprogramfollowsthelongestablishedstructureofhavingStatesdevelopplanswithEPAretainingoversight.AuniqueaspectofthevisibilityprotectionplansisthatStatesconsultwiththeclassIFederallandmanagementagenciesduringthedevelopmentofimplementationplansaffordinganexchangeoftechnicalexpertise.II. 1990CleanAirActAmendmentsfocusattentiononregionalhazeByaddingSection169BtotheCleanAirActin1990,CongressrequiredEPAtoconductresearchonregionalhazeimpactsincooperationwiththeNationalParkServiceandotherFederalagencies.Section169BrequiredtheestablishmentofaVisibilityTransportCommissionfocusedontheregionaffectingtheGrandCanyonNationalPark.TheCommissionissueditsfinalreportin1996.11Section169BrequiredEPAtoissueregulationstoaddressregionalhazeatmandatoryclassIFederalareaswithin18monthsofreceivingtheCommission’sreport.EPAissuedfinalRegionalHazeRegulationsonJuly1,1999.12TheimplementationoftheRegionalHazeRegulationswascoordinatedwithimplementationofthenewfineparticulatenationalambientairqualitystandardsasrequiredbytheTransportationEquityActforthe21stCentury,PublicLaw105-178.EPAadjustedtheSIPdeadlinesothatStatesparticipatinginregionalplanningorganizationscouldcoordinatetechnicalandpolicyassessmentswitheffortstoimplementthefineparticlenationalambientairqualitystandard.13WithparticipationinregionalplanningactivitiesStateshadtosubmitregionalhazeplanstoEPAbyDecember17,2007.III. ImplementationoftheRegionalHazeRules From2001to2008,mostStatesandmanyTribesparticipatedinfiveregionalplanningorganizations(RPOs),supportedbyEPAfundingfortechnicalanalysisandpolicyconsultation.TheEPAandtheclassIareaFederallandmanagementagenciesparticipatedintheRPOsprovidingtechnicalexpertiseandworkinginpartnershipwithStatesandTribesonthedevelopmentoftheregionalhazeplans,consistentwithstatutoryrequirementscallingforplandevelopmentinconsultationwiththeFederalLandManagers.IV. EPA’sPartnershipwithStates,TribesandFederalLandManagers
11GrandCanyonVisibilityTransportCommission,RecommendationsforImprovingWesternvistas,ReporttoU.S.EPA,June10,1996.1264FR357141364FR35724
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Beginningwiththe1980rules,throughamulti-agencycollaborationinthecollectionofvisibilitymonitoringdatainmandatoryFederalClassIareas,andincludingdevelopmentoftheRegionalHazeRules,EPAhashadalongpartnershipwiththeStates,TribesandFederalLandManagersindesigningthevisibilityprotectionprogram.Yet,EPAmustprovidesafeguardswhennecessarytoprotecthumanhealthandtheenvironmentincludingthegrandvistasofournationalparks.EPAhasshownflexibilityinapprovingStateregionalhazeplanswhenthoseplansmeettherequirementsoftheregionalhazeprogram.Asexemplifiedinthefollowingcases,severalplansareillustrativeofabroad,forward-lookingstakeholderapproach;
A. Colorado’sCleanAirCleanJobsAct.In2010Coloradoundertookanapproachthatexaminedcurrentandreasonablyforeseeableairqualityrequirements,suchasnewambientairqualitystandardsforozone,safeguardstoaddresscarbonpollution,effortstoaddresshazardousairpollution,suchasmercuryandregionalhaze.ConsiderationwasgiventoemergingscientificconcernswithnitrogendepositionathighaltitudelakesinRockyMountainNationalPark.TheColoradoGeneralAssemblyenactedacoordinatedmulti-pollutant,energyandairqualitystrategytoaddressemissionsfromtheelectricutilitysectoroveralargeareaoftheState.Theresultingairqualitymanagementplan,adoptedbytheColoradoAirQualityControlCommission,addressedthebestavailableretrofittechnology(BART)requirementformostsourcesinthestate.Thelocalpowercompanydevelopedcost-effective,integratedsolutionthatincludedtheinstallationofcontroltechnologies,atransitiontoinherentlycleanenergyresources,andrepoweringtonaturalgas.ThecostsfortheprogramunderwentreviewbythePublicUtilitiesCommission.TheplanwassubmittedtoEPAin2011withbi-partisansupportoftheStatelegislature,Governor,andthefullColoradoCongressionaldelegation.14TheEPAproposedapprovaloftheColoradoregionalhazeplaninMarch,2012,andcompletedapprovalinDecember,2012.15
