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FormationofSoftParticlesinDrop-in
Fuels
RichardA.Alim
Master´sThesisProject
KTHRoyalInstituteofTechnology
EngineeringSciencesinChemistry,Biotechnology,andHealth
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FormationofSoftParticlesinDrop-in
Fuels
RichardA.Alim
Supervisor:
HenrikHittig
Examiner:
LarsJ.Pettersson
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Abstract
Asthemissiontothedecreaseglobalwarmingandphaseouthighlypollutingenvironmentalpracticesglobally,regulationsincludingEuro6andpoliciesgeneratedbytheUnitedNationsFrameworkConventiononClimateChange(UNFCCC)arepushingcompaniestobemoreinnovativewhenitcomestotheirenergysources.Theseregulationsinvolvemanyfactorsrelatedtothecleanlinessofthefuelandproducedemissions,forexample,propertiesofthefuelssuchassulfurcontent,ashcontent,watercontent,andresultingemissionvaluesofCarbondioxide(CO2)andNitrogenOxides(NOx).Furthermore,Swedenhassetachallengingtargetofafossil-fuel-independentvehiclefleetby2030andnonetgreenhouse-gasemissionsby2050.
Onewaytocutdownonthepollutingpropertiesinthefuel,aswellasweakeningthedependenceonfossilfuelbasedfuelincludesutilizinghigherblendingratiosofbiofuelsinthetransportsector.Thistransitiontobiofuelscomeswithmanychallengestothetransportindustryduetohigherconcentrationsofthesenewfuelsleadstocloggingofthefiltersintheengine,aswellas,internaldieselinjectordeposits(IDIDs)thatproduceinjectorfouling.Thiscloggingofthefiltersleadstolowerperformancebytheengineswhichleadstohigherrepairtimes(uptime)andlesstimeontheroadtotransportgoods.Theformationofthesesoftparticlesattherootofthecloggingissueisapivotalissuebecausetheprecisemechanismsbehindtheirformationarehighlyunknown.Scania,aleaderintheSwedishautomotiveindustry,isveryinterestedinfiguringoutwhatmechanismsarethemostinfluentialintheformationoftheseparticlesintheengine.UnderstandingthekeymechanismswouldallowScaniatomakeappropriateadjustmentstothefuelortheenginestoensuremoretimeontheroadandlessmaintenance.
Therearemanyconditionsknowntobepossiblecausesoftheformationofsoftparticlesinenginessuchaswatercontent,ashcontent,andtemperature.Aftergeneratingsoftparticlesusingamodifiedacceleratedmethod,particleswereanalyzedusinginfraredtechnology(RTX-FTIR)andaScanningElectricMicroscope(SEM-EDX).Manydifferentexperimentswereperformedtobeabletomakeaconclusionastowhichmechanismsweremostinfluentialincludingtemperature,time,water,air,andoil.Thecombinationofagingbiofuels(B100,B10,HVO)withmetals,andwaterproducedthelargestamountofparticlesfollowedbyagingthebiofuelswithagedoil,metals,andwater.Agingthefuelswithagedoilincreasedparticles,meanwhiletheadditionofwaterpreventedparticleproductionpossiblyduetoadditives.B100producedthehighestamountofparticleswhenagedwithCopper,B10withBrass,andHVOwithIron.
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NomenclatureAbbreviationCommonName
HVO Hydrotreatedvegetableoil
FAME Fattyacidmethylester
ISO TheInternationalOrganizationforStandardization
ULSD UltraLowSulfurDiesel
CEN EuropeanCommitteeforStandardization
CR Commonrail
B0 Nobiodieselpresent
B10 10%concentrationofbiodieselinfuel
B100 100%biodiesel:nopetrodieselpresent
DCA DepositControlAdditive
PIBSI Polyisobutylenesuccinimides
SG Sterylglycoles
SMG SaturatedMonoglycerides
VF VacuumFiltration
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TableofContentsNomenclature.........................................................................................................................................4
Introduction............................................................................................................................................1
LiteratureStudy.......................................................................................................................................1
Whatarebiofuels?..............................................................................................................................1
CommonBiofuelCompositions...........................................................................................................2
FuelSelection......................................................................................................................................3
UltraLowSulfurDiesel(ULSD)........................................................................................................4
HydrotreatedVegetableOil(HVO)..................................................................................................7
FattyAcidMethylEster(FAME)......................................................................................................7
FiltrationSystemintheCommonRailEngine...................................................................................10
FilterClogging....................................................................................................................................11
Sieving...........................................................................................................................................11
Bridging.........................................................................................................................................11
Agglomeration...............................................................................................................................12
DieselInjectorClogging.....................................................................................................................12
InternalDieselInjectorDeposits...................................................................................................12
NozzleGeometry...........................................................................................................................13
FuelComposition...........................................................................................................................13
Temperature.................................................................................................................................13
ContaminantsinFuel........................................................................................................................13
Particlesinfuel..............................................................................................................................14
Water............................................................................................................................................14
Air..................................................................................................................................................15
PresenceofMetals........................................................................................................................15
SterylGlucosides(SG)&SaturatedMonoglycerides(SMG)..........................................................16
FuelAdditives................................................................................................................................18
TestMethods....................................................................................................................................19
AcceleratedMethod......................................................................................................................19
AcceleratedOxidationTest...........................................................................................................19
DaimlerOxidationTest..................................................................................................................20
RancimatEN15751.......................................................................................................................20
PetroOXYEN16091.......................................................................................................................20
ColdSoakFiltrationTest(ASTMD2500)........................................................................................21
FiltrationMethods.............................................................................................................................21
SimpleFiltration............................................................................................................................21
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VacuumFiltration..........................................................................................................................22
TechniquestoMeasureSoftParticles...............................................................................................22
FilterAnalysis................................................................................................................................22
SmearMethod...............................................................................................................................22
ManualCollectionMethod............................................................................................................22
Centrifugation...............................................................................................................................23
AnalyticalMethods...........................................................................................................................23
OpticalMicroscopy........................................................................................................................23
ElectronMicroscopy......................................................................................................................23
X-rayenergy-dispersivespectroscopy(EDX).................................................................................24
Fourier-transformInfraredSpectroscopywithAttenuatedTotalReflection(FTIR-ATR)..............24
Experimental.........................................................................................................................................24
Materials...........................................................................................................................................24
Metals............................................................................................................................................25
Water............................................................................................................................................25
Oil..................................................................................................................................................25
Procedure..........................................................................................................................................25
AppliedMethods...................................................................................................................................27
AcceleratedMethodsforOxidationofFuelOils...........................................................................27
ColdSoakFiltrationTest................................................................................................................27
VacuumFiltration..........................................................................................................................27
AppliedTechniquestoMeasureSoftParticles..................................................................................28
FilterAnalysis................................................................................................................................28
ManualCollectionMethod............................................................................................................28
AnalyticalTechniques........................................................................................................................28
Fourier-transformInfraredSpectroscopywithAttenuatedTotalReflection(FTIR-ATR)..............28
ScanningElectronMicroscopy(SEM)............................................................................................28
Results...................................................................................................................................................29
AgingofB100withFreshOil(MAM1)...............................................................................................29
AgingofBiofuels(MAM2).................................................................................................................29
AgingofBiofuelswithFreshOil(MAM3)..........................................................................................31
AgingofBiofuelswithAgedOil(MAM4)...........................................................................................32
AgingofHVOwithAgedOilforanExtendedPeriod(MAM5)..........................................................33
AgingofBiofuelswithAgedOilandWater(MAM6).........................................................................34
AgingofBiofuelswithAgedOilandMetals(MAM7)........................................................................35
AgingofBiofuelswithAgedOil,MetalsandWater(MAM8)............................................................36
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AgingwithAgedOilandMetals(MAM9)..........................................................................................38
Discussion..............................................................................................................................................39
Conclusion.............................................................................................................................................44
Futurerecommendations......................................................................................................................44
Appendices............................................................................................................................................45
IRSpectra..........................................................................................................................................45
Filter´sPost-Treatment.....................................................................................................................45
AgedFuelwithFreshOil(MAM3).................................................................................................45
AgedFuelwithAgedOil(MAM4)..................................................................................................45
AgedHVOwithAgedOil(MAM5).................................................................................................45
AgedFuelwithAgedOil,andWater(MAM6)...............................................................................46
AgedFuelwithAgedOil,andMetal(MAM7)................................................................................46
AgingofFuelswithAgedOil,MetalsandWater(MAM8)............................................................47
AgingofFuelswithMetalsandWater(MAM9)............................................................................47
References.............................................................................................................................................49
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IntroductionRenewablefuelsarebecomingmoreprominentgloballylargelyduetorecentpushesfromgloballeaderstodecreasethedependenceonfossil-fuelbasedenergysourcesincludingtheincreasedregulationofacceptableamountsofemissionsfromthetransportsectorsuchasEuro6andpoliciesgeneratedbytheUnitedNationsFrameworkConventiononClimateChange(UNFCCC).TheUNFCChasmadeparticularprogressinbringinggloballeaderstogethertoagreeontheparamountParisClimateChangeAgreementattheParisClimateConference(COP21)in2015,whichwastheaimstokeeptheglobaltemperaturebelowthecritical2°Cinthelongterm,amongotherimportantpolicies[1].Oneofthewaystoaccomplishthisgoalofreducingthesocietalecologicalfootprintistodevelopmorecleantechnologythatcanallowforindependencefromfossilfuels,andthisiswherethetransportindustryhasstartedtakinginitiativeduetoincreasingpressures.Swedenhasbeenaleaderinfurtheringtheclimatechangeinitiativeintakingastrongstancebysettingademandingmilestoneofafossil-fuel-independentvehiclefleetby2030andnonetgreenhouse-gasemissionsby2050[2].Thiscanbeaccomplishedbyimplementinghigherusageofrenewablefuelsinthetransportsector.Thechallengingtaskofproducinglessfossilfuel-dependentsystemshasbecomecentraltotheworkthattheSwedishautomotivecompany,ScaniaAB,isinvolvedinwhenitcomestotheenginesintheirtrucksandbuses.Scaniahasbeenlongatworktomaketheirdieselenginesmoreenvironmentallyfriendlybyrunningtheirsemi-trucksonabiodieselandregulardieselblend.Inparticular,therearebiofuelsthatcanbeusedincurrentenginesintheirpureordilutedformswhichareknownasdrop-infuels.Moreover,theyareinterestedinthedrop-infuelbiofuelmarketduetotheabilityofthisclassofbiofuelstoruninanenginewithoutanymodificationsrequired.Thegoaltoincreasetheblendingofbiofuelsinworkingdieselenginescanbechallengingduetothemanyissuesthatariseincludingseverecorrosion,carbondepositionandwearingofenginepartsofthefuelsupplysystemcomponents[3].Understandingthemechanismsbehinddepositsonthefiltersandfuelinjectorsiscrucialtoimplementinganeffectivesolution.Thegoalofthisreportistogainadeeperunderstandingintothemainmechanismsbehindthedepositformationsformedfromtheuseofbiofuels(alsoknownasdrop-infuels)orinordertodevelopanewmethodtogeneratesoftparticlesinalabsetting.Thiswouldallowforfurtherinvestigationintopossiblesolutionstopreventtheformationoftheaforementionedparticles,whetherthatbeviaalteringthecompositionofthebiodieselormakingadjustmentstooperatingconditionsoftheengines.
