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THE
NATURE
OF
MATERIALS
AND
SOLID STATE
CHANGES
IN METALS
31
The
Effect
of Energy on the Atom. Metallic
Structure.
Solidification.
Grain
Size. SOLID
STATE
CHANGES
IN
METALS: Work
Har-
dening. Plastic
Deformation.
Cold
Work.
RE-
CRYSTALLIZATION:
Recovery.
Recrystalli-
zation.
Grain
Growth. AGE HARDENING.
ALLOTROPIC CHANGES.
HEAT
TREAT.
MENT
OF
STEEL:
Approximate
Equilibrium
Heat-Treatment
Processes. Austenitization.
Annealing.
Normalizing.
Spheroidizing.
Har-
dening
of
Steel.
Tempering.
CORROSION:
Di
rect
Chemical Action.
Electrolytic
(Electro-
chemical)
Reaction.
Corrosion
Rate Dependent
on
Several
Factors.
Types of
Corrosion.
Corro-
sion Frotection.
FERROUSMETALS
45
Choosing Metals
and
Alloys.
Ferrous
Raw
Ma-
terials.
CAST IRONS.
STEEL: Wrought
lron.
Steel
Making.
Plain Carbon
Steel.
Alloy
Steels.
Low
Alloy
Structural Steels. Low
Alloy
AISI
Steels. Stainless
Steels.
Tool
and
Die
Steels.
Cast
Steels. MATERIAL IDENTIFICATION
SYSTEMS.
NONFERROUS
METALS AND
PLASTICS
57
ALUMINUM ALLOYS:
General
Properties.
Wrought
Aluminum Alloys. Property
Changes.
Cast
Aluminum
Alloys.
COPPER
ALLOYS:
General Properties.
Brasses
and
Bronzes.
NICKEL
ALLOYS.
MAGNESIUM ALLOYS.
ZINC
ALLOYS. SPECIAL
GROUPS
OF
NONFERROUS
ALLOYS:
Heat-
and Corro-
sion-Resistant
Alloys.
Other
Nonferrous
Metals.
NON-METALS:
Plastics. Plastic
Ma-
terials.
Types
of Plastics.
Characteristics
of
Plastics.
THE
NATURE
OF MANUFACTURING 73
MODERN
MANUFACTURING:
Markets. De-
sign. Processing.
States
of Matter.
Shape-
Changing
Processes.
Summary.
THE
CASTING PROCESS
79
The
Process.
SOLIDIFICATION
OF
METALS:
Solidification. Shrinkage.
POUR-
ING
AND
FEEDING
CASTINGS: Casting
Design.
Pouring. The
Gating System. Risers.
Chills. FOUNDRY
TECHNOLOGY.
SAND
MOLDING:
Green
Sand. Patterns. Flasks.
Sand Compaction.
Cores. Green Sand Advan-
tages
and
Limitations.
Dry
Sand Molds.
Floor
and Pit
Molds.
Shell Molds.
METAL
MOLD
AND
SPECIAL
PROCESSES:
Permanent
Mold
Casting.
Die
Casting.
Investment
Cast-
ing.
Plaster Mold
Casting.
Centrifugal
Cast-
ings.
Continuous
Casting.
MELTING
EQUIP-
MENT:
Cupola.
Crucible
Furnaces. Pot
Fur-
naces.
Reverberatory
Furnaces. Electric
Arc
Furnaces.
Induction
Furnaces. FOUNDRY
MECHANIZATION.
THE
WELDING
PROCESS
95
BONDS: Nature of
Bonding. Fusion
Bonding.
Pressure
Bonding. Flow Bonding. CoId
Bond-
ing.
WELDING
METALLURGY:
Composi-
tion
Efects.
Effects on Grain Size and Struc-
ture.
Effects
of
Welding
on Properties.
DIS-
TORTIONS
AND
STRESSES.
WELDING
PROCESSES
AND
DESIGN
105
HEAT
FOR
WELDING:
Chemical
Reactions.
The Electric Arc. Welding
Equipment and Pro-
cedures.
Arc Welding
Electrodes. Modification
of Arc
Welding
for
Special
Purposes. Automa-
tic
Welding.
Electric Resistance
Heating.
SPECIAL WELDING
PROCESSES: Elec-
tron-Beam Welding.