B. BARTfornitrogenoxideemissionsfromNavajoGeneratingStation.InFebruary2013,EPAproposedaBARTemissionlimitationtoreduceemissionsofnitrogenoxides(NOx)fromNavajoGeneratingStation(NGS),locatedontheNavajoNation,buildingfromanactionyearsearliertolimittheplant’ssulfurdioxidecontributingtopollutionoftheGrandCanyon.TheEPAdeterminedthatNOxemissionsfromNGSsignificantlydegradedvisibilityat11classIareas.EPAsimultaneouslyproposeda“BARTAlternative”aswellasaframeworktoevaluating14LettertoAdministratorJackson,December16,2011,fromSenatorsUdall,Bennett,RepresentativesDegette,Lamborn,Perlmutter,Coffman,Polis,Gardner,Tipton.1577FR76871
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otherBARTalternativesrelatedtoanemissionscap.EPA’sproposedalternativetoBARTencouragedthesubmittalofothersolutionstoaddresstheplant’svisibility-impairingemissionsconsistentwithEPA’semissionsframeworkunderitsCleanAirActresponsibilities.Afterconsiderationoffurtherpubliccommentandinput,EPAadoptedanapproachjointlyrecommendedbydiverseinterestsincludingtheSaltRiverProject,theU.S.DepartmentoftheInterior(DOI),theGilaRiverIndianCommunities,theNavajoNation,theCentralArizonaWaterConservationDistrict,EnvironmentalDefenseFund,andWesternResourceAdvocates.Therecommendationsofthisjointtechnicalworkinggroupincludedacombinationofsolutionstoreducemultiplepollutantsattheplant,supportthedevelopmentofcleanenergyfortheaffectedIndianTribes,reducewaterconsumption,andaddresslocalimpactsonfamiliesandcommunitiesinthevicinityoftheplantanditscoalmine.
C. BARTfornitrogenoxideemissionsfromFourCornersPowerPlant.OnOctober19,2010EPAproposedaBARTdeterminationfortheFourCornersPowerPlant(FCPP),locatedontheNavajoNation,thatrequiredan80percentreductioninemissionsofnitrogenoxides.AtthetimeofproposaltheFCPPwasthelargestsinglesourceofnitrogenoxidesemissionsinthecountry.ThenitrogenoxideemissionfromFCPPdegradedvisibilityat16nationalparksandwildnessareas.AftertheEPAproposal,ArizonaPublicService(APS),theoperatoroftheFCPP,proposedanalternativeprovidinggreateremissionsreductionsthanEPA’sproposalbutoveralongertimeperiod.Thisapproachhadtheaddedbenefitofreducingsulfurdioxide,moreparticulatematter,mercuryandCO2aswellasreducingwaterconsumptionattheplant.OnAugust24,2012EPApromulgatedtheAPSalternative.16Asdemonstratedinpartbytheaboveexamples,States,TribesandEPAareeffectivelycarryingoutvitalresponsibilitiestoprotectscenicvistasinnationalparks–liftingtheveilofhazepollutingournation’sgrandvistas--whileworkinginpartnershipwithallstakeholders.V.BuildingontheFoundationofScienceandIntergovernmentalPartnershipstoProtecttheGrandVisasinAmerica’sNationalParksandWildernessAreasAsweneartheendofthefirstimplementationperiodoftheregionalhazerules,therearelessonsforstates,tribesandEPAasgovernmentpolicymakersworktogetheronthenextroundofplanrevisionsthatwillfocusonongoing“reasonableprogress”towardthenationalvisibilitygoal.OneofthemostinterestingdevelopmentsovertheyearssincethepromulgationoftheregionalhazeruleisthatinalmosteverymandatoryFederalClassIareatherehasbeenastatisticallysignificanttrendofimprovementinvisibilityontheclearest1677FR51620
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20percentdays.AsshownthefollowinggraphsthisistrueatmandatorylocationsasvariedasGreatSmokyMountainsNationalPark,BigBendNationalParkandGrandCanyonNationalPark.