LiteratureStudy
Whatarebiofuels?Biodieselisafuelsubstitutethatismadefromvegetableoilsoranimalfats.Vegetableoilscommonlyusedincookingarefartooviscoustobeusedinadieselengineduetothepresenceofglycerine[4].Therefore,inordertousecertainbiofuelsincurrentengines,certainprocessesarerequiredincludingesterification,hydrotreating,andgasificationasshowninTable1.Currentbiofuelsaremainlyproducedfrommainstreamcommodityoilcrops,principallyoilpalm,soybean,andrapeseed,whilesomeoftheminoroilcropscanbeusedtoproducebiofuelsmorelocally[5].Furthermore,themainbiofuelsusedbyvehiclesinSwedenare(inorder),HVO(hydrotreatedvegetableoil),FAME(fattyacidmethylester),
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ethanol,andbiogas[6].ScaniahaslongbeenworkingonsolvingthisissuebyblendinganincreasingamountofbiofuelssuchasFattyacidMethylEsters(FAME)andhydrogenatedvegetableoil(HVO)withregulardiesel.Thisreportisinterestedincharacterizingthemechanismsbywhichthesoftparticlesareformed,includingbutnotlimitedto,hightemperaturesincombustion,watercontent,anddegradationofbiofuels.Furthermore,thisinformationwillbeusedinordertoattempttogeneratesoftparticlesinalaboratorywiththeintenttolearnwhichfactors,infact,playaroleintheformationoftheparticlessincethereisverylimitedresearchonthistopic.
Table1:Differenttechnologiesforbiobaseddieselfuels[7]
CommonBiofuelCompositionsBiofuelsfromdifferentsourcesarecomposedofvaryingcompositionsofcommontypesofvegetableoilsincludingPalmitic,StearicandsoonasTable2shows[8].
Table2:Fattyacidchainscommoninbiofuels[8]
Name ChemicalFormula Carbons:DoublebondsPalmitic R=-(CH2)14–CH3 16:0Stearic R=-(CH2)16–CH3 18:0Oleic R=-(CH2)7CH=CH(CH2)7CH3 18:1Linoleic R=-(CH2)7CH=CH-CH2-CH=CH(CH2)4-CH3 18:2Linolenic R=-(CH2)7CH=CH-CH2-CH=CH-CH2-CH=CH-CH2-
CH318:3
Eicoseneacid R=-(CH2)9CH=CH(CH2)7-CH3 20:1ErucicAcid R=-(CH2)11CH=CH(CH2)7-CH3 22:1
whereRisthelongchainsofcarbonsandhydrogenatoms,sometimesreferredtoasfattyacidchains
Furthermore,Table3onthefollowingpageshowsthecompositionsofvariousoilsandfatsusingthecomponentsmentionedabove[1].
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Table3:FattyAcidcompositionofVariousOilsandFats[1]
OilorFat 14:0 16:0 18:0 18:1 18:2 18:3 20:0 22:1Soybean 6-10 2-5 20-30 50-60 5-11 Corn 1-2 8-12 2-5 19-49 34-62 Trace Peanut 8-9 2-3 50-65 20-30 Olive 9-10 2-3 73-84 10-12 Trace Cottonseed 0-2 20-25 1-2 23-35 40-50 Trace HilinoleicSafflower
5.9 1.5 8.8 83.8
HiOleicSafflower
4.8 1.4 74.1 19.7 13.2
HiOleicRapeseed
4.3 1.3 59.9 21.1 13.2
HiErucicRapeseed
3.0 0.8 13.1 14.1 9.7 7.4 50.7
Butter 7-10 24-26 10-13 28-31 1-2.5 0.2-0.5 Lard 1-2 28-30 12-18 40-50 7-13 0-1 Tallow 3-6 24-32 20-25 37-43 2-3 LinseedOil 4-7 2-4 25-40 35-40 25-60 YellowGrease
2.43 23.24 12.96 44.32 6.97 0.67
Inthecaseofthisreport,thebiofuelthatisutilizedwasproducedusingrapeseed.
FuelSelectionTherearemanydifferenttypesoffuelsusedgloballydependingontheregion,however,thankstotheemphasisonincreasinglyenvironmentallyfriendlyalternativestherehasbeenapushfortheuseofUltraLowSulfurDiesel(ULSD)andfortheincreaseduseofrenewablefuels(HVO,FAME,etc.).Moreover,therehasbeenapushforcleanerfuelsgloballysotherehavebeenincreasingregulationsintroducedbytheInternationalOrganizationforStandardization(ISO)includingISOEN590andEN15940fordieselfuelwhichwillbediscussedlaterinthisreport.FuelpropertiesareshownbelowinTable4,whereEN590isregulardiesel,andGTLisGas-to-liquidproducedfromFischer-Tropschsynthesis[7].ThisreportwillcoverGTLfromFischer-Tropschsynthesisasitisnotinthescopeofinterest.HVOandFAMEcanbeproducedfromthesamefeedstock,buthavevastlydifferentprocessingtechniques[9].ThetransesterificationprocesstoproduceFAMEcanbeaccomplishedatamuchcheapercostwhencomparedwiththehydrotreatmentprocesstoproduceHVO,however,HVOismuchpurerthanFAMEcontainingnoconstituentsthatwouldleadtodepositsinfuelinjectors[10].HVOwillrequireahigherinvestmentbygovernmentsinordertointroduceitasamorecommoneverydayfuel,aswellas,expansionduetolimitedaccessrelativetoFAME.
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Table4:TypicalpropertiesofHVO,EuropeanEN590:2004dieselfuel,GTLandFAME[1]
UltraLowSulfurDiesel(ULSD)
Alongwiththepressurestoshifttomoreenvironmentallyfriendlyfuelsglobally,thespreadofdieselwithlowamountsofsulfurhavebecomemoreprominent.Themotivationtomovetolowersulfurcontentinfuelsislargelybasedupontheneedtoreducepoisoningoftheexhaustaftertreatmentcatalysts,reducedieselengine'sharmfulemissions,toimproveairqualitybydecreasingtheemissionsofsulfuroxides(SOx),NitrogenOxides(NOx),andparticulatematter.Onemainfocusfortheuseofultra-lowsulfurdiesel(ULSD)istominimizethepossiblepoisoningintheexhaustaftertreatmentsystemscausedbysulfur,whichincludethedieselparticularfilter(DPF),NOxreductionsystemandSelectiveCatalyticReduction(SCR)[11][12].Theexhaustaftertreatmentsfiltersarebecomingincreasinglyimportantinthechallengetokeepupwiththeemissionsstandardsthatgrowmoreandmorestringenteveryyearinthetransportindustry.Onesimplerwayforthetransportindustrytodecreasethechallengeofmeetingthehighemissionstandardsistoshiftthefocusfromdevelopingexpensiveaftertreatmentsystems(suchastheadditionofasulfurtrapcatalyst)todemandinghigherqualityfuel[11].Forexample,Zhangetal.studiedtheeffectofSO2poisoningontheSCRreactionactivityofaCu-SAPO-34catalysttoidentifytwomechanismsofwhichtheSCRcatalystwasinhibited;formationof(NH4)2SO4whichcanleadtoblockingoftheactivesites,aswellas,identifyingthetrendthatSO2absorptioncompeteswithNOxabsorptionontheCusites.Theconcentrationofsulfurinfuelshasalsobecomeakeyissueuponthefindingsthatcombustionofregulardieselfuelproducesamountsofsulfurdioxide,SO2,andNOx,nitrogenoxides.Moreover,whenSO2dissolvesintothewaterthisproducesthephenomenonknownasacidrainwhichcontributestoenvironmentaldamage.Whentheacidrunsintoriversand
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streamsitcanleadtoincreasedacidity,whichhasanimmediateeffectonbiodiversity.Furthermore,itcanreactwithmetalssuchaslimestone,aswellas,damagingthewaxlayerontreeswhichmakesitmoredifficulttoabsorbnecessaryminerals[13][14].Meanwhile,NOxcontributestothegreenhouseeffect.Astheamountsofvehiclesrunningondieselincreasesontheroadeveryyear,itbecomesnecessarytoreducetheamountofPMproducedtoensuresufficientairquality.Sootisthemainculpritofdieselnoxiousblackexhaustfumes,consequently,itisoneofthemajorcontributorstoairpollution[15].Moreover,thePMproducedareharmfulduetotheirabilitytopenetratedeeplyintothelungs.Startingin2004thestandardEN590reducedtheallowableamountofsulfurindieselfuelfrom50ppmto10ppmforroadvehicles[16].Inaddition,itallowsfortheblendingofupto7%volumeofbiofuelswithconventionaldieselfuel.AllofthestandardsareprovidedinTable5.Thisstandardhasbeenextendedtooff-roaddieselenginesandlargeengines,cappingthematalimitof15ppmsulfur.