Plasma Arc.
Ultrasonic
Welding.
Friction
Welding.
Electroslag
Welding.
Explosion
Welding.
Diffusion
Weld-
ing.
WELDING
DESIGN:
Joints.
Design
Con-
siderations.
Weldability.
WELD
DEFECTS:
Fusion
Welding.
Dimensional Defects.
Struc-
tural
Discontinuities.
Weld Metal and
Base
Metal
Properties. Basic
Symbols
for
NDT.
11
PLASTIC FLOW
r27
EFFECTS
OF
DEFORMATION:
Work
Har-
dening
and
Recrystallization. Effects of
Flow
Rate.
Direction Effects.
Temperature
and
Load-
ing
Systems
Effects. Grain
Size.
RELATIVE
EFFECTS
OF
HOT
AND
COLD
WORKING:
Mechanical Properties.
Finish
and Accuracy.
Process
Requirements.
MILLWORK, FORGING, AND POWDER
METALLURGY
I27
MILLWORK:
Hot
Rolling.
Cold
Finishing.
T\rbe
and
Pipe Making. Extrusion. FORGING
AND ALLIED
OPERATIONS:
NDT of Forg-
ings.
Open
Die
Forging.
Closed
Die
Forging.
Forging
with
Progressive Application of Pres-
sure. Powder
Metallurry. Pressing.
Sintering.
Sizing and Postsintering Treatments.
Applica-
tion
for
Powdered
Metal
Products.
PRESSWORKING
OF SHEET
METAL
L4I
Shearing.
Bending.
Drawing. New Develop-
ments in
Sheet
Metal Forming.
14
MACHININGFUNDAMENTALS
r47
The Machining Process.
Chip
Formation.
Cut-
ting
Tool
Materials.
Abrasives.
MACHINE
TOOLS: Machinabilitv. Finish.
NUMERICAL
CONTROL.
10
I2
13
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2
Materials
and
Processes
for
NDT
Technology
Decisions
to
accept
or reject
following a
test
result
must
be based on a
thorough
knowledge
of
materials
and
the
properties,
processes
and
their effect
on
pro-
perties,
test
techniques, design
requirements,
product
applications, service
conditions,
and suitable
life ex-
pectancy.
Clearly
this
much knowledge
is seldom
lo-
cated
in
a single
individual, and
group
decisions
or con-
sultations
may
be
necessary.
NDT
correlation
may
require
the
cooperation
be-
tween test supervisors, designers,
metallurgists,
man-
ufacturing
personnel,
customer
personnel,
and
test
personnel.
REQUTREMENTS
FOR
NDT
SUPERVISORY
PERSONNEL
From the
above
it
can
be seen
that
supervisory
per-
sonnel
in
charge
of
nondestructive
testing
operations
must have
adequate background
knowledge
for
resolu-
tion of
complex
problems
in
establishing
tests and
in'
terpreting results.
Background
Knowledge.
It
is
important
that
a
NDT
supervisor be
well
versed
in
all
the
available
NDT methods, their
applications
and
limitations.
In
addition, the reliability of the
methods
and
their corre-
lation
with
desired material and
product
characteris-
tics
are
very
important.
Knowledge
of the
product
design,
purpose,
and
func-
tion together
with
process
details
may enhance appli'
cation of test methods
by
supplying
information
re-
garding
the
importance
of the
test interpretations
and
possible
sources
of
discontinuities,
faults, and/or
de-
fects
that
could cause
product
failure.
Familiarity
with
all
policies,
local,
industry-wide,
governmental,
or safety and
environmental
agencies
may
affect the inspection methods chosen.
Although
these
policies
may be seemihgly
unimportant
at
times,
they
can
have
very strong
implications and
influences.
Ability
To
Communicate
Is Always
Important.
The
ability
to
communicate
in
both
written
and
oral
manner
cannot
be
overemphasized in
consideration
of success-
ful
job
accomplishment,
particularly
in supervisory
positions.
It
is
necessary
for
a
NDT
supervisor
to
direct,
in-
struct,
and
manage
the
personnel
of that
group.
It is essential that
cooperation be
maintained
with
other manufacturing
or
working
personnel
with
whom
the
projects
are
associated.
There is need for
concise
accurate
reports to
higher
rranagement.
