![Page 1: Maximum Likelihood (ML), Expectation Maximization (EM)pabbeel/cs287-fa13/slides/... · Maximum Likelihood (ML), Expectation Maximization (EM) Pieter Abbeel UC Berkeley EECS Many slides](https://reader031.vdocuments.us/reader031/viewer/2022022422/5a9179f27f8b9a18628b5a7e/html5/thumbnails/1.jpg)
Maximum Likelihood (ML), Expectation Maximization (EM)
Pieter Abbeel UC Berkeley EECS
Many slides adapted from Thrun, Burgard and Fox, Probabilistic Robotics
TexPoint fonts used in EMF. Read the TexPoint manual before you delete this box.: AAAAAAAAAAAAA
![Page 2: Maximum Likelihood (ML), Expectation Maximization (EM)pabbeel/cs287-fa13/slides/... · Maximum Likelihood (ML), Expectation Maximization (EM) Pieter Abbeel UC Berkeley EECS Many slides](https://reader031.vdocuments.us/reader031/viewer/2022022422/5a9179f27f8b9a18628b5a7e/html5/thumbnails/2.jpg)
n Maximum likelihood (ML)
n Priors, and maximum a posteriori (MAP)
n Cross-validation
n Expectation Maximization (EM)
Outline
![Page 3: Maximum Likelihood (ML), Expectation Maximization (EM)pabbeel/cs287-fa13/slides/... · Maximum Likelihood (ML), Expectation Maximization (EM) Pieter Abbeel UC Berkeley EECS Many slides](https://reader031.vdocuments.us/reader031/viewer/2022022422/5a9179f27f8b9a18628b5a7e/html5/thumbnails/3.jpg)
n Let µ = P(up), 1-µ = P(down)
n How to determine µ ?
n Empirical estimate: 8 up, 2 down à
Thumbtack
![Page 4: Maximum Likelihood (ML), Expectation Maximization (EM)pabbeel/cs287-fa13/slides/... · Maximum Likelihood (ML), Expectation Maximization (EM) Pieter Abbeel UC Berkeley EECS Many slides](https://reader031.vdocuments.us/reader031/viewer/2022022422/5a9179f27f8b9a18628b5a7e/html5/thumbnails/4.jpg)
n http://web.me.com/todd6ton/Site/Classroom_Blog/Entries/2009/10/7_A_Thumbtack_Experiment.html
![Page 5: Maximum Likelihood (ML), Expectation Maximization (EM)pabbeel/cs287-fa13/slides/... · Maximum Likelihood (ML), Expectation Maximization (EM) Pieter Abbeel UC Berkeley EECS Many slides](https://reader031.vdocuments.us/reader031/viewer/2022022422/5a9179f27f8b9a18628b5a7e/html5/thumbnails/5.jpg)
n µ = P(up), 1-µ = P(down)
n Observe:
n Likelihood of the observation sequence depends on µ:
n Maximum likelihood finds
à extrema at µ = 0, µ = 1, µ = 0.8
à Inspection of each extremum yields µML = 0.8
Maximum Likelihood
![Page 6: Maximum Likelihood (ML), Expectation Maximization (EM)pabbeel/cs287-fa13/slides/... · Maximum Likelihood (ML), Expectation Maximization (EM) Pieter Abbeel UC Berkeley EECS Many slides](https://reader031.vdocuments.us/reader031/viewer/2022022422/5a9179f27f8b9a18628b5a7e/html5/thumbnails/6.jpg)
n More generally, consider binary-valued random variable with µ = P(1), 1-µ = P(0), assume we observe n1 ones, and n0 zeros
n Likelihood:
n Derivative:
n Hence we have for the extrema:
n n1/(n0+n1) is the maximum
n = empirical counts.
