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Northern Great Plains, 1880-1920
The history of North Dakota is very much tied to its geography and
climate, which is the first topic presented in this overview. The next
topic in our overview deals with the first inhabitants of the region, the
Native Americans, and covers the variety of tribes and their cultures.
Next we delve into the first Europeans in the area and their
explorations and early settlement. As settlement grew, so did the
presence of the United States military, the next topic covered. The
establishment of the military presence paved the way for our next topic,
Dakota Territory and statehood. Unprecedented settlement, our next
topic, followed in the wake of the establishment of Dakota Territory. As
settlement increased and farming proliferated, our next topic, ranching,
was being carried out in the western region of the state. North Dakota
politics and the Nonpartisan League, dynamic and fascinating, is the
next topic covered. Our final topic, contemporary North Dakota, brings
us up to date.
Perhaps in no other state has geography dictated the development of
the state more than in North Dakota. North Dakota comprises an area
of 70,665 square miles (size of the six New England states and New
Jersey), and its geography is seen as four separate regions: the Red
River Valley, the Drift Prairie, the Missouri Plateau, and the Badlands.
The lowest point in North Dakota is 792
feet above sea level at Pembina in the
extreme northeast corner, and the highest
elevation is 3,506 feet above sea level at
White Butte in the southwest portion of t
state. North Dakota has been desc
as a rectangle approximately 335 miles
from east to west and 210 miles from north to south. It is bordered b
Minnesota on the east, Montana on the west, and South Dakota on the
h
ribed
y
e
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south. Its northern border forms part of the international boundary with
Canada, bordering the provinces of Manitoba and Saskatchewan.
North Dakota is considered to have a continental climatecold winters
ult of
n
The Red River Valley region lies along the eastern border with
t. The
The Drift Prairie is the next region westward. It has the second lowest
r
The Missouri Plateau covers the part of North Dakota which lies west
The Badlands, which lie in the southwestern corner of the Missouri Plateau,
e
and hot summers, low humidity, light rainfall, and much sunshine.
Extremes in temperatures may also abound. The climate is the res
North Dakota's location in the geographic center of North America.
There are few natural barriers on the northern Great Plains and the
winds move freely across the plains and account for rapid changes i
temperature.
Minnesota. It has the lowest elevation in the state and is very flavalley is part of the bed of an ancient glacial lake, Lake Agassiz. The
silt of the former lake bottom gives this valley some of the most fertile
soil in the world.
elevation in the state. Some parts of the region are flat while others are
hilly. The entire area is covered by glacial deposits or drift, which give it
rich soil. The area has many small prairie potholes or sloughs where
thousands of ducks and geese nest each year. The geographic cente
of North America is located in this region near the town of Rugby, in the
north central portion of the state, which is approximately 1,500 from the
Atlantic Ocean, Pacific Ocean, Gulf of Mexico, and the Arctic Ocean.
of the Drift Prairie extending to the western border with Montana. It hasthe highest elevation in the state, ranging from 2,000 to over 3,000 feet
above sea level. Much of the region was once covered by glaciers. The
area is hilly and contains minerals like oil and coal.
were not covered by glaciers. Wind and water have carved deep valleys in th
land, and the area features canyons, buttes, and bluffs colored with reds and
browns. Much of the rock in the Badlands is bright red scoria, which is the
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cinders of lignite coal that has burned underground. As the coal burned, the
rock became red.
Prior to the arrival of European explorers and fur traders in North
Dakota, at least seven different groups of Native Americans lived in
what is now North Dakota: the Assiniboine, Chippewa, Mandan,
Hidatsa, Arikara, Cheyenne and Yanktonai (branch of the Dakota). The
Cree also spent time in the area.
Although the Arikara, Hidatsa, and
Mandan spoke different languages,observed different customs, and lived
miles apart, there were numerous
similarities in their buildings and farming
methods. These three tribes, identified
today as the Three Affiliated Tribes, lived in permanent earthen lodges
along the Missouri River in central North Dakota. Primarily they were
farmers who grew corn, sunflowers, pumpkins, beans, and squash.
They hunted buffalo and other animals for extra food and also served
as "middlemen" in trade between other Native Americans.
The Assiniboine called themselves Nakoda (the people) or Nakota (the
generous ones) and were allies of the Cree. Their language is a dialect
of Dakota and they were typically large game hunters and lived in hide
tipis. The Dakota were their bitter enemies and they were considered
quite warlike. They were predominantly located in the northeastern
region of North Dakota and now reside across the border in Canada.