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Table5:Generallyapplicablerequirementsandstandardizedtestmethodsforautomotivedieselfuel[16]
Property Unit Limits TestMethod
Minimum Maximum
Cetanenumber 51.0 - ENISO5165EN15195EN16144!EN16715
Cetaneindex 46.0 ENISO4264
Densityat15°C kg/m3 820.0 845.0 ENISO3675ENISO12185
Polycyclicaromatichydrocarbons
%(m/m) - 8 EN12916
Sulfurcontent mg/kg - 10 ENISO20846eENISO20884ENISO13032
Manganesecontent mg/dm3 - 2 EN16576
Flashpoint °C Above55.0 - ENISO2719
Carbonresidueg(on10%distillationresidue)
%(m/m) - 0.3 ENISO10370
Ashcontent %(m/m) - 0.010 ENISO6245
Watercontent %(m/m) - 0.020 ENISO12937
Totalcontamination mg/kg - 24 EN12662
Copperstripcorrosion(3hat50°C)
Rating Class1 ENISO2160
Fattyacidmethylester(FAME)content
%(V/V) - 7.0 EN14078
Oxidationstability h -20
25-
ENISO12205EN15751
Lubricity,wearscardiameter(WSD)at60°C"
µm - 460 ENISO12156-1
Viscosityat40°C mm2/s 2,000 4,500 ENISO3104
Distillation%(V/V)recoveredat250°C%(V/V)recoveredat350°C95%(V/V)recoveredat
%(V/V)%(V/V)°C
85
<65360
ENISO3405ENISO3924
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HydrotreatedVegetableOil(HVO)Hydrotreatingofvegetableoilisamodernwaytoproduceveryhigh-qualitybiobaseddieselfuelswithoutcompromisingfuellogistics,engines,exhaustaftertreatmentdevices,orexhaustemissions.Additionally,theyarecommonlycomposedofamixtureofparaffinichydrocarbons[17].HVOcomeswithmanyperkssuchasthepossibilitytoadjustthecoldpropertiesofthefuelbyadjustingtheseverityoftheprocess,orbyadditionalcatalyticprocessing,aswellas,thefuelhavingahighcetanenumber.Itisagreatalternativeforbiofuel,butcomeswithdisadvantageswhichincludeexpensiveproductionandthatitisproducedfromsimilarfeedstocksasbiodiesel[18].Infact,HVOhasmanyadvantagesatcoldtemperatures:fasterandeasiercoldstart,lesscoldstartsmoke,lessenginenoiseafteracoldstart[10].TheprocessrequiredtoproduceHVOinvolvessaturatingtriglyceridesunderhydrogenpressureandconvertingthemintofreefattyacidsandpropane.Subsequently,threesimultaneousreactionsoccurproducinglong-chainhydrocarbons,water,carbonmonoxide,andcarbondioxide[19].AdiagramdescribingthestepsinvolvedinofthehydrotreatmentcanbeseenInFigure1.
TheEuropeanCommitteeforStandardization(CEN)hasapprovedtheEN15940standardforparaffinicdieselspecifyingthequalityandpropertiesofadvanceddieselwhichiseithersyntheticorproducedfromrenewablerawmaterialsthroughhydrotreatment.Dieselfuelsthatcomplywiththestandardcanbeusedinexistingengineseitherassuchorasbefore,asblendcomponentsinconventionaldiesel[20].
WhileHVOmaycomewithmanyadvantages,thehighcostofproductionofthisbiofuelhavebeenplayedalargepartinthelimiteduseofitinthetransportsector.ThehighproductioncostscanbeattributedtohydrogenationandloweryieldsatHVOproduction[21].ThisfuelnotonlycostssignificantlymorethanotherbiodieselalternativessuchasFAME,butisalsoproducedfromthesamefeedstockwhichcausesstrainonthealreadylimitedresources.
FattyAcidMethylEster(FAME)FAMEiscomposedofaglycerinemoleculeconnectedwiththreelonghydrocarbons,whichcannotbeusedasafuelinitsoriginalformduetoitshighviscosity.Inthiscase,theFAMEissourcedfromrapeseedoilalthoughitcancomefrommanydifferentsourcesaspreviously
Figure1:Reactionschemeforhydroprocessingatriglyceride,e.g.triolein,bysaturation,fattyacidformation,andthreeroutestohydrocarbonformation[19]
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mentionedinthisreport.Therefore,inordertoutilizevegetablefuelsindieselengines,aprocesscalledtransesterificationisrequired.Transesterificationisanalcoholysisprocessthatconvertstriglyceridesfromvegetableoiltofattyacidmethyl/ethylestersbydisplacingalcoholfromanesterbyanotheralcohol[3].Afterthetransesterificationprocessiscomplete,thethreelonghydrocarbonmoleculesareeffectivelyseparatedasisshowninFigure2.Methanoliscommonlyusedintheprocesstobreakupthetriglycerides,aswellas,astrongbaseorastrongacidthatcanbeusedasacatalyst[22].:
Figure2:Thetransesterificationprocesstoproducebiodieselandglycerol[22]
AsthereactioninFigure2displays,methanolisreactedwithtriglycerideinthepresenceofacatalysttoproducerawbiofuelandglycerol.Furthermore,usingmethanolinthetransesterificationprocessallowsfortheglyceroltoberemovedsimultaneously[22].However,acleaningstepisrequiredinordertoobtainaviableformofthebiodiesel.OneofthecurrentissuesinusingFAMEintheautomotiveindustryistherateatwhichitdeterioratesrelativetoULSD.Deteriorationofthefuelincreaseswiththenumberofdoublebondspresentinthefeedstock;therefore,higherchanceofoxidationdeterioration[23].ThenumberofbondspresentinthreedifferentcommonFAMEsourcesaredisplayedinFigure3includingSoybeanMethylEster(SME),RapeseedOilMethylEster(RME)andPalmOilMethylEster(PME)wherethepurplerepresentsnonbondedcarbons,redrepresentssingle-bondedandyellowrepresentsdouble-bondedcarbons[23].
TriglycerideMethanolGlycerol Esters
Figure3:NumberofbondsperdifferentFAMEsources[23]
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TheincreaseduseofFAMEhasintroducedmanyissuesduetocontaminantswhichwillbediscussedlaterinthisreport.Moreover,togetanideaofthenovelproblemsthatmustbemitigatedFigure4showsasummaryofthemanyshortcomingsthatcanarise.Duetothemanypossiblesourcesofcontamination,itisverydifficulttonarrowdownwhichcontaminantsarethemostpotenttoengineperformance.Moreover,figure4displaysmanyoftheissuesknowntocausedeposits.
Figure4:IssuesintroducedduetohigherconcentrationsofFAME[23]
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FiltrationSystemintheCommonRailEngineThecommonrailfuelsystemutilizestwofiltersintheengineinordertoprotectthevariouscomponents,theprimaryandsecondfilterasisdisplayedinthediagramdisplayedin[24].
Figure5:Adiagramofthelayoutofadieseltruckengine[24]
Theprimaryfilteriscommonlylocatedonthesuctionsideofthefueltransferpumpandallowsfortheprotectionofthepumpwhilesimultaneouslytakingadvantageofeasierfuelwaterseparationconditionsbeforethepumpemulsifiesthefuel/watermixture[24].Moreover,uponcloggingoftheinlet-sidefilerresultsinthepressurelossofthesuctionofthefuelpump,inotherwords,morepressuredropleadstolessthansufficientfuelsupplyandlimitsenginesperformancedirectly[25].Efficiencyratingsfortheprimaryfiltersaredependentuponvehicle,engine,andoperatingenvironmentprimaryfiltersrangingfrom7µmto25µm.
Thesecondaryfilterislocatedbetweenthetransferandhigh-pressureinjectionpump.Thesefiltersprovideprotectionforthehigh-pressurefuelpumpandsensitivefuelinjectioncomponentsfromparticlesthatcancausewearanderosiondamage[24].Secondfiltersinhigh-pressurecommonrailfuelsystemsgenerallyhaveefficiencyratingsof4-5µm.
Theprimaryandsecondaryfiltersarebothparadigmstoanefficientrunningengineandcanbeafflictedbysimilarrootcauses.Thepre-filterandmainfiltercanbothbecloggedbytheaggregationofsoftparticles,however,theyoccurinslightlydifferentways.Thepre-filtercanbecomecloggedwithlargesoftparticlesthatdepositonitssurface,effectivelylimitingtheflowoffueltotheengine.Meanwhile,themainfiltercanbeaffectedbythesmallersoftparticlesintwoways:agglomerationandpresenceinthefuelinjector.Moreover,smallerporesizerestrictionsforfuelfiltersduetotighterclearancesinHPCR(High-PressureCommonRail)injectors,coupledwithcontaminantsfrombiodieselandcarboxylatesaltsinfuel,havebeenidentifiedasaccelerantsofdieselfuelfilterplugging[26].Itshouldbenotedthatthe
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sizeofthesesoftparticleslieintherangeof5to15µm,whereastheaverageeyecanonlydetectobjectsassmallas40µmasisshownin[27].Thesephenomenawillbediscussedinfurtherdetailinthenextsections.
Figure6:Generalsizesofcommonthings[27]
FilterCloggingUsingablendofbiodieselandregulardieselincurrentenginesintroducesnovelissuesintothepowersystemsbyproducingsoftparticleswhichclogtheenginefilters.UnderstandingthemainmechanismbywhichsoftparticlesareformediscrucialbecauseitwouldallowScaniatooptimizetheperformanceoftheirtrucksbyadjustingthecompositionofthebiofuelsorengineparameters,forexample,toadjustformorehumidregionssuchasLatinAmerica.Onestudyfoundthatfiltercloggingduetobiofuelsispossiblyrelatedtosolubilityincompatibilityandthatdepositsmaybetheresultofheavyoxidationoffuelcomponentssuchaslubricantadditivesduringcombustionofthefuel[28].Theaccumulationofsoftparticlescanleadtopluggingofthepre-filter(Stage1)viamanymechanisms,including,sieving,bridging,andagglomerationwhicharerepresentedinFigure7[29].SievingSievingcanresultincloggingduetothefactthatasoftparticlecanenteramicrochannelwhosesizeissmallerthanthediameteroftheparticleatrest.Inotherwords,whenapressuredifferenceisappliedbothvolumeandshapeofadeformableobjectchangeduetolocalmechanicalstresses.Thisshapechangeleadstoblockageofchannels,i.ecloggingofthefilter[29].BridgingBridgingcanformintheinstancesthatconvergingflowandhighparticleconcentrationoccurs,generatingalayerofparticles,typicallybetween2and10,thatspanacrosstheentirechannel.Thisoccurslargelyduetostericeffectsthroughtheformationofanarchofparticlesacrossthewidthofthechannel,resultingincloggingofthefilter[29].