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Lookingattheconstituentsofthefineparticulatematterattheselocations,thesetrendsarelikelyduetonationaldecreasesinammoniumsulfateconcentrations.Ammoniumsulfateparticlesarepredominantlyformedfromemissionsofindustrialandmobilesourcesofsulfurdioxide.Theseemissionshavedeclineddramaticallyoverthelast20years.Sincesmallchangesinfineparticleconcentrationswillimprovecleareratmosphericconditionsmorethanhazierdays,thisresultindicatesthattheregionalpollutionreductionswillshifttheentiredistributionofvisibilitybyincreasingthenumberofclearerdaysperyear.Makingprogresstowardthenaturalconditionsonthehaziestdaysismoreofachallenge,particularlyfortheparksandwildernessareasoftheintermountainwestasthegraphsforthehaziestdaysinthesamethreelocationsindicate:
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ExaminationofthefineparticlecomponentsmeasuredattheselocationsonthemostimpaireddaysalsoshowdecreasesinammoniumsulfateatGreatSmokyMountainsNPandGrandCanyonNP.TheregionalprogramsemissionsprogramsforNAAQSandacidrainplusnationalreductionsinthesulfurcontentoffuelsarethelikelythereasonforsulfatereductionsatGreatSmokyMountains.TheimprovementinsulfateconcentrationsatGrandCanyonNPlikelyresultedfromcontrolsatNavajoGeneratingStationandthenationalfuelprogram.ThelackofasignificanttrendatBigBendNPreflectslittlechangeinammoniumsulfatelevelsinthisregion.Thevisibilityprotectionprogramtodatehasbeenacost-effective,cooperativeeffortthathasreduceddegradationoftheclearestdaysandhasbothtrackedsignificantimprovementdrivenbyotherairqualityprogramsandcontributedtosignificantimprovementinselectareas.Theimplementationoftheregionalhazestrategiesisjustbeginningandmustprovidecontinuedprotectionandimprovement.Itisimportanttonotethatwhileoverallthetrendispositive,thereisnotasingleClassIareanationalparkorwildernessinthecountrythathasachievedthenaturalairqualityconditionsgoaloftheCleanAirAct.Throughpolicyanchoredinscience,cleanairsolutions,andintergovernmentalpartnerships,wehavemadeimportantprogressinprotectingandenhancingpremierscenicvistas.Weneedtocontinuetobuildfromthisfoundationtofulfillthenationalgoalofbothpreventingandremedyingairpollutionimpairingprotectednationalparksandwildernesses.Thefollowingimagesillustratetheprogressofaddressingvisibilityimpairmentofthe20percentmostimpaireddaysatthethreeClassIareas.17Theleftsideofthe
17Winhazeimagesforthemean20%haziestDays1989-2012,JennyHand,AirResourcesSpecialists,March13,2014http://www.air-resource.com/resources/downloads.html,Note:figureforGrandCanyonisHopiPointmonitoringstation,theolderstationnolongerusedfortrends.Datafor2012isverysimilartoHanceCampdata,soimageisreflectiveoftheairqualitychange.
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imageshowstheaveragevisibilityconditionsofmostimpaireddaysin1990basedontheaveragefineparticulateconcentrationsmeasuredonthosedays.Therightsideoftheimageshowstheaveragevisibilityconditionsforthe20percentmostimpaired20daysin2012.18
Achangefrom34deciviewsto21deciviews.
18ReviewofFederalLandManagerEnvironmentalDatabasefoundathttp://views.cira.colostate.edu/fed/SiteBrowser/Default.aspx
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Bothyearsaveraged16deciviews.
Achangefrom13deciviewsto10deciviews.