These reports,
by
the
way,
particularly
when
written,
are the
principal
evidence
by which
repu-
tation
and advancement
are developed.
In addition,
NDT
supervisory
personnel
are
often
called
upon
to
interface
with
customer
personnel in
solving
proble'nq
and interpreting tst results.
QUALIFICATION
AND
CERTIFICATION
OF
NDT
LEVEL III
TESTING PERSONNEL
The American Society
for Nondestructive
Testing,
in
its Recommended
Practice
No.
SNT-TC-IA
entitled
"Personnel
Qualification
and
Certification
in
Nondes-
tructive Testing"
indicated
the
responsibilities
and
capabilities of
Level III
nondestructive
test
personnel
in
the
following words:*
"An
NDT
Level
III
individual should be capable
of
establishing
techniques
and
procedures;
interpreting
codes,
standards,
specifications, and
procedures;
and
designating the
particular
test methods, techniques,
and
procedures
to
be used.
The NDT Level III should
be
responsible
for
the
NDT
operations
for
which
quali
fied
and
to
which
assigned,
and should be capable
of in-
terpreting and evaluating
results
in
terms of existing
codes,
standards, and specifications.
The NDT Level
III should
have
sufficient
practical
background
in
ap-
plicable
materials,
fabrication,
and
product
technology
to establish techniques and to assist
in
establishing ac-
ceptance
criteria
where none
are otherwise
available.
The
NDT
Level III should
have
general
familiarity
with
other appropriate NDT
methods,
and should
be
qualified
to
train
and examine
NDT
Level
I
and
Level
II
personnel
for
certification."
SOURCES OF
TECHNICAL
INFORMATION
AVAILABLE TO NDT
PERSONNEL
Regardless
of the sources
of technical
knowledge
by
which
NDT
personnel
obtain their
positions, perpetual
updating
and extension
of
that
knowledge is essential.
Continual
Improvement
of
Entire Knowledge
Base
Needed.
Additional
knowledge of NDT
techniques,
par'
ticularly
new developments,
is very important.
Accom-
panying
this,
however, should be broadening
of
knowl-
edge,
as
well as
keeping
up
with
new
developments,
in
the
field
where
the NDT techniques are
applied.
Greater
familarity
with engineering
materials, manu-
facturing
processes,
changing
designs and
service
re'
quirements,
management
policies, government
re'
quirements,
environmental
impacts,
personal
safety
and other areas can be
vital
to successful
application
of
NDT.
Many
Sources
of
NDT Information
Available.
Per-
sonal ambition and
expenditure
of
time
permit
informa'
tion to
be
gained
in
a
variety
of
ways.
Activity
(not
simply attendance)in
suitable
technical
societies can be a
good
source of
new methods and
ap-
plications
of
both
testing and
manufacturing
tech-
niques.
*The
statement
of
NDT Level
III
requirements is taken
from
the
June
1980 Edition
of
ASNT
Recommended
Practice No. SNT-TC-1A,
as illustrative of
general
requirements. Note
that future changes
may
occur in SNT-TC-IA, and the current document should
be
re-
ferred
to in
a.ll cases.
-
7/25/2019 Material & Processes for NDT Part 2
6/11
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7/25/2019 Material & Processes for NDT Part 2
7/11
4
Materials and
Processes
for NDT
Technology
may require
inspection to be certain
that
they
will
main-
tain their
as-manufactured
qualities
such as
color,
polish,
stability,
etc.
Products more likely to
need
careful
testing and
eval-
uations are those
used
in load
carrying
applications
where failure may involve
loss
of use,
expensive
repair,
or
danger
to
other
products,
structures,
and
even
life.
Although the manufactured item
is
a
product,
it is
the
material
of
that
product
that
may
fail,
so
material fail-
ure
types
and
causes
are of
interest.
Material
Failure Definition. The simplest
definition
of failure is that the item of interest becomes
unusable,
but
there
are
several ways
in
which
a
product may
be'
come
unusable.
It is
usually
important to
know the
type
of failure that might
be
expected
in
order
to know
for
what to inspect, how to inspect,
how
to
eliminate
the
fault,
and
how
to
assess
the risk of
failure.
Complex units
with
moveable
parts
may
become
in-
operable
because
of failure of
some
minor element.
An
automobile, for
example,
may not
run
for
lack of
fuel,
a
tire
goes
flat, or the ignition is out of adjustment.