The Cheyenne were originally woodland dwellers, then semi-sedentary
plant growers associated with the Mandan, Arikara and Hidatsa. Later
they moved further west and developed into excellent horsemen and
buffalo hunters, and became, for a while, a great warrior nation. They
were very adaptable and inventive and eventually allied with theDakota.
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The Chippewa were originally forest dwellers, and the southern group
eventually settled in the Turtle and Pembina mountain areas of
northeastern North Dakota. The name Chippewa is the popular
adaptation of Ojibway. As they moved westward they came into conflict
with and defeated the Fox and Dakota who challenged them.
The Dakota are commonly known as Sioux or Dakota Sioux, but the
correct name is Lakota, and the fuller name is Teton Lakota. The word
Sioux is probably from the old Chippewa word for "enemies to the
west." The Dakota were originally a great nation, having three dialects
and seven major bands or council fires. To most non-Indians, the
Dakota are the classic example of the Plains Indian warriors. Ironically,
they were originally a shy forest people driven westward by the
Chippewa. By the mid to late 1800s, after obtaining horses and guns,
they became mighty warriors, driving out all tribes before them and
earning the respect of the whites due to their mastery of military tactics
and war.
The Cree were a huge, diverse band of hunters and occupied a large
part of Canada and parts of extreme eastern North Dakota. They were
friendly with the Chippewa, but fought the Iroquois and Dakota. The
majority of the Cree now live on reservations in Manitoba, Canada.
After signing treaties with the United States government from the
1850s to the 1870s, North Dakota Native Americans were placed on
several reservations. Many tribal members remain on these
reservations still today. There are five reservations in North Dakota,
two of which occupy land in both South and North Dakota. The Spirit
Lake Nation (Devils Lake Sioux) is located at Devils Lake, in east
central North Dakota. The Fort Berthold Reservation is home to the
Three Affiliated Tribes (Arikara, Hidatsa, and Mandan), and lies in the
west-central part of the state along the Missouri River. The Standing
Rock Reservation (Standing Rock Sioux) straddles both North and
South Dakota and is about forty miles south of Bismarck, North Dakota.
The Turtle Mountain Reservation (Chippewa and Metis) is the
northernmost reservation, just below Canada in north central North
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Dakota. The Sisseton Reservation (Sioux) is predominantly in South
Dakota, with just the northernmost edge in southeastern North Dakota.
The first Europeans to see North Dakota came in search of furs and awater route to the Pacific Ocean. One of the first to explore the region
was French Canadian Sieur de La Verendrye in 1738, when France
laid claim to much of North Dakota. He visited one of the Mandan
villages along the Missouri River near present-day Bismarck.
In 1803 the United States purchased this region from France in a
transaction called the Louisiana Purchase. In 1804 President Thomas
Jefferson sent Meriwether Lewis and William Clark to explore this
territory and find a route to the Pacific Ocean. The Lewis and Clark
Expedition wintered with the Mandan and Hidatsa Indians in 1804-
1805. They passed through the region again in 1806 on their return
from the Pacific. Lewis and Clark stayed longer in the region that
became North Dakota than in any other place through which they
traveled. Although many others explored after Lewis and Clark and
recorded their experiences, perhaps the most valuable record was
made by Prince Alexander Philipp Maximilian of Wied-Neuwied
(Prussia) and Karl Bodmer between 1832-1834. The records
Maximilian kept and the world famous paintings by Karl Bodmer during
their winter with the Mandans at the Knife River villages provides an in-
depth glimpse of Native American customs, culture and dress.
After the Lewis and Clark Expedition, therush to establish fur trading posts on the
Missouri River began. The Red River
Valley fur trade in the eastern part of the
state began to boom at about the same
time. Beaver and buffalo furs were among
the most popular items. The Red River
Valley was not part of the Louisiana Purchase, but it was ceded in1818 by the British to the United States.
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During the years of the fur trade, which was dominated by the English-based
Hudson Bay Company, many French traders took Chippewa or Cree wives.
Their children were called Metis (meh-tee). Many Metis lived near Pembina,
located in extreme northeast North Dakota, a major fur trading post and the
first European settlement in North Dakota.
As settlement of the northern Great Plains
increased, United States military presence also
increased to protect settlers. With the
establishment of the Dakota Territory in 1861,trespassing on traditional Native American land
continued and the establishment of military
forts increased. Between 1862 and 1872, the army built eight forts to
protect the settlers and people traveling west, to protect the workers
building the railroads, and to control the Native Americans, primarily
the Dakota.