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AgglomerationAgglomerationistheendresultofcloggingduetosuccessivedepositionofcolloidalparticles.Thisphenomenoncanoccurinthebulkofsuspensionoronafluidinterface[30].Short-rangeattractivevanderWaalsforceisthemaindrivingforcebehindtheformationofcloggingfromagglomeration,inotherwords,thehigherfrequencyofcollisionsofparticlesleadstohigherratesofdepositformationsonthefilters.Furthermore,globallythereisavarietyofweatherconditionsandaltitudeswhereScaniatruckstravelandtransportcargo,soknowledgeoftheprominentmechanismcanbeusedtoreduceuptimeofthevehicles
Figure7:PhenomenathatcancauseStage1andStage2filtersclogging[29]
DieselInjectorCloggingAnadditionalissuethatarisesfromtheformationofsoftparticlesisthegenerationofparticleswhicharesmallerthanthefiltersizeitself.Thisbecomesespeciallytroublesomebecausesomeparticlesmayfindtheirwaythroughtheprimaryandsecondaryfilter,whichleadstodepositsonthefuelinjector.Thisproblemispotenttotheoperationofanenginesincedepositsintheinjectorreducethehydraulicdiameter,indoingso,reducesthehydraulicflowinthenozzle.Thustheamountofinjectedfuelisdecreasedandsprayqualityisdecreased.Manystudieshavebeenperformedwhichhavenotonlyidentifiedcommoninternaldieselinjectiondeposits(IDID´s),butalsoidentifiedthemaincausesbehindinjectordepositsincludednozzlegeometry,fuelcomposition,andtemperature[31][32].InternalDieselInjectorDepositsInfact,thereare6differenttypesofinternaldieselinjectiondepositsthathavebeenidentifiedwhichareallproductsofthecontaminants.Thesixtypesof(IDID´s)include
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carboxylatesalts,polymericamides,inorganicsalts,agedfueldeposit,lacquer-basedorcarbonaceous[32].Furthermore,IDID´saremoreoftenthannotacomplexmixtureofmultiplesortswhichcanmakepinpointingthetruecauseofcloggingincreasinglydifficult.
NozzleGeometryDuetotheimportanceofgeometryintheprocess,itisveryimportanttohaveanaccuratemeasureofthegeometry.Macianet.aldescribesonemethodthatutilizesformingamoldofthenozzletipusingsiliconduetoitsmaterialproperties.Tanget.alinvestigatedtheimpactofenhancedcavitationontheformationofdepositionsbyvaryingthegeometriesofthesprayholesand,thuscavitationtendency.Onegeometry(Type2)utilizedahydro-grinded(respectivelyrounded)sprayholeinlettoreducecavitationinthenozzleorifice.Whiletheotherwasassumedtoresultinaminorcokingincomparisontothepreviousgeometry(Type2).Upontestinginamedium-dutytruckengineOm906usingCycle1.itwasfoundthattheType2geometryreducedinpoweroutputby6%,whilethetype1nozzleindicatednosignificantcokinglevel[34].Additionally,anotherstudyexaminedseveralgeometricalparametersandtheirinfluencesincludingoutletholediameter.Conicityfactor(Cf),andtheinletholeradiuswhichiscontrolledbythelevelof“hydrogrinding”.Argueyrolleset.al.foundthatlargeroutletholediameterandthereforelargerhydraulicflowleadtolargerdeposits.whilekeepingthefuelflowratelosslow[35].
FuelCompositionThenumberofdepositformationsincreaseswithalargerconcentrationofbiofuelinafuelmixtureasmanystudieshavefound[36].Birgeret.alperformedastudytoinvestigatetheeffectofdifferentfuelsfromvegetableoilthathadbeenprocessedviathetransesterificationprocessincludingB0(RF06),B30(30%V/V)andB100.DepositsweremeasuredbyadropinIndicatedMeanEffectivePressure(IMEP).Moreover,theresultsindicatedthatboththeB30andB100blendsofoff-specificationbiodieselacceleratedthedepositformation.
TemperatureManystudieshavebeendoneandcometotheconclusionthathighertemperaturesleadtomoredepositsintheengine,aswellas,studiesthathaveshownthatcoldtemperaturesleadtodepositsintheengine.Whenthebiofuelissubjectedtohighertemperatures,oxidationofthefuelincreasessubstantially.Itshouldbenoted,inadieselenginethetemperatureusedisathighestaround80°Canditisonlysubjectedtothistemperatureforashortwhile.Oxidationduetohightemperaturesismoreafocustoensurethelongevityofthecontaminantsthataccumulateovertime.Argueyrollesetal.statethatnozzletemperatureshigherthan300°Ccanresultinsignificantcoking.Furthermore,Galleet.alrecommendsavoidingtemperaturesover280°Cinthenozzletiptopreventcloggingandcarbonizing.Meanwhile,undercoldtemperatures,organicparticlessuchasSterylGlucosides(SG)precipitateoutofthefuelleadingtocloggingissues.However,thisspecificissuewillbediscussedinthefollowingsection.
ContaminantsinFuelTherearemanysortsofcontaminationthatcanoccurinafluidpowersystem:gaseous(e.gair),liquid(e.g.water),andsolidcontaminantsasFigure8belowdemonstrates.Furthermore,
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solidcontaminationcanbesubdividedintothreedifferentgroups:extremelyhard,hardandsoft.Contaminationiscommonlyintroducedthroughtheuseofuncleantanks,dirtaddedduringmaintenancecycles,tankopentotheenvironmentandmissingorlow-qualityairbreathersintanks[27].Forthisreport,thefocuswillbeonsoftparticles.Thesesoftorganicparticlescanbuildupwithintheengineduetotheiraccumulationintheenginefromnaturalcauses,aswellas,duetooxidationofthebiofuel.Softorganicparticlescanbesoft,stickyorslimywhichquicklyleadstobuild-upwithinthefiltersintheengine[24].Therootcausesfortheirformationwillbediscussedinthissection.
Figure8:Differenttypesofcontaminationinafluidsystem[24]
ParticlesinfuelParticulatecontaminantsincluderoaddust,enginerustorwearparticles,andanyotherhardparticlesthatcancauseenginedamage[24].Theseparticlesarecommonlyrigidinnatureandthereforecancausealargeamountofdamagetotheengine,however,thetrueextentofdamageisdependentonparticlesize,shape,rigidity,concentrationandcomposition.Thefirstlineofdefenseagainstthesedestructiveparticlesistheprimaryfilter,whichisdesignedtocapturetheseparticlesinthefuelinordertoreducedamagetoimportantcomponentsofthesystem[25].Therearetwocommonsourcesofparticulatecontaminationincludingdieselfuelcleanlinesslevelsofavailablefuel,andthetankvent.Asthisreporthasdiscussedearlier,therearecertainrequirementsforthecleanlinessofthefuelwhereitcanonlyincludeamaximumofcertainknowntroublesomecomponents[16].Asforcontaminantsthatareintroducedviathetankvent,theyincludeambientairwhichcancontributedustandotherharmfulcomponentsintothetank.Theproblemsthatcomewiththeambientairinthetankspecificallywillbediscussedlaterinthisreport.
WaterWatercanenterasystemasfree,dissolvedandemulsifiedwaterinthefuel.Waterfoundindieselfuelscancauseenginepartcorrosionanderosion,fuellubricitydeterioration,fuel
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pumpcavitation,fuelinjectordepositbuild-upandfuelfilterplugging[24].Inaddition,itcanalsopromotefuelinstabilityandbacteriagrowthatthefuel/waterinterface.Freeandemulsifiedwatercontentindieselfuelscanleaduptocloggingofthefilterssinceitpromotesbiologicalgrowthinstoragetanks,whichcanleadtocorrosionofmetals(copper,iron,steel,andothers)andformationofsludgeandslime[38].Meanwhile,dissolvedwaterleadstofasteroiloxidation,reducedfatiguelife,anddemolitionofester-basedfluidsandadditives[27].Itshouldbenoted,thatwaterinthetankisnotabnormalbecausewatercanalsobetransferredintothevehicle´sfueltankasthelevelofdissolvedwaterinthefuelequilibrateswiththerelativehumidityoftheoutsidesurroundings.Moreover,Thompsonetal.foundthatsaturationmoistureinbiodieselrangedfrom0.10to0.17%wtinthetemperaturerangeof4°to35°C,whichwas15-25timeshigherthanthatofstandarddiesel.Thispropertyleadstothepossibilityifwatercollectingatthebottomofthetank,whichleadstobiggerproblemsmentionedearliersuchasbiologicalgrowth.Fanget.alusedtheD2274standardmethodtoageB20inthepresenceofasmallamountofwaterandfoundthatitincreasedtherateforboththehydroxylandthecarbonylbands.Ultimatelysuggestingthemechanismsoccursasshowninequation2[40].Theproposedmechanismissuchthattheestersreactwithwatertoformcarboxylicacidandmethanol.
AirAsmentionedpreviously,ambientairmayenterthegastankwheneverthetankventisopenedwhichcanleadtomanyissuesincludingoiloxidation,varnishformation,cavitation,noise,andchangeofviscosity[27].Pre-maturedegradationofthebiofuelisakeyissuewhentheairisintroducedsincetheoxygencomponentwillreactwithoil.Thisisduetothepresenceofdoublebondsinthemoleculeinducesahighlevelofreactivitywithoxygenwhenitmakesdirectcontactwithair.Moreover,Altaieet.alfoundthatwhencomparingfueltankstoragethatwasclosedtotankstoragethatwasexposedtoambientair,thelaterdegradedatafasterrate[41].Decreaseinpumpefficiencyandeventuallydamagetopumpsiscausedbytheformationandcollapseofgaseousoilcavities(i.e.cavitation).