Maximum Likelihood
![Page 7: Maximum Likelihood (ML), Expectation Maximization (EM)pabbeel/cs287-fa13/slides/... · Maximum Likelihood (ML), Expectation Maximization (EM) Pieter Abbeel UC Berkeley EECS Many slides](https://reader031.vdocuments.us/reader031/viewer/2022022422/5a9179f27f8b9a18628b5a7e/html5/thumbnails/7.jpg)
n The function
is a monotonically increasing function of x
n Hence for any (positive-valued) function f:
n In practice often more convenient to optimize the log-likelihood rather than the likelihood itself
n Example:
Log-likelihood
![Page 8: Maximum Likelihood (ML), Expectation Maximization (EM)pabbeel/cs287-fa13/slides/... · Maximum Likelihood (ML), Expectation Maximization (EM) Pieter Abbeel UC Berkeley EECS Many slides](https://reader031.vdocuments.us/reader031/viewer/2022022422/5a9179f27f8b9a18628b5a7e/html5/thumbnails/8.jpg)
n Reconsider thumbtacks: 8 up, 2 down
n Likelihood
n Definition: A function f is concave if and only
n Concave functions are generally easier to maximize then non-concave functions
Log-likelihood ßà Likelihood
n log-likelihood
Concave Not Concave
![Page 9: Maximum Likelihood (ML), Expectation Maximization (EM)pabbeel/cs287-fa13/slides/... · Maximum Likelihood (ML), Expectation Maximization (EM) Pieter Abbeel UC Berkeley EECS Many slides](https://reader031.vdocuments.us/reader031/viewer/2022022422/5a9179f27f8b9a18628b5a7e/html5/thumbnails/9.jpg)
f is concave if and only
“Easy” to maximize
Concavity and Convexity
x1 x2 ¸ x2+(1-¸)x2
f is convex if and only
“Easy” to minimize
x1 x2 ¸ x2+(1-¸)x2
![Page 10: Maximum Likelihood (ML), Expectation Maximization (EM)pabbeel/cs287-fa13/slides/... · Maximum Likelihood (ML), Expectation Maximization (EM) Pieter Abbeel UC Berkeley EECS Many slides](https://reader031.vdocuments.us/reader031/viewer/2022022422/5a9179f27f8b9a18628b5a7e/html5/thumbnails/10.jpg)
n Consider having received samples
ML for Multinomial
![Page 11: Maximum Likelihood (ML), Expectation Maximization (EM)pabbeel/cs287-fa13/slides/... · Maximum Likelihood (ML), Expectation Maximization (EM) Pieter Abbeel UC Berkeley EECS Many slides](https://reader031.vdocuments.us/reader031/viewer/2022022422/5a9179f27f8b9a18628b5a7e/html5/thumbnails/11.jpg)
n Given samples
n Dynamics model:
n Observation model:
à Independent ML problems for each and each
ML for Fully Observed HMM
![Page 12: Maximum Likelihood (ML), Expectation Maximization (EM)pabbeel/cs287-fa13/slides/... · Maximum Likelihood (ML), Expectation Maximization (EM) Pieter Abbeel UC Berkeley EECS Many slides](https://reader031.vdocuments.us/reader031/viewer/2022022422/5a9179f27f8b9a18628b5a7e/html5/thumbnails/12.jpg)
n Consider having received samples
n 3.1, 8.2, 1.7
ML for Exponential Distribution Source: wikipedia
ll
![Page 13: Maximum Likelihood (ML), Expectation Maximization (EM)pabbeel/cs287-fa13/slides/... · Maximum Likelihood (ML), Expectation Maximization (EM) Pieter Abbeel UC Berkeley EECS Many slides](https://reader031.vdocuments.us/reader031/viewer/2022022422/5a9179f27f8b9a18628b5a7e/html5/thumbnails/13.jpg)
n Consider having received samples
n
ML for Exponential Distribution Source: wikipedia
![Page 14: Maximum Likelihood (ML), Expectation Maximization (EM)pabbeel/cs287-fa13/slides/... · Maximum Likelihood (ML), Expectation Maximization (EM) Pieter Abbeel UC Berkeley EECS Many slides](https://reader031.vdocuments.us/reader031/viewer/2022022422/5a9179f27f8b9a18628b5a7e/html5/thumbnails/14.jpg)
n Consider having received samples
n
Uniform
![Page 15: Maximum Likelihood (ML), Expectation Maximization (EM)pabbeel/cs287-fa13/slides/... · Maximum Likelihood (ML), Expectation Maximization (EM) Pieter Abbeel UC Berkeley EECS Many slides](https://reader031.vdocuments.us/reader031/viewer/2022022422/5a9179f27f8b9a18628b5a7e/html5/thumbnails/15.jpg)
n Consider having received samples
n
ML for Gaussian