In 1876, from Fort Abraham Lincoln (five miles south of present day
Mandan, North Dakota) on the banks of the Missouri, Colonel George
A. Custer lead the pursuit of Sitting Bull which ended with the Battle of
Little Big Horn. The increased presence of, and harassment by, the
military, coupled with an endless string of broken treaties with the
Native Americans, led to the military defeat of Native Americans and to
their confinement on reservations.
On March 2, 1861, the Congress of the
United States created the Dakota
Territory, which consisted of the present-
day states of North Dakota and South
Dakota, and most of Montana and
Wyoming. The name was taken from that
of the Dakota. In their language, Dakota
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means "allies." In 1863 the size of the territory was reduced to the area
of North and South Dakota. With increasing immigration and
settlement, by the late 1870s Dakotans felt inadequately represented
by territorial status and began pushing for statehood, either as one
state or two. By the late 1880s, northern Dakota had 19 0,000
residents and southern Dakota had over 340,000, population sizes that
justified statehood.
The Omnibus Bill of February 22, 1889, passed by Congress,
authorized framing of constitutions in Montana, North Dakota, South
Dakota, and Washington. On November 2, 1889, both North and South
Dakota were admitted to the United States. Since President Benjamin
Harrison did not want to show favoritism, after he signed the Act of
Admissions papers for North Dakota and South Dakota, he mixed them
up. Therefore, their order of admissions is listed alphabetically, with
North Dakota the 39th state and South Dakota the 40th state.
Most settlers came to North Dakota for free
or inexpensive land and the chance to farm.
Between 1879 and 1886 over 100,000
immigrants entered northern Dakota territory.
The second massive movement into the
state was between 1898 and 1915 when m
came into the state. While some of the earliest settlers came by ox-
drawn wagons, stagecoaches, or steamboats, the vast majority
on the railroad. Both the Northern Pacific and Great Northern railroads
advertised Dakota in Europe, promoting people to take the railroad
North Dakota and farm the rich land there.
ore than 250,000 persons
came
to
Most new settlers grew wheat, but did not have large farms. They
ral
maintaining trees on the prairie.
either bought their land from the railroad or they homesteaded fede
land. Homesteading involved living on and improving 160 acres of land
for a number of years, after which the settlers got the land for free.They could receive an additional 160 acres of land by planting and
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Large-scale farming occurred in eastern North Dakota from about 18
to 1890, when investors from the
75
eastern United States purchased
huge tracts of rich Red River Valley land. Much of it was acquired from
res.
the Northern Pacific Railway and operated as large farms growing "No.
1 Hard" wheat. These farms ranged in size from 3,000 to 65,000 ac
The farms earned such tremendous profits that they became known
across the United States as bonanza farms. On September 6, 1878,
even President Rutherford B. Hayes visited the bonanza farm of Oliver
Dalrymple near Casselton, North Dakota.
While a wheat bonanza was taking place in eastern North Dakota inthe 1880s, a cattle bonanza was occurring in western North Dakota.
Ranchers brought their cattle from the southern plains into the
d
d,
ising cattle. There were
streams, nutritious grasses which were good
o
a, near Medora. In 1883
. During the next five years
a."
e
of seventy-fivepercent dying. Ranching still continued, but on a much scaled-down
version, and ranchers avoided overstocking.
Badlands, where there was plenty of grass for their herds of cattle an
soon over a half million head of cattle were grazing in the region.
The Little Missouri River Valley, which had
been opened by the Northern Pacific Railroa
was an ideal area for ra
for winter grazing, and ravines and coulees
which provided shelter. The heart of cattle
country was the Badlands, stretching along the
Little Missouri River. The future President The
most famous person who ranched in that are
he bought his first ranch, the Maltese Cross
Roosevelt spent a few months of each year in the area, and kept a
small herd of cattle until 1898. Years later, he said, "I never would have
been President if it had not been for my experiences in North Dakot
The bonanza came to a crashing halt in 1886-1887 when winter cam
six weeks early, with blizzards in mid-November and freezing cold.
Cattle died by the tens of thousands, with estimates
dore Roosevelt was the
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From the time North Dakota was first settled,
farmers disliked having to deal with out-of-state
banks, grain companies, and railroad companies.