PresenceofMetalsThepresenceofmetalshasaverydampeningeffectontheperformanceofadieselenginesincetheycausedecreasedoxidationstabilityinbiofuels.Whiletheeffectofzinconbiofuelsiswellknown,othermetalsproducesimilareffectsincludingsodium,calcium,copper,andiron.TheissueofmetalsarisesduetothefundamentalsofthedegradationofbiofuelsbecauseitleadstotheformationofLongChainFattyAcids(LCFA)andShortChainFattyAcids(SCFA).TheSCFAareveryreactiveandreactwiththemetalionspresentformingmetalsoaps,whichcontributetothecloggingofthefilter.Risberget.alfoundthatsodium,calcium,copper,andironsaltssignificantlyfoulednozzleholes[42].Infact,atrendwasidentifiedthathigherchargeofthemetalcationinthecarboxylicsaltincreasedthefuelflowloss.Whilethe
Equation1:Esterhydrolysisbyreactionwithdissolvedwater[40]
Ester Water GlycerolCarboxylicAcid
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concentrationofzincinmarketdieselfuelsisratherlow,usuallybelow0.1ppm,zinccanbeintroducedfromfuelsystemcomponentsandlubricantsystems[43].Despitetheselowconcentrationsofzinc,theissueofconcentrationarisesduetoaccumulationovertime.Thedebilitatingeffectofzincondieselengineshasbeenwelldocumented,andmanyreportshaveconcludedthatithasthiseffectataslittleconcentrationas1ppm[31],[42],[43].Fangetal.researchedtheeffectofmetalsonB100usingsmallamountsofferricacetylacetonate(withironFeconcentrationat16or40ppm)usingtheD2274standardmethodofagingthefueltoobservenewbandinthecarbonylregionat1640cm-1[40].Thisnewbandwasidentifiedasacarboxylateformation,makingthecaseforareactionbetweenironandcarboxylatefunctionalgroups.
SterylGlucosides(SG)&SaturatedMonoglycerides(SMG)Plant-basedbiofuelsarecomposedoffreesterols,sterylestersandacetylatedsterylglucosides(ASGs).Moreover,duringthetransesterificationprocess,theASGsareconvertedtoSterylGlucosidesduetothepresenceofmethanol[44].Furthermore,manystudieshavefoundthatthepresenceofSGleadstofiltercloggingparticularlyincoldtemperatures[45],[46].ThefiltercloggingduetoSGislargelyduetothelowsolubilityofSGinbiodieselandhighmeltingpoint,leadingtosoftparticlesinthefuel.Furthermore,concentrationaslowas20ppmleadstofilterclogging[46],[47].
Monoglycerides(SMG)arepartiallyconvertedfatsandoilswithinthebiodiesel[48].Furthermore,Itcanhavetwoforms,saturatedandunsaturated;wheretheformercansignificantlyraisethecloudpointofthebiodieselwhilethelatterdoesnot[49].SimilartoSG,studieshaveshownthatSMGisacommonsourceoffilterplugging.TherearestandardsthatareaimingatthedecreasingconcentrationofSGandSMG´sintransportfuelsincludingENSS-EN14214,however,thisfocusfallsmainlyonfuelproducers.ThestandardsandestablishedtestmethodsforeachparameterofFAMEbiofuelareshowninTable6.Thisisnotaverypotentsourceofcontaminationduetothefactthattheconcentrationsaregenerallyextremelylow,andthereforenotalargefocusonfiltrationclogging[1].Fanget.alperformedanexperimentgravimetricallywherea20-gyellowgreasebiodieselsamplewasmixedwith2%EHN,0.1%organo-sulfonicacid(C12SO3H)and100ppmferricacetylacetone.Whereupon,a20%aqueousglycerinewasaddeddropwise[40].Afterfirstheatingthesampleat120°Cfor4hoursandthen110°Cforthenext16hourswithaconstantairflowrateof15cc/min,itwasfoundthatanincreasedbuild-upofdepositsoccurredwhentheglycerin/waterconcentrationreachesabout600ppm.
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Table6:GenerallyapplicablerequirementsandtestmethodsperSS-EN14214[78]
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FuelAdditivesFueladditivescanservemanypurposesinafuelincludingimprovinghandlingpropertiesandstabilityofthefuel,improvecombustionpropertiesofthefuel,provideengineprotectionandcleanliness,increasetheeconomicuseofthefuelandtoestablishorenhancethebrandimageofthefuel[50].Furthermore,dependingonthetransportsystemavarietyofthepreviouslymentionedfeaturesmayberequired.TherearemanyadditivesthatareinvolvedintheblendingofdieselfuelsincludingDepositControlAdditives(DCA)´s,CetaneNumberImprovers,ColdFlowImprovers,andStabilityImprovers.DepositControlAdditivesDepositcontroladditiveshavebecomeveryusefulinreducingclottingofthefilters,whichcanhelpmitigatetheissueofpowerlossengineperformanceduetosoftparticlesthatformindieselengines.DieselDCApreventstheformationofdepositsininjectornozzlespartlybyprovidingafilmonmetalsurfacesandpartlybypreventingagglomerationofdepositprecursors[51].Thisispossibleduetoitsstructurewhichconsistsofapolarheadwhichhasanaffinityforthemetalsurfaceinthefuelsystemandahydrocarbontailwhichallowsfuelsolubility.Theimportanceofthisadditiveindieselfuelblendingisreflectedinthecompositionoffuelssuchthat40-50%ofalladditivesusedareinfactDCA´s[52].ThereisoneparticularDCAthathasbeenavastlysuperioradditiveoverthelastthirtyyearsknownaspolyisobutylenesuccinimides(PIBSI)[53].ThechemicalstructureofPIBSIisdisplayedinFigure9.TherehasbeendebateastowhetherPIBSIcouldleadtoinjectordepositswheresomestudiesfoundthatbymixingandheatingPIBSIwithacidiccompoundscouldgenerateamidesandproducematerialwithasimilarFT-IRspectrumtodepositsanalyzedfromaninjector[54],[55].Consequently,afollow-upstudywasperformedwhichconcludedthatwhilethematerialproducedlookedsimilar,therewasnoconclusiveevidencethatPIBSIwouldproducedeposits[56].
CetaneNumberImproversCetanenumberimproversarecrucialinfuelstoprovideacost-effectiveincreaseindieselcetanequalityandarepredominantlyalkylnitrates,ofwhich2-ethylhexylnitrate(2-EHN)hasbeenthemostcommonforover80years[51].Ahighcetanenumberisveryimportantforafuelbecauseitdetermineshowfastafuelwillignite,therefore,thehigherthecetanenumberthemorereducedtheignitiondelay.Theydonotonlyincreasethecombustionprocessensuringearlyanduniformignitionofthefuel,butalsopreventprematurecombustionandexcessivepressureincreaseinthecombustioncycle.Alkylnitratesareveryeffectiveduetotheexcessoxygenthattheyintroduceintothefuelupondecomposition,whichisverybeneficialforthe
Figure9:TheChemicalStructureofPIBSI
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combustionofthefuel[50].Thoughtheseadditivescanbeveryeffectiveinimprovingthequalityofthefuel,theyalsocatalyzefueloxidationduetotheirstrongtendencytodecomposeathightemperaturesleadingtomorefreeradicalsinthefuel.Equation2showsthedecompositionreactionofanalkylnitrate[28].Equation2:AlkylNitrateDecomposition
𝑅𝑂𝑁𝑂$%&𝑅𝑂 ∙ +𝑁𝑂$
Fangelal.agedfuelswithdifferentconcentrationsofsulfuraccordingtoASTMD2274(SeeAcceleratedMethod)andfoundthattheadditionofalkylnitratesleadtolargeconcentrationsofcarbonylandhydroxylfunctionalgroups[28].
ColdFlowImproversColdflowimprovershelpnegatetheformationoflargewaxcrystalsthatbegintooccurlargelydueton-paraffinsastemperaturedrops,whichoftenleadtoblockingofthefuelfiltersandfeedlinesthatcanultimatelycauseengineshutdown.Co-precipitationoftheseadditiveswithwaxcrystalsreducesthenumberoflargecrystallatticesandinsteadproducesmanysmallcrystalseffectivelyallowingforbetterflow[51].
StabilityImproversStabilityimproveradditivesarecommonlyaddedinblendingofdieselfuelduetotheirabilitytoinhibittheformationofsludge,deposits,anddarkeningofcolorthatoccursnaturallyindieselfuelswhenstoredoveralongperiodoftime[51].Onetypeofstabilityimproverusedisknownasanantioxidant,whichcanimprovedthefuelstabilitybysuppressingthepropagationprocessbyreactingwithfreeradicals,aswellas,bydispersingsedimentagglomeratetopreventfilterblocking[50].Withthetrendofwantingtoblendhigherconcentrationsofbiodiesel,thesestabilizersgrowevermoreimportant.
TestMethodsAcceleratedMethodAgingofthefuelcanbeaccomplishedusingtheASTMD2274-14standardwhichisaStandardTestMethodforOxidationStabilityofDistillateFuelOil.Inthiscase,thisstandardwasusedasabasecaseandthentheexperimentsweremanipulatedbasedontheresultsthattheyproduced.Accordingtothisstandard,asampleofthe350-cm3volumeoffilteredmiddledistillatefuelisagedat95°Cfor16hourswhileoxygenisbubbledthroughthesampleat3dm3/h[57].Thismethodexposesthefuelforalongperiodoftimetohighlyoxidizingconditions.Furthermore,theinherentpotentialofthematerialbeingtestedtoformdepositsundertheseconditionsismeasured[58].Thisstudyisinterestedinisolatingparameterstoinvestigatetheindividualeffectofeach,thereforeithasbeeninitiallymodifiedsothata350-mlvolumeofabiofuelsampleisagedatdifferenttemperaturesforvaryingtimesopentotheenvironmentinafumehood.
AcceleratedOxidationTestTheOilStabilityIndex(OSI)canbecalculatedusingthestandardtestforDeterminationofOxidationStabilityonFatandOilDerivatives-namelyFattyAcidMethylEsters(FAME)asdescribedinSS-EN14112:2016[59].Thisstandardmeasuresthelengthoftimeat110°Cin
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airbeforevolatileoxidationproductsbegantoform[58].Moreover,itcanpredicthowlongamaterialcanwithstandoxidativeconditions.
DaimlerOxidationTestThisisamodifiedmethodthatutilizesrefluxandisbaseduponCECL-48-A-00.Afuelsampleisheatedatatemperatureof160Cunderconstantmixing,whiletheoxidationiscatalyzedusingareactivemetal(Fe(III)acetyl-acetone,100mg/kg).Airisfedintothesystemat10cm3/hthroughouttheoxidationprocess.Generally,250gofunusedmotoroilistestedandtheconcentrationofbiofuelconcentrationcanbevariedthoughaconcentrationof5%isrecommended.Thismethodisveryeffectiveforoxidationtestingduetothere-circulationoftheproductswithlowerboilingpoints.