There
are
two
generally
accepted
types
of
material
failure:
one is the easily recognized
fracture
or separa-
tion into two or more
parts;
the second
is the
less
easily
recognized
permanent
deformation
or change
of shape
and/or
position.
Although
complete
fracture is
unmistakable,
an
inci'
pient
type
which
will
be discussed
in
connection
with
"fatigue failure" with suitable inspection
methods
can
be determined before complete failure
occurs.
Fracture
failure
in some
complex structures
may
also
become
progressive.
An example of
progressive
failure would
be
the release of load
by
some weak
component
in a struc-
tural
configuration
such
as
a
large bridge.
The released
load
must
be
absorbed
by
neighboring structural
ele-
ments.
Unless
these neighbors can spread
the
new
load
and become stabilized,
they
will become
overloaded
and, if
stressed above their elastic
limit, will
deform,
crack, or fracture,
causing
additional
load to
be
passed
along in
a
way that
causes
the entire structure
to
col-
lapse
almost
immediately.
A
simple example of
progressive
failure
would be
the
breaking
of
a
gear
tooth
in
a
mechanical
power
system.
The following
gear
tooth is
then subjected
to shock
(im-
pact)
loads
which
increase
the
stress
levels
so
that
fail-
ure
is
more likely. In this
case also
it is
probable
that
if
power
is
maintained, all
the gear
teeth
will
be
broken
off
in
a short
period
of time.
Material
Failure
Causes.
Products and structures
may
be subject to a
number
of service conditions.
Im-
posed
loads
may
be static
(stationary
or fixed) or
dyna-
mic
(varying).
The
use
environment
may
contribute
cor-
rosion,
vibration,
or temperatures and
pressures higher
or
lower
than normal.
The
product
may
also be
subject
to
abuse. Mechanical
failure
is
always
a
result
of
stresses.
above
some
critical
value
for
each
material
that
cause
deformation
or
fracture. Such
excessive
stresses are
set
up
by
some
combination
of material
de-
fect,
excess
load,
improper type load, or design error.
1.
As far
as
failure is
concerned.
static
loads
some-
times include
dynamic
loads
that
are
slowly
applied.
The
principal
reasons
for failure
under
static
loads in-
clude large
discontinuities
(both
internal
and
external),
poor
dimensional
control during
manufacturing,
mas-
sive overloading
during use, and
unsatisfactory
ori-
ginal
design or
combination
of
these
factors.
2.
Dynamic
loads
are
varying
loads
that can
be
single-directional or
multi-directional
with multidirec-
tional loading
being
more
serious
as a cause
for failure.
When the
cycles
of loading
become
high
(usually
mil-
lions
but dependent
on
the
material),
failure
can
occur
at
stress levels far
below those determined
by
static
load
tests. Although millions
of cycles seems high, there
are
many
applications, such as
a
rotating
shaft
under
bend-
ing load,
where
millions
of
loading
cycles
can
be
reached
in
a
relatively
short time.
As
pointed
out, slow or low frequency
dynamic
load-
ing
is
similar
to
static
loading
except that
even
low fre-
quency
loads
applied suddenly
create
a
condition
of
shock which can
cause
failure
at a
level lower
than nor-
mally
expected.
3.
Service at
high temperature
reduces
most
of
the
desirable
material
properties
of
metals
including the
ability
to support
load. The tendency
for creep also
in-
creases
with
increased temperature.
The temperatures
at
which
property
values
become critical depend upon
the
particular
material
and the
previous
treatment
it
has received.
Most
metallic materials
also
exhibit
a brittle charac-
teristic
(much
like
cold
glass)
through
a transition tem-
perature
range
usually at
lower
temperatures.
4.
Pressure creating stress
above a
material's
elastic
limit
may
cause
material flow
(plastic
flow),
distortion,
and
cross-sectional weakening,
effects that would
be
in-
tensified
at
elevated temperatures.
Fluctuating
pres-
sures
of high
frequency
create
dynamic
loading
that
may
decrease
safe
operatinglevels. Itwas
reported that
several
early day
pressurized
cabin
aircraft
failed by
fuselage
skin
failure
due
to this
cause.
5.
Corrosive environments or
a
combination of
mate-
rials
that
cause
corrosion can
produce
failure in two
ways.
