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MEANING OF MOTIVATION
The term motivation has been derived from the word motive.
Motive is anything that initiates or sustains activity. It is an inner state
that energises activates or moves and that directs or channels
behaviour toward goals. Motive is a psychological force within an
individual that sets him in motion. Behind every human action there is a
motive.
Motivation is the process of steering a person!s inner drives and
actions towards certain goals and committing his energies to achieve
these goals. It involves a chain reaction starting with felt needs resulting
in motives which give rise to tension "unfulfilled desires# which causes
action towards goals. It is the process of stimulating people to strive
willingly towards the achievement of organisational goals.
Motivation may be defined as the wor$ a manager performs in
order to induce subordinates to act in the desired manner by satisfying
their needs and desires. Thus motivation is concerned with how
behaviour gets started is energi%ed substance and directed
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DEFINITION
According to E.F.L. Brech
&Motivation is a general inspirational process which gets the members of
the team to pull their weight effectively to give their loyalty to the group
to carry out properly ttas$s that they have accepted and generally to
play an effective part in the 'ob that the group has underta$en.
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NATURE OF MOTIVATIONS
i) Moti!tion i" ! per"on!# !nd intern!# $ee#ing
Motivation is a psychological phenomenon which generates within
an individual. Motives are the energetic forces within a person that
drive him to action.
ii) Moti!tion prod%ce" go!#&directed 'eh!io%r
Motivation is a behavioural concept that directs human behaviour
towards certain goals.
iii) Moti!tion i" ! contin%o%" proce""
(uman needs are unlimited. Therefore motivation is an ongoing
process.
i) Moti!tion i" co(p#e*
Individual differ in their motivation. Different people see$ different
things or they wor$ for different reasons. (uman needs and
motives are varied and they change from time to time.
) Moti!tion c!n 'e either po"itie or neg!tie
)ositive motivation implies use of pay incentives etc. to satisfy
human needs while negative motivation emphasi%es penalties
e.g. reprimands threat of demotion fear of loss of 'ob etc.
i) Moti!tion i" di$$erent $ro( +o' "!ti"$!ction
Motivation is the drive to satisfy a want and it is concerned with
goal directed behaviour.
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T-EORIES OF MOTIVATION
+ome of the popular theories of motivation are given below-
Need -ier!rch Theor
braham (. Maslow an eminent merican psychologist
developed a general theory of motivation $now as the /Need hierarchy
theory.
0. The urge to fulfill needs is a prime factor in motivation of people at
wor$.
1. (uman needs form a particular structure or hierarchy
2. It is a process as soon as one need is satisfied another need
emerges.
3. 4ach higher level need emerges before the lower level need is
completely satisfied.
s shown in 5ig. there are five categories of human needs-
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CRITICAL A,,RAISAL
i# Needs are not the only determinant of behaviour.
ii# The theory gives an oversimplification of human needs and
motivation.
iii# The hierarchy of needs is not always fi6ed.
Despite these limitations Maslow!s theory has a commonsense
appeal for managers. It is still relevant because needs are important for
understanding behaviour.
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-er4'erg5" Moti!tion -giene Theor
In the late fifties 5rederic$ (er%berg and his associates conducted
interviews of 188 engineers and accountants in the )ittsburgh area of
the 9nited +tates. These persons were as$ed to related elements of
their 'obs which made them happy or unhappy. n analysis of their
answers revealed that feelings of unhappiness or dissatisfaction were
related to the environment in which people were wor$ing.
ccording to (er%berg maintenance or hygiene factors are
necessary to maintain a reasonable level of satisfaction among
employees.
T!'#e 3./
:n the other hand motivational factors are intrinsic parts of the
'ob. ny increase in these factors will satisfy the employees and help to
improve performance. But a decrease in these factors will not cause
dissatisfaction.
M!inten!nce F!ctor" Moti!ting F!ctor"
Company )olicy and dministration chievementTechnical +upervision ;ecognition
Inter7personal relation with peers dvancementInter7relationship with supervisors :pportunity for growthInter7relationship with subordinates ;esponsibility+alary
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Critic!# !ppr!i"!#
(er%berg!s theory has been critici%ed on the following grounds-
0. The theory is based on a small sample of 188 accountants and
engineers which is not representative of the wor$ force in general.
:ther researchers have drawn different results from similar
studies.
1. (erberg!s model is method bound and is limited by the critical
incident method used to obtain information.
2. The theory focuses too much attention on satisfaction rather than
on performance level.
3. The distinction between maintenance factors and motivating
factors is not fi6ed.