They also disliked the power these businesses
held in North Dakota politics. Farmers felt that
they were not being treated fairly. In 1915
) in
wnership of grain
of their problems.
outsiders.
1919 and built a state-
still in operation
1925,
because of internal disagreements and the economic depression of the
farmers formed the Nonpartisan League (NPL
North Dakota. NPL members thought that state o
elevators, flour mills, and banks would solve many
They trusted their own state more than they did
North Dakota began a state-owned bank in
owned mill and elevator in 1922, both of which are
today. Through the election of 1916 they took control of state
government but lost much of their power beginning in 1920. The NPL
did not solve as many farm problems as they had hoped. By
early 1920s, the NPL had lost much of its power.
Agriculture always has been and will continue to be the strength of
North Dakota. North Dakota produces more barley, sunflower seeds,
and flaxseed than any other state; ranks number two in wheat
production; and ranks among the leading producers of oats, rye, and
sugar beets. Beef cattle also are important to the economy. Croplandand pastures cover about 90 percent of
operating in 14 western counties, and
today it still remains an important export.
the state's total land area.
The state has tried to diversify its
economy. In the early 1950s oil was
discovered in the western part of the
state. By the 1970s oil wells were
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The state also has been using mo
1950s. Lignite coal is used to genera
electric power. Today, North Dakota h
resources in the United States. In 1
economic development commission tha
to the state. Industry has grown and creat
North Dakotans, but attracting industry rem
state lies so far from the nation's urban centers.
In July of 1997, a report based on FBI crime statistics ranked North
Dakota as the safest state in the nation, with the lowest violent crime
rate. Another report in July of 1997, from the Children's Rights Council,
ranked North Dakota as the best state to raise children. Their rating
was based on nine factors, including rates of high school graduates,
re of its
te over 90 percent of the state's
olds 80 percent of all lignite
957 North Dakota established an
t has worked to attract industry
ed thousands of jobs for
ains difficult because the
crime and divorce.
coal resources since the
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Most people viewing the farming images in the Fred Hultstrand and
F.A. Pazandak collections are probably not familiar with the various
farm implements shown and their functions. Through the combination
of text and images, we hope the viewer will gain a better understanding
of the farming process, especially as it was on the northern Great
Plains between 1880 and 1920.
Since the images in these collections were made, farming and farm
machinery have continued to evolve. The threshing machine has given
way to the combine, usually a self-propelled unit that either picks up
windrowed grain or cuts and threshes it in one step. The grain binder
has been replaced by the swather which cuts the grain and lays it on
the ground in windrows, allowing it to dry before being harvested by a
combine. Plows are not used nearly as extensively as before, due in
large part to the popularity of minimum tillage to reduce soil erosion
and conserve moisture. The disk harrow today is more often used after
harvesting to cut up the grain stubble left in the field. Although seed
drills are still used, the air seeder is becoming more popular with
farmers. Today's farm machinery allows farmers to cultivate many
more acres of land than at the time the images in these collections
were taken. As of 1998, the average North Dakota farm is about 1,300
acres compared to 460 acres in 1920, and the number of farms has
dropped from almost 78,000 in 1920 to a little under 30,000 today.
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Moldboard PlowFor a farmer to be able to plant different crops on his land, it is first
necessary to eliminate the natural vegetation. This is initially
accomplished through the use of a moldboard plow. The moldboard
plow has one or more metal shares which cut into the ground, and
overturn the surface vegetation. This action exposes the underlying
layer of soil humus, and begins the decomposition of the overturned
plant material. Moldboard plows are inherently required on unbroken
land, for without one, a farmer would not be able to plant a viable crop
on his land. The competition from the undesired natural vegetation
would starve the crop for necessary nutrients, and as a result the yield
of the farmer's crop would be drastically reduced. The plowing process
oftentimes occurs twice a year, once in the spring and once in the fall.
While spring plowing is accomplished to break up the soil for spring
planting, fall plowing is usually done to destroy plant diseases and
insects that use the previous year's crop as their sustenance.
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Disk HarrowAfter a field has been plowed, it still needs to be smoothed out and
leveled before it can be planted. With two gangs of individual round
disks, a disk harrow chops the sod furrows into smaller pieces. This
further damages the original vegetation's root system, and begins to
level the field for planting. Depending on the type of sod and plant root
system, it may take several passes by a disk harrow before a field is
smooth and level enough to be planted.