RancimatEN15751EN15751isastandardtestmethodusedInEuropeforthedeterminationoftheoxidationstabilityoffuelsfordieselengines,bymeasuringtheinductionperiodofthefuelupto48hours.Thismethodcanbeusedtotestthestabilityofpurefattyacidmethylester(FAME)orinblendsbetween2and7%volumeFAME.Inthisprocess,astreamofpurifiedairispassedthroughthesamplewhichhasbeenheatedat110°C,whereuponoxidationvolatilecompoundsareformed.Thesevolatilecompoundsarepassedtogetherwithairintoaflaskcontainingdemineralizedordistilledwater,whichisequippedwithaconductivityelectrode.Usingthiselectrode,theconductivityismonitoredcloselyandupondetectionofrapidincreasedconductivityduetothedissociationofvolatilecarboxylicacidsproducingduringtheoxidationprocessandabsorbedinwater[60].EN590specificationforFAMEblends(2-7%-vol)isminimum20hoursandinEN15751(2009)forneatFAMEminimum8hours[61].
Figure10:MeasurementprincipleoftheRancimatmethod[61]
PetroOXYEN16091SS-EN16091isastandardmethodusedinEuropeforthedeterminationoftheoxidationstabilityofmiddledistillatefuels,fattyacidmethylester(FAME)fuelandofrespectiveblends,bymeasuringtheinductionperiodtothespecifiedbreakpointinareactionvesselchargedwiththesampleandoxygen.Theprocessmeasuresthestabilityofafuelbymeasuringthepressurechangesofoxygenovertimeinavesselpressurizedto700kPaasthesampleis
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heatedat140°C,asthepressureinthevesseldropsastheoxygenisconsumedduringoxidationofthesample.Theinductiontimeisthetimeittakesfortheoxygentoreachbreakpoint(i.e.whentheoxygenpressurecollapses).Furthermore,themorestableafuelisthehighertheinductiontime.
ColdSoakFiltrationTest(ASTMD2500)ASTMD2500standardisastandardmethodtotestforcloudpointofpetroleumproductsandliquidfuels.Moreover,itiscommonlyusedtotesttheperformanceofbiofuelsincoldtemperaturesviaafuelscloudpoint.ColdSoakFiltrationisagreatwaytoprecipitateoutformedsoftparticlesinoursamplesthathavealreadybeentreated(suchasusingthemodifiedacceleratedmethod)sincethecoldtemperatureprecipitatesouttherelevantsoftparticlesformed.PerASTMD2500,asampleiscooledatatemperatureof4.5°Cforanextendedperiodoftimefollowedbywarm-upbetween20to22°Ctoobserveanyformationofprecipitates[62],[63].
FiltrationMethodsTherearetwocommonfiltrationmethodsincludingsimplefiltrationandvacuumfiltrationwhichcanbeutilizedasaseparationtechniquedependingonthepropertiesofthesample,however,itshouldbenotedthatnotallparticlesmaybecollectedonthefilterifsomeofthecomponentsareinfactsolubleinthemixture.Thissolubilityleadstotheparticlespossiblypassingthroughthefilter,ratherthanremainingonthefiltertobelateranalyzedasdesired[28].
SimpleFiltrationThisisthemostcommonmethodoffiltrationandisusedtoremoveaninsolublesolidmaterialfromasolution[64].Thistypeoffiltrationreliesongravitytoproduceenoughforcetopullasolutionthroughafilter,whichisnotalwaysenoughrequiringsomeseparationprocessestousevacuumfiltration.
Figure11:MeasurementprincipleofPetroOXYmethod[62]
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VacuumFiltrationTheindustrystandardASTMD-6217entitledStandardTestMethodforParticulateContaminationinMiddleDistillateFuelsbyLaboratoryFiltrationcanbeappliedasaneffectivefiltrationmethod.Accordingtothisstandard,whenperformingvacuumfiltration1Loffuelisfilteredthroughoneormoresetof0.8microns(µm)membranefilters,whicharesubsequentlywashedwithasolvent,driedandweighed[65].Theparticularcontaminationismeasuredbythedifferenceinweightbetweenthetreatedfiltersandcontrolfilters.Duetothehighviscosityoftheoils,avacuumsystemisrequiredwhichcanbeaccomplishedusingawateraspiratedoramechanicalvacuumpumpasisshowninFigure12[66].
TechniquestoMeasureSoftParticlesFilterAnalysisUponvacuumfiltration,particleswillaccumulatedirectlyonthefilterthatcanbedirectlyanalyzed.TheparticlesthencanbeanalyzedontopofthefilterusingFTIR&SEM-EDX.TheOnlydrawbackisthatthenifthelayerofparticlesisnotthickenough,thefiltermaterialwillshowupintheanalysis[67].
SmearMethodWhenusingtheFTIR-ATRanalyticalmethod,itisoftendesiredtoexaminethesoftparticlesformedonthefilterwithoutanalyzingthefilteritself.Onemethodtoaccomplishthisistousethesmearmethodwhereasampleoftheformeddepositsistransferredtothesensorviaplacingitnearandspreadingitaroundwhileapplyingslightpressure.Thecrystalisverysmallsoaminusculeamountofparticlesarerequiredforanalysis.
ManualCollectionMethodThismethodcanbeusedwhenafuelhasproducedalargenumberofstickyparticlesinthebeaker.Therefore,whenthisphenomenonoccursitispossibletouseaspatulaorscoopulatotransfertheparticlesfromthebeakertothehopperduringVFordirectlytoexamineontheFTIRcrystal.
Figure12:SchematicofFiltrationSystem[66]
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CentrifugationCentrifugationisacommonmethodtoseparatetwoentitieswhicharecomprisedofdifferentdensities,andgenerallyinsoluble.Justlikeitisusedtoseparateglycerolfrombiofuel,itcansimilarlybeusedtoseparatethehigherdensityparticleswhichareformedduringagingfromthelessdensefuel[68].
AnalyticalMethodsOpticalMicroscopyTheopticalmicroscopeisutilizedfortheobservationofparticlesfromabout150to0.8µminsize.Particleslargerthan150µmcanbeobservedusingasimplemagnifyingglass,whileparticlessmallerthanthisrangerequiretheuseofelectronmicroscopy[69].Thelimitedmagnificationcanbealimitingfactorinusingthisrelativetomoreadvancedmethodssuchaselectronmicroscopy,however,alargeissueliesinthecommonoccurrenceofdistortionthatoccursonpointsoftheimageswhentheOPwithtransmittedlightisusedatveryhighmagnifications[70].ThoughtherearemethodsthatcanbeusedtocurbthislimitingissueincludingSpatiallymodulatedillumination(SMI),Spectralprecisiondistancemicroscopy(SPDM),Stimulatedtransmissionemissiondepletion(STED)and3Dsuper-resolutionmicroscopy.
ElectronMicroscopyElectronmicroscopyprovidesaprecisemethodtoobserveandmeasureparticlesincludingmethodssuchasScanningElectronMicroscopy(SEM),andTransmissionElectronMicroscopy(TEM).Thesemethodsareallcommonlyusedinindustry,however,theselectionofthemethodisveryspecifictoparametersofinterestssuchasmorphology,size,andcomposition.ScanningElectronMicroscopyTheScanningElectron(SEM)Microscopyexaminesmicroscopicstructurebyscanningthesurfaceofmaterials,indoingsoitusesafocusedelectronbeam(5-50keV)thatscansoverthesurfaceareaofaspecimen[69].Itisverycommonlyusedtoanalyzethesurfaceofmaterialsduetoitsabilitytoanalyzematerialsofverysmallscaleassmallastheorderoftensofmicrometersat103×magnificationandtheorderofmicrometersat104×magnification[71].SEMproducesanimagebyutilizingsecondaryorbackscatteredelectronsignals,wherethesecondaryelectronsaregeneratednearthesurfaceofthesampleandthebackscatteredelectronsarethosereflecteduponstrikingtheatomscomposingthesample.Thescanningelectronimagereflectsthefinetopographicalstructureupondetectionoftheseelectrons[72].Whenanalyzingorganicmaterialsalow-pressurevacuumisrequired,meanwhileformetalsandinorganicmaterialsahigh-pressurevacuumisoftenutilized.Inordertoproduceanimage,theSEMbeamisfocusedtoafinepointandscanslinebylineoversamplesurfaceinarectangularrasterpattern.Additionally,amuchloweracceleratingvoltageisrequiredasitdoesnotneedtopenetratethespecimen[73].SEMisalsoconsiderablyfasterrelativetoTEMandproducesmore3-dimensionaldetails,inlargepartduetoitsabilitytomagnifysamplesupto100.000xatresolutionsof15-20nmcomparedto0.3-0.5nmfortheTEM[69].
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TransmissionElectronMicroscopyInatransmissionelectronmicroscope,animageisproducedviaelectronsthatareacceleratedfromaninitialsourceontoacondenserlens.Subsequently,thebeamtravelsnearorcloseto,normalincidence.Thesetransmittedbeamsarethenfocusedbyanobjectivetoformanimagewhichisfurthermagnifiedbyintermediateandprojectorlensesontoaphosphorscreenorelectroncamera[74].TEMisoftenusedtoobserveparticlesinthesizerange0.001to5µm[75].Moreover,usesabroadstaticbeamtoproduceanimage,unliketheSEMbeamwhichrequiredfinepointfocustoscanline-by-line.AlargedisadvantageofusingTEMisthatathinspecimenisrequired,aswellas,alargeacceleratingvoltageinordertopenetratetheaforementionedsample[73].
X-rayenergy-dispersivespectroscopy(EDX)Energy-dispersivespectrometer(EDX)isanadditionaltoolthatcanbeusedtoperformacompositionalanalysisofasamplewhenaddedtotheSEMmicroscope.X-rayspectroscopydeterminespresenceandquantitiesofchemicalelementsbydetectingcharacteristicX-raysthatareemittedfromatomsirradiatedbyahigh-energybeam.InthecaseofEDX,thecompositionofasampleiscalculatedfromthex-rayenergybasedonthecharacteristicx-raysemittedfromsampleatoms[71].Fourier-transformInfraredSpectroscopywithAttenuatedTotalReflection(FTIR-ATR)Fourier-TransformInfraredSpectroscopyisaverypowerfultooltounderstandthecompositionofasamplebyprovidingoverallstructuralinformation.Thisisaccomplishedviathemeasurementofthewavelengthandintensityoftheabsorptionofnear-infraredlightbyasample.Infraredradiationistransmittedthroughasample,wherepartoftheradiationisabsorbedwhiletherestistransmittedthrough.Asensorusesthisinformationtogeneratestructureinformationaboutfunctionalgroupspresentinthesample[76].Oneoftheadvantagesofthisanalyticalmethodisthatitrequiresaverysmallamountofthesampletoobtainveryaccurateresults[77].Inthiscase,aSpectrum100wasusedwithaDATR1DiamondZincSelenidecrystal.Additionally,ithastheAttenuatedTotalReflectance(ATR)featurewhichallowsforfastersamplingwithnopreparation,highreproducibility,andminimaloperator-inducedvariations[76].OnedisadvantagetousingFTIRisthatonlypeaksfromfunctiongroupsareproduced,thereforeahigherqualityanalysiscanbeachievedwhenusedincombinationwiththeSEMmicroscopewithEDXanalysis.