The
corrosion
may
actually
reduce
the amount of
material
available to
carry
load,
but
even
more
impor-
tant
in
many
cases
is
that the
corrosion
may
create
small
discontinuities which serve
as stress
risers that
become
the nucleus
for fatigue failure.
6.
Many
structures and systems
are
subjected to vi-
bration during
service. Included
are
transportation
equipment, machines,
and
devices
that
have moving
parts.
In
addition, some structures may
vibrate be-
cause
they
are excited by some outside influence.
Stresses
from
vibration may
be superimposed
on
stresses
from other loading
sources. The
principal
prob-
lem
created
by
vibration is
the introduction
of
cyclic
loading
leading
toward fatigue.failure.
7.
Excess
loading
from
abuse
may
be accidental
but
nearly
always has the human
element
as a
source.
Con-
trol is
attempted
by use
of
design
factors
of safety,
-
7/25/2019 Material & Processes for NDT Part 2
8/11
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7/25/2019 Material & Processes for NDT Part 2
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6
\Iaterials
and
Processes
ior
NDT
Technology
rial
is
the
same as though the
procedure
were carried
on
rg6
shnnge the material
properties
To
some degree,
knowledge
of the
processing
is
there-
fore necessary
in
order to understand
the effect on
the
noaterial.
to evaluate
the
material
properties,
and
to
crace
down the
source of
problems.
PURPOSE
FOR
USE OF
NDT
A
critical
task for
persons
responsible for nondestruc-
tive testing
operations
is
often
the
determination
of the
true
reasons
why
nondestructive
tests
have been
re-
quested,
specified, or
needed.
The
interpretation
of
test
indications
depends
critically upon
the
purpose
of the
tests,
and
this often
determines
the
stage
of
manufac-
turing or assembly
at which
tests
should
be done.
Ultimate
Purpose-Reliability,
Serviceability.
In
the
preceding paragraphs,
the common
assumption
has
been made that the tests
are
to
be used
to assure
relia-
bility
and to
prevent premature
failures
of
materials,
parts,
or
assemblies
during their
intended service.
In
general,
this
serviceability
is
the
ultimate
purpose
of
most
nondestructive tests.
However,
it is often the
case
that
the test
itself
does
little
to
predict
the serviceabil-
ity
or
safety
of the
final
product,
assembly,
structure,
or
system. In this
case, there
is no
way to determine
that a
discontinuity or
material condition constitutes a
dan-
gerous
"defect" which may lead to
premature
failure
in
service. This by
no
means
invalidates
or countermands
the
need
for
the
nondestructive
test. Other
valid
rea-
sons
for nondestructive
testing
may include the
follow-
ing.
Specific Purposes for
NDT.
1.
Identification or sorting
of
material.
2.
Identification
of material
properties
and
the relia-
bility associated with their existence.
3.
Indication of
proper
material
and suitable
quality
control during
processing
in
order
to
prevent
further
costly
processing.
4. Tests to
assure completeness,
proper
dimensions
and
geometry,
and
proper
relationships among
as-
sembled components.
5.
Tests
during
service
to
discover
initiation
of
pos-
sible
failure
before
it
actually occurs.
6. Diagnostic tests after failure to determine
the
fail-
ure
reason.
This knowledge might
be
useful
for
product
design
change,
test
method
change,
quality
control
re-
cords,
and
for
records
to combat
possible
product liabil-
ity suits.
NDT
IN
FRACTURE
CONTROL
Fracture
Control
Design
Philosophy.
When using
factors
of safety in
design,
it is
assumed
that competent
judgement
in
providing
a safety factor can
provide high
assurance of the safe life of
a
product
or structure.
At
the same
time, consideration must
be
given
to conserva-
tion of material.
Historically, many
complex
structures
and machines
have
survived admirably under such
de-
sign concepts. However, others
have failed from seem-
ingly inexplicable
causes,
some
with
costly and
disas-
trous
consequences.
Most
design
procedures
still
are based
upon
over
two
and a
half
centuries of using
Hooke's
law
which
relates
stress and strain
in
elastic bodies.
The
safety factor
is
applied to a value of strength
that the material used
in
a
design
is
presumed to
possess.