McGregor5" Theor 6 !nd Theor 7
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)rof. Douglas Mc>regor has developed a theory of motivation on
the basis of hyphotheses relating to human behaviour. ccording to
Mc>regor the function of motivating people involves certain
assumptions about human nature. There are two alternative sets of
assumptions which Mc>regor has described as Theory ? and Theory @.
Theor 6
Theory ? of motivation is based on the following assumptions-
0. The average individual is by nature indolent and will avoid wor$ if
he can.
1. The average personlac$s ambition disli$es responsibility and
prefers to be led.
2. n average human being is inherently self7centred and indifferent
to organi%ational goals not be to concerned.
3. Most people are by nature resistant to change and want security
above all.
A. The average individual is guhible not very bright the ready victim
of the schemer.
The above assumptions are negative in nature. Therefore ? is a
conventional or traditional approach to motivation. ccording to
Mc>regor an organi%ation built upon Theory /?! notions will be one in
which there is close supervision and control of subordinates and high
centrali%ation of authority. Leadership in such an organi%ation will tend
to be autocratic and wor$ers will have very little "if any# say in decisions
affecting them. The clime in a Theory ? organi%ation would be
impersonal 7 this theory implies use of /carrot and stic$ approach!.
Theor 7
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The assumptions of Theory @ are described by Mc>regor in the
following words-
0. The e6penditure of physical and mental effort in wor$ is natural as
play or rest. The average human being does not inherently disli$e.
1. 46ternal control and the threat of punishment are not the only
means for bringing about effort towards orgnisational ob'ectives.
2. Commitment to ob'ectives is a function of the reward associated
with their achievement. The most significant of such awards e.g.
the satisfaction of ego and self7actualisation needs can be direct
product of effort directed towards orgnisational ob'ectives.
3. The average human being learns under proper conditions not only
to accept but to see$ responsibility.
A. the capacity to e6ercise a relatively high degree of imagination
ingenuity and creativity in the solution of organi%ational problems
is widely not narrowly distributed in the population.
The assumption of Theory @ suggest a new approach in
management. It emphasi%es on the co7operative endeavour of
management and employees. The attempt is to get ma6imum output
with minimum amount of control and direction. >enerally no conflict is
visible between organi%ational goals and individual goals. Thus the
attempts of employees which are in their best interests are also in the
interests of organi%ation.
Critic!# Appr!i"!#
Mc>regor!s theory has been critici%ed for various reasons.
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0. It tends to over greneralise and over7simplify people as being one
way or the other. The theory overloo$s the comple6 nature of
human beings.
1. In this theory s,uee%es all managerial styles and philosophies into
two e6tremes of conduct which is devoid of reality.
2. In this theory all persons do not loo$ for motivation in the 'ob and
not all wor$ can be made intrinsically challenging and rewarding.
3. +ome managers may have Theory @ assumptions about human
nature.
E8%it Theor
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4,uity theory of motivation was formulated by =. +tacy dams of
the 9nited +tates in 0A. The theory is based on the assumption that
members of employers. There are two main variables in this theory
input and outcomes. Inputs are the contributions which an individual
perceives that he puts into his 'ob. :utcomes are the rewards which
the individual receives from the organi%ation and from his 'ob. Inputs
include the employee!s training e6perience special $nowledge
personal characteristics etc. :utcomes consist of pay promotion
recognition status fringe benefits etc.
inputssOther
outcomesOthers
sinputsPerson
outcomessPersonEquity
,
,
,,
,==
The main postulates of the e,uity theory are as follows-
a# )erceived ine,uity creates tension in the individual.
b# The amount of tension is proportional to the magnitude of the
ine,uity.
c# The tension created in the individual motivates himEher to reduceit.
d# The degree of motivation is proportional to the perceived ine,uity.
Critic!# Appr!i"!#"
4,uity theory suffers from several limitations-
0. The theory is somewhat narrow in its emphasis on visible rewards
and overstresses conscious processes.
1. The theory is easily understood but its application is difficult.
There are no good measures to assess the perceptions of ine,uity
tension in an individual.
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2. :ne of the wea$est elements of e,uity theory is its analysis of the
process by which individuals choose comparison with others. The
process by which individuals decide whom to compare themselves
with is not clear.
3. 4,uity theory is not a complete theory of motivation but deals
only with one particular aspect "e,uity# of motivation.
In spite of these drawbac$s e,uity theory is useful particularly in
the formulation of compensation policies and practices.
Vroo(5" Epect!nc Theor
Froom!s e6pectancy model of motivation is built around the
concepts of valence e6pectancy and instrumentality.
V!#ence
Falence implies the strength of a person!s desire or preference for
a particular outcome. It is importance or value that an individual places
on the potential outcomes or reward. 5or e6ample a person desires
promotion and feels that superior performance is a very strong factor in
achieving his goal. (is first level outcome is superior performance and
his second level outcome is promotion. person would be motivated
towards superior performance because of the valence for promotion.