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Grain DrillOnce a field has been adequately leveled, and the sod has been
broken into small enough pieces (or the rocks have been removed if
the case may be), it is ready to be planted by the farmer. The type of
implement that a farmer uses to plant the field depends directly on the
type of crop he is going to plant. If the farmer has decided that he
wishes to plant a grain of some sort on his land, the implement that he
would choose is the grain drill. A grain drill has a series of individual
round disk openers which carve out a small trench for the grain seed to
be dropped into. As the wheels rotate, seed is augered from the seed
hopper, through the seed tubes, and into the small trench. Round trace
chains or spike-toothed drags follow the disk openers, fill in the small
trenches, and bury the seed in the soil.
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Grain inderAfter the grain has reached maturity in the late summer, it needs to be
harvested so that it can be sold by the farmer. There are several
implements that can be used to harvest grain, one of which is a grain
binder. Typically, grain binders were most common in the humid
Midwest where the grain dried unevenly, and it was necessary to have
additional drying before it was threshed. Early grain binders were all
ground-driven and pulled by a team of horses around the field. As the
horses pulled the grain binder forward, the driving wheel was rotated,
which powered the sickle and reel of the grain binder. As the reel
rotated, it bent the grain stalks inward towards the sickle, and the sickle
cut the grain stalks off a few inches above the ground. A cloth canvas
then conveyed the grain to a gear driven knotter which tied several
stalks together into a small bundle. After the grain bundle was tied, it
slid onto the bundle carrier, and was dropped onto the field. Following
close behind, field workers picked up the tied grain bundles and placed
several of them together to form a small tipi, which was called a
"shock." The grain bundles were placed in shocks so that the
unripened grain would have a chance to dry, and so that they would
easily shed water if they were rained on.
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Grain HeaderA grain header was another implement that a farmer had the option of
using when harvesting grain. Typically, headers were most common in
semi-arid grain-growing regions where the grain ripened and dried
more evenly in the field. Essentially, grain headers functioned in the
same way as grain binders except that they lacked a knotter
mechanism to tie the grain stalks into bundles, and they were usually
pushed instead of pulled by a team of horses. Precisely like a grain
binder, as the horses pushed the grain header forward, the driving
wheel was rotated, which powered the sickle and the reel. As the reel
rotated, it bent the grain stalks inward towards the sickle, and the sickle
cut the them off several inches above the ground. A cloth canvas then
conveyed the cut grain up an incline and into an open sided wagon
which was trailing alongside. By eliminating the shocking process,
grain headers drastically increased the efficiency of grain harvesting,
but they could only be used in semi-arid areas where the grain ripened
more evenly.
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Threshing MachineAfter the grain had ripened sufficiently in the shocks, it was ready to be
threshed so that the farmer could sell it. The threshing process, where
grain was removed from the stalks, was accomplished through the use
of a threshing machine. Large farmers usually owned their own
threshing machines, but many times farmers depended on custom
threshermen to do the threshing for them. Regardless of machine
ownership, however, the threshing process required a huge amount of
labor. Each member of the threshing crew had a specific job to
accomplish when the threshing rig arrived.
The steam engineer set it up in a location close to the grain field, orwhere the farmer wished to have the straw blown. Next, the steam
engine was belted up to the threshing machine, and all the pre-
threshing maintenance was completed on the threshing machine.
Concurrently and after the threshing machine was started, a team of
workers called "bundle haulers" went out into the field and loaded
shocks onto a horse-drawn wagon. After the wagon was filled, the
bundle haulers then brought it up to the spot where the threshing
machine was set up.
Soon the threshing machine was started, and men standing on top of
the wagon pitched down the grain bundles into the threshing machine's
bundle feeder. The conveying chain of the bundle feeder then
transported the grain bundles into the threshing machine cylinder
where most of the grain was separated from the stalks. The separated
grain fell to the bottom of the threshing machine, while chaff and dust
was removed by a fan as it descended. An elevator on the threshing
machine then transported the loose grain into a grain wagon parked
nearby or into individual bags, depending on the method that the
farmer preferred. After the straw went through the cylinder, it was
continually battered as it progressed along, ensuring that all the grain
was removed from the stalks. At the rear of the threshing machine,
after the straw had passed over the straw walkers, it was deposited in
a fan housing which propelled the straw through the blower and into
the straw stack. This series of machine processes was repeated
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continuously, until all of the farmer's grain was threshed. Overall, while
there definitely was an immense amount of labor involved in the use of
a threshing machine, it drastically improved the efficiency and capacity
of the threshing process over previous methods.