![Page 16: Maximum Likelihood (ML), Expectation Maximization (EM)pabbeel/cs287-fa13/slides/... · Maximum Likelihood (ML), Expectation Maximization (EM) Pieter Abbeel UC Berkeley EECS Many slides](https://reader031.vdocuments.us/reader031/viewer/2022022422/5a9179f27f8b9a18628b5a7e/html5/thumbnails/16.jpg)
Equivalently:
More generally:
ML for Conditional Gaussian
![Page 17: Maximum Likelihood (ML), Expectation Maximization (EM)pabbeel/cs287-fa13/slides/... · Maximum Likelihood (ML), Expectation Maximization (EM) Pieter Abbeel UC Berkeley EECS Many slides](https://reader031.vdocuments.us/reader031/viewer/2022022422/5a9179f27f8b9a18628b5a7e/html5/thumbnails/17.jpg)
ML for Conditional Gaussian
![Page 18: Maximum Likelihood (ML), Expectation Maximization (EM)pabbeel/cs287-fa13/slides/... · Maximum Likelihood (ML), Expectation Maximization (EM) Pieter Abbeel UC Berkeley EECS Many slides](https://reader031.vdocuments.us/reader031/viewer/2022022422/5a9179f27f8b9a18628b5a7e/html5/thumbnails/18.jpg)
ML for Conditional Multivariate Gaussian
![Page 19: Maximum Likelihood (ML), Expectation Maximization (EM)pabbeel/cs287-fa13/slides/... · Maximum Likelihood (ML), Expectation Maximization (EM) Pieter Abbeel UC Berkeley EECS Many slides](https://reader031.vdocuments.us/reader031/viewer/2022022422/5a9179f27f8b9a18628b5a7e/html5/thumbnails/19.jpg)
Aside: Key Identities for Derivation on Previous Slide
![Page 20: Maximum Likelihood (ML), Expectation Maximization (EM)pabbeel/cs287-fa13/slides/... · Maximum Likelihood (ML), Expectation Maximization (EM) Pieter Abbeel UC Berkeley EECS Many slides](https://reader031.vdocuments.us/reader031/viewer/2022022422/5a9179f27f8b9a18628b5a7e/html5/thumbnails/20.jpg)
n Consider the Linear Gaussian setting:
n Fully observed, i.e., given
n à Two separate ML estimation problems for conditional multivariate Gaussian:
n 1:
n 2:
ML Estimation in Fully Observed Linear Gaussian Bayes Filter Setting
![Page 21: Maximum Likelihood (ML), Expectation Maximization (EM)pabbeel/cs287-fa13/slides/... · Maximum Likelihood (ML), Expectation Maximization (EM) Pieter Abbeel UC Berkeley EECS Many slides](https://reader031.vdocuments.us/reader031/viewer/2022022422/5a9179f27f8b9a18628b5a7e/html5/thumbnails/21.jpg)
n Let µ = P(up), 1-µ = P(down)
n How to determine µ ?
n ML estimate: 5 up, 0 down à
n Laplace estimate: add a fake count of 1 for each outcome
Priors --- Thumbtack
![Page 22: Maximum Likelihood (ML), Expectation Maximization (EM)pabbeel/cs287-fa13/slides/... · Maximum Likelihood (ML), Expectation Maximization (EM) Pieter Abbeel UC Berkeley EECS Many slides](https://reader031.vdocuments.us/reader031/viewer/2022022422/5a9179f27f8b9a18628b5a7e/html5/thumbnails/22.jpg)
n Alternatively, consider µ to be random variable
n Prior P(µ) / µ(1-µ)
n Measurements: P( x | µ )
n Posterior:
n Maximum A Posterior (MAP) estimation
n = find µ that maximizes the posterior
à
Priors --- Thumbtack
![Page 23: Maximum Likelihood (ML), Expectation Maximization (EM)pabbeel/cs287-fa13/slides/... · Maximum Likelihood (ML), Expectation Maximization (EM) Pieter Abbeel UC Berkeley EECS Many slides](https://reader031.vdocuments.us/reader031/viewer/2022022422/5a9179f27f8b9a18628b5a7e/html5/thumbnails/23.jpg)
Priors --- Beta Distribution
Figure source: Wikipedia
![Page 24: Maximum Likelihood (ML), Expectation Maximization (EM)pabbeel/cs287-fa13/slides/... · Maximum Likelihood (ML), Expectation Maximization (EM) Pieter Abbeel UC Berkeley EECS Many slides](https://reader031.vdocuments.us/reader031/viewer/2022022422/5a9179f27f8b9a18628b5a7e/html5/thumbnails/24.jpg)
n Generalizes Beta distribution
n MAP estimate corresponds to adding fake counts n1, …, nK
Priors --- Dirichlet Distribution
![Page 25: Maximum Likelihood (ML), Expectation Maximization (EM)pabbeel/cs287-fa13/slides/... · Maximum Likelihood (ML), Expectation Maximization (EM) Pieter Abbeel UC Berkeley EECS Many slides](https://reader031.vdocuments.us/reader031/viewer/2022022422/5a9179f27f8b9a18628b5a7e/html5/thumbnails/25.jpg)
n Assume variance known. (Can be extended to also find MAP for variance.)