Epect!nc
It implies the e6tent to which a person believes that his effort will
lead to high performance. It is the possibility that a particular action will
lead to the first level outcome. Managers can improve e6pectancy by
matching 'obs to people.
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In"tr%(ent!##
It implies the degree to which a first level outcome will lead to a
desired second level outcome. In the above e6ample superior
performance is being seen as instrumentality in getting promotion.
Instrumentality is the relationship between first level outcome
"performance# and second level outcome "promotion#.
Motivation "force # G Falence 6 46pectancy 6 Instrumentality.
Critic!# Appr!i"!#
Froom!s model recogni%es individual differences in wor$
motivation. It recogni%es the comple6ities of wor$ motivation and does
not present an over7simplified approach. (owever the theory suffers
from the following limitations.
0. The theory is difficult to research and apply in practice. It is
primarily a theory for the scholar rather than for the practitioner.
1. The theory has not been fully tested empirically. Most studies
underta$en to test its viability have been only marginallysuccessful.
2. It is overly rational as it is based upon a rational economic view of
people.
Despite these limitations Froom!s theory holds great promise for
predicting behaviour in organi%ations. This promise arises due to the
model!s vigour of formulation relative ease of ma$ing the concepts
operational and emphasis on individual differences.
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CLOSING COMMENTS
Motivation is one of the most important factors affecting human
behaviour. Motivation not only affects other cognitive factors li$e
perception and learning but affects the total performance of an individual
in organi%ational setting.
caution for grouping various theories into categories is that
there may be overlapping in this grouping. Farious theories of motivation
approach the problems of motivation from different perspectives but
they all emphasi%e similar set of relationships. These relationships are
the individual his needs his perception of how he will be able to satisfy
his needs and whether his need satisfaction is e,uitable.
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LIMITATIONS
Action&B!"ed Orient!tion
Too many companies place great value on management theories and
fancy presentations 77 but little value on action. Leaders in business
organi%ations must go beyond research to actually implement
motivational strategies. There are a number of ways to create an action7
based orientation within teams. In employee communications use
action7oriented language that is simple clear direct and values common
sense. 5ollow up to ensure decisions are implemented. lso refuse to
accept e6cuses for why things will not wor$. Instead encourage
employees to thin$ of actions to overcome challenges.
Recogni4ing S%cce""
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;emember an attempt often facilitates the learning process and
modification may be an option. This does not mean avoid giving
negative feedbac$ to poor performers because this can create a
phenomenon described as the feedbac$ gap by management academic
directors +herry 4. Moss and =uan I. +anche%. Instead motivate
employees by sharing failures in a way that communicates permission to
ta$e ris$. Do not however tolerate humiliation at any level.
S"te(ic Ch!##enge"
The policies and procedures within a business organi%ation can eithermotivate and inspire an employee or demorali%e and demotivate him.
bsenteeism and unmet performance ob'ectives are a couple of signs
that business systems may need to be revisited. 5or e6ample
recogni%ing the impact of increased business demands on current
processes can go a long way in motivating employees. In such
instances management sends a message ac$nowledging the impact of
e6ternal factors on a teamHs productivity. There is nothing more
damaging to an employeeHs motivation than unrealistic business
demands that goes unac$nowledged by business leaders.
Le!der"hip
Monitoring the motivation of teams is a continuous process. +uccessful
leaders foster positive environments that can facilitate an employeeHs
learning process and increase his productivity. Do not let research
paralysis set in to stymie a teamHs potential for success. ;emember
actions spea$ louder than words.
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CONCLUSION
Motivating employees is an important role for managers. This case study
illustrates how in amodern engineering environment li$e +iemens the
wor$ of Maslow and (er%berg applies more than TaylorHs.
In the past as the wor$ of 5rederic$ Taylor illustrated motivation theory
lin$ed very closely to pay and output. Individuals now need to be
motivated in a completely different way. They have higher order needs.
This was illustrated through the wor$ of braham Maslow.
5rederic$ (er%berg discovered there are also elements within the
wor$place that both satisfy and dissatisfy employees.
Lower order needs are met by the organisation providing good pay and
a safe wor$ing environment. (igher order needs are also provided for its
engineers through training and development as well as the opportunity
to underta$e creative and challenging wor$.
+iemens employees are motivated by being recognised for their
achievements and by having opportunities for progression regardless of
the level at which they started wor$ing for +iemens.
BIBLIOGRA,-7
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0. Management Theory )ractice by C.B. >upta.
1. :rgani%ation behaviour by L.M. )arsad.