Experimental
MaterialsTodevelopamethodtoproducesoftparticlesinalaboratoryusingB10,B100,andHVO.Thebiodieselusedwasprimarilyproducedfromrapeseedoil,largelyduetoit´sabundanceinSweden.Inaddition,previouslynotedcausesofsoftparticlesinadieselenginewereaddedto350-mlsamplesofthefuelsincludingwater,metals,freshoilandheavilyoxidizedoil.Thesesamplesweresetonrespectiveheatplatesandsubjectedtoheatingforaselectedamountoftimetodegradethefuelandproducethedesiredsoftparticles.Asummaryofalltheexperimentscompletedincludingtheparameterstested,temperatures,andadditivesusedisdisplayedinTable8.
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MetalsInthecasesofthemetalsused,therewerealltubesof42mmlength,butthespecificpropertiesareshowninTable7.Themetalpieceswereplacedinthecornerofthebeaker,soasnottodisturbthemixingofthestirbar.
Table7:Propertiesofthemetalsusedintheagingofthefuels
Metal Type Dimension(lengthxdiameterxwidth)
Brass CuZnPb 42mmx10mmx1mm
Copper CopperC106(CW024A) 42mmx6mmx1mmIron E235SS 42mmx12mmx2mm
WaterInthecaseofModifiedAcceleratedMethods6through8,wherethefuelswereexposedtowaterduringaging,waterwasinitiallyaddedtothebeakerandthenfilledwiththebiofuelandsoon.Additionally,a3%concentration(10.5g)wasaddedtwiceaday(morningandevening),soastopreventtheevaporationofthewaterdespitekeepingthetemperaturebelowtheboilingpointofwater.Inthecaseofthisreport,onlypurifiedMilliQwasusedtoreducecontaminationfromotherpossibleions.
OilInthecaseofoil(freshandheavilyoxidized),aconcentrationof1%wasusedwhichequatesto3.5ml.Fortheheavilyoxidizedoilwithanoxidationnumberof12.8fromamotorcellrunatScania,itwasassumedtobeasimilardensity,thereforethesameweightwasused.Agedoilwasusedtosimulatetheeffectofagedoilthattendstomixwiththefuelintheenginesystem.
ProcedureTheexperimentalmethodwasbasedupontheASTMD2274-14standardwhichisaStandardTestMethodforOxidationStabilityofDistillateFuelOil.Theset-upoftheexperimentwiththeheatingandstirringofthehotplateisshowninFigure13.Thestirringratewasheldconstantat250rpmthroughoutalltheexperiments.Depositformationwasmeasuredusingthefollowingprocedure.Afterheatingfortheallottedtimeandtemperature,theagedfuelwasplacedinarefrigeratorwithatemperatureof4°Cforaminimumof24hoursbasedonASTMD2500standard,ColdSoakFiltrationTest(CSFT),whichallowsforanyremainingparticlestoprecipitateoutofthemixture.OncetheCSFTstepiscomplete,theyareindividuallyfilteredthrougha1.2-micron(µm)glass-fibrefilter,forModifiedAcceleratedMethods1-5anda1-micron(µm)PTFEfilterforModifiedAcceleratedMethods5-8,a1-micron(µm)PTFEfilter.Thefilterswereweighedinitiallyandthentheresultingagedmixtureswerevacuumfilteredtoanalyzesoftparticlegrowthintherespectivefuelmixtures.Uponfiltration,thesuctionwasturnedoffand5-mlofheptanewasaddedtogetridofanyremainingoil.After30seconds,turnonsuctionandrepeat3moretimes.Thefilterwasthenplacedinapetridishandallowedtositovernighttoallowforadditionaldrying,shouldtherebeanyheptaneremaining.Theweightofthetreatedfilterwastakenthefollowingday.Followingtheweighingofthefilters,theywerecutinhalfinordertomakesurenocontaminationoccurredbetweentheanalysisoftheresultingparticlesusingSEM-EDXandFTIR.AsummaryofalltheperformedexperimentisdisplayedinTable8
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Table8:Asummaryoftheperformedexperiments
ModifiedAcceleratedMethod(MAM)
Biofuel(s) AddedOil?
AddedMetal(s)?
AddedWater?
Temperature[°C]
Time[hours]
HeatingMethod
1 B100 Freshoil No No 80 72 Oven2 B100,
B10,HVO
None No No 110 72 HeatPlate
3 B100,B10,HVO
FreshOil No No 110 48 HeatPlate
4 B100,B10,HVO
AgedOil No No 110 48 HeatPlate
5 HVO AgedOil No No 110 144 HeatPlate
6 B100,B10,HVO
AgedOil No Yes 90 48 HeatPlate
7 B100,B10,HVO
AgedOil Brass,Copper,Iron
No 90 48 HeatPlate
8 B100.B10,HVO
AgedOil Brass,Copper,Iron
Yes 90 48 HeatPlate
9 B100,B10,HVO
None Brass,Copper,Iron
Yes 90 48 HeatPlate
TemperatureProbe
HotPlate
Stirbar
Figure13:Set-upusedtoagethebiofuels
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AppliedMethodsAcceleratedMethodsforOxidationofFuelOilsForthisexperiment,theAcceleratedMethodforoxidationbasedontheASTMD2274-14standardwasmodified.inthecaseoftheexperimentsperformed,theexposuretimewasadjustedfrom16hoursto48hours.Additionally,thetemperaturewasincreasedto110°Cinitiallyandthenloweredto90°Cforthetestsinterestedintheeffectofwaterandmetalsontheagingofthebiofuels.
ColdSoakFiltrationTestThemethodintroducedfromtheASTMD2500:2017wasfollowed,andassuchthesampleswereplacedinarefrigeratorat4°Cfor24hourspost-agingwiththeselectedparametersaftertherespectivebeakersweresealedusingparafilm.
VacuumFiltrationDuetothehighviscosityofthebiofuelsfiltrationusingjustgravimetricpressureswouldnotbesufficienttofilteroutparticles,andthereforebyapplyingavacuum,theprocesscanoccuratafasterpace.Twofilterswereused,thefirstofwhichwasmadeofglassfibrewithaporesizeof1.2-micron(µm)thatwasutilizedinModifiedAcceleratedMethods1-5.Meanwhile,theotherfilterwascomposedofPTFEwithaporesizeof1-micron(µm)andwasusedinModifiedAcceleratedMethods6-8.Theset-upforthevacuumfiltrationisdisplayedinFigure14below.
Filter
Hopper
Motor
Figure14:Vacuumfiltrationset-up
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AppliedTechniquestoMeasureSoftParticlesFilterAnalysisUponvacuumfiltration,particleswillaccumulatedirectlyonthefilterthatcanbedirectlyanalyzed.However,whenanalyzingusingFTIRthiscancausecontaminationofthefuelspectraduetoincreasedconcentrationsofthefilter(borosilicateglassfilter)toshowuponthespectrum.ThisiswhyforModifiedAcceleratedMethod5-8afiltercomposedofPTFEwasused.ThisisnotaslargeaproblemwhenusingSEM/EDXhoweversincethereisapossibilitytoanalyzeveryspecificparticlesusingthesoftware.
ManualCollectionMethodWhenagingofallofthefuelsiscomplete,somebiofuelsproducealargeamountofsludgeorstickyparticlesinthebottomofthebeakerthatconsistsofcomponentsofthefuelsthatprecipitatedout.Ifthereisalargeamountofthesestickydepositsonthebeaker,theyhaveatendencytoblockthefiltersandmakeitdifficulttofilterproperly.
AnalyticalTechniquesThemaintechniquesusedtoanalyzethecompositionoftheparticleswasFTIR-ATRandSEM-EDX.ThecombinationofthesemethodsisveryeffectiveduetotheirabilityoftheSEM-EDXtoprovidetheexactcomponentsfoundpersample,whichhelpsinterprettheFTIRspectramoreaccurately.
Fourier-transformInfraredSpectroscopywithAttenuatedTotalReflection(FTIR-ATR)FTIR-ATRwasusedtoexaminethecompositionoftheproducedsoftparticlesusingthePerkinElmerSpectrum100FT-IRSpectrometer.Inthiscase,aSpectrum100wasusedwithaDATR1DiamondZincSelenidecrystal.Additionally,thesamplesweretestedusingpressuregauge(pressurepushingdownonfilters)valueof15toensurecontactoftheparticlestothecrystal.Forthecasesofanalysisofstickyparticlesobtainedmanuallyfromthecornerofabeaker,theparticlewasplaceduponthesensortogetaninitialreading.Tobesurethereadingisn’taffectedbyremainingfueldroplets,onedropofheptanewasplacedonthesampleandallowedtodryfor10minutes.Afollow-upanalysiswasthenperformedtocheckifanymajordifferencescouldbeidentified.
ScanningElectronMicroscopy(SEM)APerkinElmerSpectrum100ScanningElectronMicroscopewasoperatedinlowvacuummodetoanalyzetheproducedorganicparticlesusinganelectronbeamofbetween20and25kV.Additionally,theX-rayDispersiveSpectroscopy(EDX)functionwasutilizedtoobtainvaluableinformationabouttheelementalcomponentsfoundintheidentifiedparticles.
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Results
AgingofB100withFreshOil(MAM1)Thismethodinvolvedagingsixfuelssamples,withthecompositionsasshownpreviouslyinTable8,at80°Cfor72hoursinanoven.AfterrunningFTIRonthefilters,theresultswerenotindicativeofsoftparticleformationsincethepeaksontheFTIRonunagedandagedwerenearlyidenticalasFigure15shows.
Furthermore,usingSEManalysisitwasfoundthatitwasincreasinglydifficulttodistinguishthedifferencebetweentheagedsamples,andthereforeitwasconcludedthatverylittleifany,softparticlescouldbeidentifiedusingthismethod.