n Prior:
MAP for Mean of Univariate Gaussian
![Page 26: Maximum Likelihood (ML), Expectation Maximization (EM)pabbeel/cs287-fa13/slides/... · Maximum Likelihood (ML), Expectation Maximization (EM) Pieter Abbeel UC Berkeley EECS Many slides](https://reader031.vdocuments.us/reader031/viewer/2022022422/5a9179f27f8b9a18628b5a7e/html5/thumbnails/26.jpg)
n Assume variance known. (Can be extended to also find MAP for variance.)
n Prior:
MAP for Univariate Conditional Linear Gaussian
[Interpret!]
![Page 27: Maximum Likelihood (ML), Expectation Maximization (EM)pabbeel/cs287-fa13/slides/... · Maximum Likelihood (ML), Expectation Maximization (EM) Pieter Abbeel UC Berkeley EECS Many slides](https://reader031.vdocuments.us/reader031/viewer/2022022422/5a9179f27f8b9a18628b5a7e/html5/thumbnails/27.jpg)
MAP for Univariate Conditional Linear Gaussian: Example
TRUE --- Samples . ML --- MAP ---
![Page 28: Maximum Likelihood (ML), Expectation Maximization (EM)pabbeel/cs287-fa13/slides/... · Maximum Likelihood (ML), Expectation Maximization (EM) Pieter Abbeel UC Berkeley EECS Many slides](https://reader031.vdocuments.us/reader031/viewer/2022022422/5a9179f27f8b9a18628b5a7e/html5/thumbnails/28.jpg)
n Choice of prior will heavily influence quality of result
n Fine-tune choice of prior through cross-validation:
n 1. Split data into “training” set and “validation” set
n 2. For a range of priors, n Train: compute µMAP on training set n Cross-validate: evaluate performance on validation set by evaluating
the likelihood of the validation data under µMAP just found
n 3. Choose prior with highest validation score n For this prior, compute µMAP on (training+validation) set
n Typical training / validation splits:
n 1-fold: 70/30, random split
n 10-fold: partition into 10 sets, average performance for each of the sets being the validation set and the other 9 being the training set
Cross Validation
![Page 29: Maximum Likelihood (ML), Expectation Maximization (EM)pabbeel/cs287-fa13/slides/... · Maximum Likelihood (ML), Expectation Maximization (EM) Pieter Abbeel UC Berkeley EECS Many slides](https://reader031.vdocuments.us/reader031/viewer/2022022422/5a9179f27f8b9a18628b5a7e/html5/thumbnails/29.jpg)
n Maximum likelihood (ML)
n Priors, and maximum a posteriori (MAP)
n Cross-validation
n Expectation Maximization (EM)
Outline
![Page 30: Maximum Likelihood (ML), Expectation Maximization (EM)pabbeel/cs287-fa13/slides/... · Maximum Likelihood (ML), Expectation Maximization (EM) Pieter Abbeel UC Berkeley EECS Many slides](https://reader031.vdocuments.us/reader031/viewer/2022022422/5a9179f27f8b9a18628b5a7e/html5/thumbnails/30.jpg)
n Generally:
n Example:
n ML Objective: given data z(1), …, z(m)
n Setting derivatives w.r.t. µ, µ, § equal to zero does not enable to solve for their ML estimates in closed form
We can evaluate function à we can in principle perform local optimization. In this lecture: “EM” algorithm, which is typically used to efficiently optimize the objective (locally)
Mixture of Gaussians
![Page 31: Maximum Likelihood (ML), Expectation Maximization (EM)pabbeel/cs287-fa13/slides/... · Maximum Likelihood (ML), Expectation Maximization (EM) Pieter Abbeel UC Berkeley EECS Many slides](https://reader031.vdocuments.us/reader031/viewer/2022022422/5a9179f27f8b9a18628b5a7e/html5/thumbnails/31.jpg)
n Example:
n Model:
n Goal: n Given data z(1), …, z(m) (but no x(i) observed) n Find maximum likelihood estimates of µ1, µ2
n EM basic idea: if x(i) were known à two easy-to-solve separate ML problems
n EM iterates over n E-step: For i=1,…,m fill in missing data x(i) according to what is most