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GoingforwardEPAhastheopportunitycontinueitscooperativeapproachtoprotectingvisibility.EPAcanworkwithStatesandTribesinusingthenextgenerationofairqualitymodelinginconjunctionwiththenowrichnationaldatabaseonthecompositionoffineparticulatemattertoexploreeffectivestrategiesforprotectionandimprovementofvisibility.VI. ConclusionOurnationhasatremendousbipartisantraditionofprotectingouriconicnaturalplacesasalegacyforcurrentandfuturegenerations.Together,wehavemadeimportantprogress.Butourworkisnotdone.Ournationmustcontinuetoworktogethertoprotectournationalparksandwildernessareas–andthegrandvistasthatareintegraltotheirpreservationandenjoyment.Manyofeconomicvaluationstudiesfrom1980through2000showlargeeconomicbenefitsattributedtoincreasedrecreationaluse,topreservationofrecreationaluseforfuturegenerations,tovalueofurbanvisibilityimprovedasaresultofmultipleairqualityprograms.Whilesummarizingtheresultsofstudiesacrossmanyregionsofthecountryisdifficult,areviewofthevariousvaluationstudiesfoundthatprotectionofrecreationalvisibilitybenefitshadavaluethatrangedfrom$358milliontoapproximately$6billion.19Itisalsoimportanttorecognizethatanypollutioncontrolrequiredforprotectionofvisibilitywillhavecollateralbenefitsforpublichealthbyreducinghumanexposuretofineparticulatematter.Controllingemissionsofnitrogenoxidesforvisibilityinareasofthewestwhereozoneformationislimitedbyavailabilityofnitrogenoxidantswouldalsoresultinloweredhumanexposuretoozoneanditsassociatedhealtheffects.Sincebothozoneandfineparticulatematterarenon-thresholdpollutantsforhumanexposure,therewillbehealth-relatedbenefiteveninareasattainingthenationalambientairqualitystandards.EPA’sregionalhazeprogramprovidesavitalandenduringframework,anchoredinscienceandreflectingyearsofintergovernmentalpartnership,forStates,TribesandstakeholderstoworktowardthecommongoalofimprovingandprotectingthescenictreasuresofAmerica’smostpreciouslands.
19OutofSight:TheScienceandEconomicsofVisibilityImpairment,AbtAssociates,Inc.2000
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BrucePolkowsky1610LittleRavenStreet,Unit308Denver,CO80202Experience
Science,Technology,andPolicyConsultant(Denver,CO),(2010–present).NationalParkService(Lakewood,CO),SeniorPolicyAnalyst(1998-2010).EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(ResearchTrianglePark,NC,SanFrancisco,CA),EnvironmentalEngineer(1977–1998).
Education
MS EnvironmentalEngineering,DukeUniversityBSE CivilEngineeringandPublicPolicy,DukeUniversity
RecentTestimonyandPublicCommentBefore:
ArizonaCorporationCommission,ColoradoAirQualityControlCommission,CaliforniaAirResourcesBoard
SelectedPublications(withVickiePatton)“TheEPA’sRegionalHazeProposal:protectingvisibilityinnationalparksandwildernessareas,”TulaneEnvironmentalLawJournal,vol.II,1998(withJohnBachmannetal.)ReviewofNationalAmbientStandardsforParticulateMatter:PolicyAssessmentofScientificandTechnicalInformation.OAQPSStaffPaper,U.S.EPA,1996EPA/452/R-96/013.(NTIS,Springfield,VAPB97-115406REB)(withMarcPitchford)“Percentchangeinextinctioncoefficient:aproposedapproachforfederalvisibilityprotectionstrategy,”in“VisibilityandFineParticles”ConferenceTransactions,TR-17,A&WMA1990ImplementationPlansforVisibilityProtection-PartII,JournaloftheAirPollutionControlAssociation,conferenceproceedings,paper85-9.7,1985(withDavidStonefieldandWilliamHamilton)ImplementingSection126:ControllingInterstatePollution,JournaloftheAirPollutionControlAssociation,conferenceproceedings,paper82.34.1,1982