The
value
of
.strength is
that which
is hoped to
be
representative
of
the
material
used under
the
assumption
that the
material
is
continu-
ous
and
has
uniform
properties
throughout.
In this
de-
sign
process,
discontinuities can
be
accounted
for
,
if it
is
h,nown
they exist, by their effect
on reduction of cross-
sectional area available
to
sustain the applied
loads, or
their
effect on the
local
volumetric strength
of the
mate-
rial.
Conventional
design
practices
incorporating safety
factors ordinarily
will
succeed
if:
1.
the
material
used
will
not
be
accidentally
or
other-
wise overloaded,
2.
the
variations
in ordinary
loads
will
be as
in-
tended,
3.
the
environmental
factors are
properly
antici-
pated,
4.
unknown
or
undetected
discontinuities will
not
grow
to
a
critical
size.
Notable
catastrophic
failures have
been analyzed and
invariably
found to involve
an
oversight in
one or a com-
bination of the
above
factors
that caused
failure.
Sud-
den, complete, and unsuspected fracture failures occur
in components
and
structures
when
a
crack
or
other
de-
fect reaches
some
critical
size
and
rapidly
propogates.
Where the
consequences
of
unexpected
failure
are un-
usually
expensive in
terms
of
public
safety
and/or
money,
more
and
more designs of
such critical
nature re-
quire
consideration
of
fracture-resistant
qualities
in
materials
selection
and usage.
Implicit in frature
con-
trol
design
criteria
is
the
need,
by some means, to assure
that
unexpected
flaws
of some specific critical size are
not
present
when the
product
is
introduced into
service.
Nondestructive
testing and
proof
testing
are
the
princi-
pal
means
upon which such assurance is based. Proof
testing
always
involves
some
risk
that
the test
itself
will
either
cause
immediate
failure during
the
test,
or
cause
flaw
growth
to
a
point
below
actual
failure
but
be-
yond
the
point
where additional
flaw
growth
can be
safely sustained
during
the
service
life
of the
compon-
ent
in
question.
Nondestructive testing is
heavily relied
upon as
the
basis of assurance against the
presence
of
flaws large
enough
to
either
cause
immediate fracture or
to
grow
large
enough
to
cause
later
premature
fracture.
Often,
the successful implementation
of'a fracture control
de-
sign
depends
solely upon the
reliability
of
nondestruc-
tive testing to
detect
flaws in
otherwise sound com-
-
7/25/2019 Material & Processes for NDT Part 2
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7/25/2019 Material & Processes for NDT Part 2
11/11
8
Materials
and
Processes
for NDT
Technology
NDT
Demonstration
Programs.
Pioneering
efforts
to include
meaningful
fracture
control
criteria
into
structural
design
first appeared
in the
specifications
for
military
aircraft
in the
late
1960s.
Since
then,
fracture
control
criteria
have been
applied
to
aircraft,
space-
craft,
nuclear
components,
pipelines,
and
pressure
ves-
sels.
The
most ambitious
programs to
date
have
in-
cluded
several
military
aircraft
and
NASA's
Space
Shuttle.
Typically,
the
overall
vehicle
specifications
have
required the contractors
involved
to
demonstrate
inspection
capabilities
to
detect
certain
size
flaws
in
components
designated
fracture
critical
at90Vo
proba-
bility
of detection,
957o
confidence
level.
Several
approaches
have been
used
by
the contrac'
tors
to
provide
the
required
demonstration.
Generally,
some
economically
practical numbers
of
fatigue
cracked
specimens
are
prepared
and
intermingled
with
unflawed
specimens.
Well-defined
procedures
are
used
by
inspection
personnel under
production
conditions.
The
parts
used
in
the
demonstration
are
usually
entered
into
the
normal
sequence
of
inspection
so
that
the
in-
spection
personnel
are
not
biased
toward
particular
awareness
that
a
demonstration
is being
conducted.
In
other
cases,
only
certain
inspection
personnel have been
classified
as
being
qualified to
inspect
fracture
critical
components.
Such
components
are clearly
marked
and
channeled
specifically
to
their
selected
inspectors.
In
any
event,
through
experiment
design
and
statistical
analysis,
the outcome
of
NDT demonstration
programs
is
intended
to
provide
a workable
interface
between
the
needs of
fracture
mechanics
and
the
realities
of
the ap-
plications
and
limitations
of NDT.