likely given the current model µ
n M-step: run ML for completed data, which gives new model µ
Expectation Maximization (EM)
![Page 32: Maximum Likelihood (ML), Expectation Maximization (EM)pabbeel/cs287-fa13/slides/... · Maximum Likelihood (ML), Expectation Maximization (EM) Pieter Abbeel UC Berkeley EECS Many slides](https://reader031.vdocuments.us/reader031/viewer/2022022422/5a9179f27f8b9a18628b5a7e/html5/thumbnails/32.jpg)
n EM solves a Maximum Likelihood problem of the form:
µ: parameters of the probabilistic model we try to find x: unobserved variables z: observed variables
EM Derivation
Jensen’s Inequality
![Page 33: Maximum Likelihood (ML), Expectation Maximization (EM)pabbeel/cs287-fa13/slides/... · Maximum Likelihood (ML), Expectation Maximization (EM) Pieter Abbeel UC Berkeley EECS Many slides](https://reader031.vdocuments.us/reader031/viewer/2022022422/5a9179f27f8b9a18628b5a7e/html5/thumbnails/33.jpg)
Jensen’s inequality
x1 x2 E[X] = ¸ x2+(1-¸)x2
Illustration: P(X=x1) = 1-¸, P(X=x2) = ¸
![Page 34: Maximum Likelihood (ML), Expectation Maximization (EM)pabbeel/cs287-fa13/slides/... · Maximum Likelihood (ML), Expectation Maximization (EM) Pieter Abbeel UC Berkeley EECS Many slides](https://reader031.vdocuments.us/reader031/viewer/2022022422/5a9179f27f8b9a18628b5a7e/html5/thumbnails/34.jpg)
EM Algorithm: Iterate
1. E-step: Compute
2. M-step: Compute
EM Derivation (ctd)
Jensen’s Inequality: equality holds when is an affine function. This is achieved for
M-step optimization can be done efficiently in most cases E-step is usually the more expensive step It does not fill in the missing data x with hard values, but finds a distribution q(x)
![Page 35: Maximum Likelihood (ML), Expectation Maximization (EM)pabbeel/cs287-fa13/slides/... · Maximum Likelihood (ML), Expectation Maximization (EM) Pieter Abbeel UC Berkeley EECS Many slides](https://reader031.vdocuments.us/reader031/viewer/2022022422/5a9179f27f8b9a18628b5a7e/html5/thumbnails/35.jpg)
n M-step objective is upper-bounded by true objective
n M-step objective is equal to true objective at current parameter estimate
EM Derivation (ctd)
n à Improvement in true objective is at least as large as improvement in M-step objective
![Page 36: Maximum Likelihood (ML), Expectation Maximization (EM)pabbeel/cs287-fa13/slides/... · Maximum Likelihood (ML), Expectation Maximization (EM) Pieter Abbeel UC Berkeley EECS Many slides](https://reader031.vdocuments.us/reader031/viewer/2022022422/5a9179f27f8b9a18628b5a7e/html5/thumbnails/36.jpg)
n Estimate 1-d mixture of two Gaussians with unit variance:
n
n one parameter µ ; µ1 = µ - 7.5, µ2 = µ+7.5
EM 1-D Example --- 2 iterations
![Page 37: Maximum Likelihood (ML), Expectation Maximization (EM)pabbeel/cs287-fa13/slides/... · Maximum Likelihood (ML), Expectation Maximization (EM) Pieter Abbeel UC Berkeley EECS Many slides](https://reader031.vdocuments.us/reader031/viewer/2022022422/5a9179f27f8b9a18628b5a7e/html5/thumbnails/37.jpg)
n X ~ Multinomial Distribution, P(X=k ; µ) = µk
n Z ~ N(µk, §k)
n Observed: z(1), z(2), …, z(m)
EM for Mixture of Gaussians
![Page 38: Maximum Likelihood (ML), Expectation Maximization (EM)pabbeel/cs287-fa13/slides/... · Maximum Likelihood (ML), Expectation Maximization (EM) Pieter Abbeel UC Berkeley EECS Many slides](https://reader031.vdocuments.us/reader031/viewer/2022022422/5a9179f27f8b9a18628b5a7e/html5/thumbnails/38.jpg)
n E-step:
n M-step:
EM for Mixture of Gaussians
![Page 39: Maximum Likelihood (ML), Expectation Maximization (EM)pabbeel/cs287-fa13/slides/... · Maximum Likelihood (ML), Expectation Maximization (EM) Pieter Abbeel UC Berkeley EECS Many slides](https://reader031.vdocuments.us/reader031/viewer/2022022422/5a9179f27f8b9a18628b5a7e/html5/thumbnails/39.jpg)
n Given samples
n Dynamics model:
n Observation model:
n ML objective:
à No simple decomposition into independent ML problems for each and each
à No closed form solution found by setting derivatives equal to zero
ML Objective HMM
![Page 40: Maximum Likelihood (ML), Expectation Maximization (EM)pabbeel/cs287-fa13/slides/... · Maximum Likelihood (ML), Expectation Maximization (EM) Pieter Abbeel UC Berkeley EECS Many slides](https://reader031.vdocuments.us/reader031/viewer/2022022422/5a9179f27f8b9a18628b5a7e/html5/thumbnails/40.jpg)
n
à µ and ° computed from “soft” counts
EM for HMM --- M-step
![Page 41: Maximum Likelihood (ML), Expectation Maximization (EM)pabbeel/cs287-fa13/slides/... · Maximum Likelihood (ML), Expectation Maximization (EM) Pieter Abbeel UC Berkeley EECS Many slides](https://reader031.vdocuments.us/reader031/viewer/2022022422/5a9179f27f8b9a18628b5a7e/html5/thumbnails/41.jpg)
n No need to find conditional full joint
n Run smoother to find:
EM for HMM --- E-step
![Page 42: Maximum Likelihood (ML), Expectation Maximization (EM)pabbeel/cs287-fa13/slides/... · Maximum Likelihood (ML), Expectation Maximization (EM) Pieter Abbeel UC Berkeley EECS Many slides](https://reader031.vdocuments.us/reader031/viewer/2022022422/5a9179f27f8b9a18628b5a7e/html5/thumbnails/42.jpg)
n Linear Gaussian setting:
n Given
n ML objective:
n EM-derivation: same as HMM
ML Objective for Linear Gaussians
![Page 43: Maximum Likelihood (ML), Expectation Maximization (EM)pabbeel/cs287-fa13/slides/... · Maximum Likelihood (ML), Expectation Maximization (EM) Pieter Abbeel UC Berkeley EECS Many slides](https://reader031.vdocuments.us/reader031/viewer/2022022422/5a9179f27f8b9a18628b5a7e/html5/thumbnails/43.jpg)
n Forward:
n Backward:
EM for Linear Gaussians --- E-Step
![Page 44: Maximum Likelihood (ML), Expectation Maximization (EM)pabbeel/cs287-fa13/slides/... · Maximum Likelihood (ML), Expectation Maximization (EM) Pieter Abbeel UC Berkeley EECS Many slides](https://reader031.vdocuments.us/reader031/viewer/2022022422/5a9179f27f8b9a18628b5a7e/html5/thumbnails/44.jpg)
EM for Linear Gaussians --- M-step
[Updates for A, B, C, d. TODO: Fill in once found/derived.]
![Page 45: Maximum Likelihood (ML), Expectation Maximization (EM)pabbeel/cs287-fa13/slides/... · Maximum Likelihood (ML), Expectation Maximization (EM) Pieter Abbeel UC Berkeley EECS Many slides](https://reader031.vdocuments.us/reader031/viewer/2022022422/5a9179f27f8b9a18628b5a7e/html5/thumbnails/45.jpg)
n When running EM, it can be good to keep track of the log-likelihood score --- it is supposed to increase every iteration
EM for Linear Gaussians --- The Log-likelihood
![Page 46: Maximum Likelihood (ML), Expectation Maximization (EM)pabbeel/cs287-fa13/slides/... · Maximum Likelihood (ML), Expectation Maximization (EM) Pieter Abbeel UC Berkeley EECS Many slides](https://reader031.vdocuments.us/reader031/viewer/2022022422/5a9179f27f8b9a18628b5a7e/html5/thumbnails/46.jpg)
n As the linearization is only an approximation, when performing the updates, we might end up with parameters that result in a lower (rather than higher) log-likelihood score
n à Solution: instead of updating the parameters to the newly estimated ones, interpolate between the previous parameters and the newly estimated ones. Perform a “line-search” to find the setting that achieves the highest log-likelihood score
EM for Extended Kalman Filter Setting