AgingofBiofuels(MAM2)Forthisversionoftheacceleratedmethod,three350-mlsamplesofHVO,B10,andB100wereheatedat110°Cfor72hourswithastirringrateof250rpm.Uponwhichtheywereplacedinarefrigeratorof4°Cforanadditional72hours.Inthiscase,therewasobservedparticlesintheHVOandstickyparticlesthatformedintheB10samplethatproduced
Unaged B100 1Name
Sample 029 By Administrator Date måndag, februari 19 2018Description
4000 6503500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000
100
5455
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
cm-1
%T
Aged A1 fuel 1Aged A2 fuel 1Aged B1 fuel 1Aged B2 fuel 1Aged C1 fuel 1Aged C2 fuel 1
NameSample 015 By Administrator Date fredag, februari 16 2018Sample 017 By Administrator Date måndag, februari 19 2018Sample 019 By Administrator Date måndag, februari 19 2018Sample 021 By Administrator Date måndag, februari 19 2018Sample 023 By Administrator Date måndag, februari 19 2018Sample 025 By Administrator Date måndag, februari 19 2018
Description
4000 6503500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000
101
5455
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
cm-1
%T
Figure15:FTIRspectrumforunagedB100(top)andagedsamplesusingModifiedAccelerationMethod1(bottom)
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significantcloggingofthe1-2micronvacuumfilter.TheagedsamplescanbeseeninFigure16.
Table9:FTIRresultsforB100,B10andHVOwhenagedfor72hours
Sample OH-stretchpeaks
C-HStretchpeaks
Carbonylpeaks CarboxylicIonpeaks
B100 + + +
B10 +++ ++ +++ +HVO + +
SmallparticleswereseenfloatingintheagedB100,whileinB10therewasavisiblelayerofthickoilyfilmonthesurfaceofthebeaker.Somuchso,thatittookaconsiderableamountoftimetofilterthroughduetothecloggingfactorasTable10shows.Additionally,thesamplesforB100andHVOremainedclearaftertheagingprocess,meanwhile,theB10sampleswerecloudyandunclear.TheB10wasoriginallyadarkgreenhue,whileHVOwasinitiallyclear.TheresultsfromtheFTIRcanbeseeninTable9,whereB10wasthemostvisiblysusceptibletodegradationfollowedbyB100andthenHVO.
Table10:Propertiesoffiltrationofagedbiofuels
Sample InitialWeight[g] FinalWeight[g] ΔWeight Filtrationtime[s]
B100 0.0251 0.0300 0.0049 1080
B10 0.0250 0.0943 0.0693 3600
HVO 0.0257 0.0285 0.0028 380
Figure16:SamplesofagedB100(left),B10(middle)andHVO(right)treatedusingjusthighheat(MAM2)
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AgingofBiofuelswithFreshOil(MAM3)For this version of the acceleratedmethod, 1% concentration of Scania REFoil 10W30wasadded350-mlsamplesofHVO,B10,andB100.Subsequently,theywereheatedat110°Cfor48hourswithastirringrateof250rpm.Uponwhichtheywereplacedinarefrigeratorof4°Cforanadditional72hours.
Table11:FTIRresultsforB100,B10,andHVOwhenagedwithFreshOil
Sample OH-stretchpeaks
C-HStretchpeaks
Carbonylpeaks
CarboxylicIonpeaks
B100 + + + B10 +++ ++ +++ +HVO + +
Table12:PropertiesoffiltrationofagedB100,B10,andHVOagedwithFreshOil
Sample InitialWeight[g] FinalWeight[g] ΔWeight FiltrationTime[s]
B100 0.0257 0.0320 0.0063 746B10 0.0259 0.1390 0.1131 4740HVO 0.0257 0.0340 0.0083 488
Muchliketheresultsfromthepreviousexperiment,B10wasfoundtobemostreactiveuponagingthebiofuelswithfreshoil.B10wasalsofoundtobeveryoily,asshowninFigure17.HVOisnoticeablymoststable,comparedtotheothertwofuels.B10hadasignificantcolorchangefromdarkgreentoanorange-redtint,whiletheHVOalsochangedfromacleartolightyellow.B100gotslightlylighter,thoughnotsignificantly.
DC
BA
Figure17:FiltersPost-treatmentusingMAM3showinganunusedfilter(A),AgedB100(B),AgedB10(C),andAgedHVO(D)wheretheywereagedwith3.5ml(1%w/w)freshoilfor72hours
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AgingofBiofuelswithAgedOil(MAM4)Forthisversionoftheacceleratedmethod,1%concentrationofengineoilwasadded350-mlsamplesofHVO,B10,andB100.Subsequently,theywereheatedat110°Cfor48hourswithastirringrateof250rpm.Uponwhichtheywereplacedinarefrigeratorof4°Cforanadditional24hours.
Table13:FTIRresultsforB100,B10,andHVOwhenagedwithAgedOil
Sample OH-stretchpeaks
C-HStretchpeaks
Carbonylpeaks
CarboxylicIonpeaks
B100 + + + B10 + ++ +++ +HVO + +
Table14:PropertiesofFiltrationofAgedHVOusingAgedOil
Whenthebiofuelswereagedwithagedoil,thepreviouslymentionedtrendofincreasedcarbonylsrelativetoC-HstretchfunctionalgroupswasobservedinB100andB10.ThetrendofincreasedcarbonylsrelativetoC-Hstretchpeaksremainsvalid,thoughactivityseemsdampenedinthiscase.Additionally,thefilterspost-treatmentarevisiblydarkerfromwhatissuspectedtobetheadditivesfromtheagedoil.Forexample,B10isconsiderablydarkandoilyrelativetothefilteredagedB100andHVO.
Sample InitialWeight[g] FinalWeight[g] ΔWeight Filtrationtime[s]
B100 0.0257 0.0317 0.0060 1020
B10 0.0258 0.2467 0.2209 2400
HVO 0.0256 0.0318 0.0062 1200
A B
C D
Figure18:FiltersPost-treatmentusingMAM4showinganunusedfilter(A),AgedB100(B),AgedB10(C),andAgedHVO(D),wheretheywereallagedwith3.5ml(1%w/w)oxidizedoilfor48hours
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AgingofHVOwithAgedOilforanExtendedPeriod(MAM5)Forthisversionoftheacceleratedmethod,theeffectofheavilyoxidizedoilduringtheagingofbiofuelswastestedusingtwosamplesof350-cm3HVO:HVO1(nooxidizedoil)andHVO2(withoxidizedoil).Subsequently,theywereheatedat110°Cfor144hourswithastirringrateof250rpm.Uponwhichtheywereplacedinarefrigeratorof4°Cforanadditional24hours.
Table15:FTIRresultsforHVOwhenagedwithAgedOilforanExtendedPeriod
Sample OH-stretchpeaks
C-HStretchpeaks
Carbonylpeaks
CarboxylicIonpeaks
HVO1 + +
HVO2 + +
ThoughHVOisaverystablefuel,theprevioustrendofahighconcentrationofcarbonylsrelativetoC-HstretchfunctionalgroupswasstillrelevantalthoughabitdampenedforHVOagedwithoutoil.ItwasinterestingthatdespiteHVO1nothavinganyoilmixedin,thefiltrationtimewaslongerthantheversionwithoil.Thoughthiscouldbeexplainedawayduetothemanydifferentfiltrationpathways.UsingFTIRanalysis,HVO2hadslightlyhigherconcentrationintheOH-stretchspectra,whiletheagingofHVO1producedacarbonylpeak.TheagedHVO1wasclearandtransparentwithalight-yellowshadepost-treatment,meanwhile,HVOwasblack,unclear,andopaque.UsingTable16,itcanbeseenthattheweightchangeisincrediblysmallrelativelybetweentheHVOagedwithandwithouttheagedoil.
Table16:PropertiesofFiltrationofHVOagedwithAgedOilforanExtendedPeriod
Sample InitialWeight[g] FinalWeight[g] ΔWeight FiltrationTime[s]HVO1 0.0262 0.0313 0.0051 540HVO2 0.0263 0.0313 0.0050 384
Moreover,whenanalyzingusingtheSEMmicroscopetherewerealargeramountofparticlesthatcouldbeseeninHVO2comparedwithtraceamountsofparticlesinHVO1.Figure19showstheimagesoftheparticlesobtainedusingSEM,whichcorroboratesthetraceamountsofparticlesinHVO1(B)comparedtoHVO2(C)withacleanfilterpictured(A).TheHVOagedwithoxidizedoilproducedalargenumberofparticlesvisibleusingSEM,meanwhile,theagedHVOwithoutoxidizedoilproducedsignificantlylesstoanalyze.
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AgingofBiofuelswithAgedOilandWater(MAM6)Forthisversionoftheacceleratedmethod,theeffectofwaterontheagingofbiofuelswastestedusingthreesamplesof350-mlB100,B10,andHVO.Subsequently,theywereheatedat90°Cfor48hourswithastirringrateof250rpm.Uponwhichtheywereplacedinarefrigeratorof4°Cforanadditional24hours.Itshouldbenoted,startingfromthisagingmethodthefilterusedduringVFwaschangedfroma1.2micron(µm)sizecomposedofglassfibretoa1micron(µm)sizecomposedofPTFE.
Table17:FTIRresultsforHVOwhenagedwithAgedOilandWater
Sample OH-stretchpeaks
C-HStretchpeaks
Carbonyl-peaks
CarboxylicIon-peaks
B100 + + +B10 + + ++HVO + + ++
A
B
C
Figure19:SEMresultsfromagedparticlesusingMAM5showingacleanfilter(A),AgedHVOwithoutOxidizedOil(B),andAgedHVOwithOxidizedOil(C)after144hours.
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Table18:PropertiesofFiltrationofAgedSamplesusingAgedOilWater(MAM6)
*Thefilterwasheavilycloggedatthistimeproducingnoadditionalfiltration
Theresultingcompositionpost-agingisshowninTable17,whereitcanbeseenthatcarboxylionpeakswereproducedforallthreefuels,whileonlyB100producedcarbonylpeaks.
AgingofBiofuelswithAgedOilandMetals(MAM7)Forthisversionoftheacceleratedmethod,theeffectofmetalontheagingofbiofuelswastestingusingthreesamplesof350-cm3B100,B10,andHVO.Subsequently,theywereheatedat90°Cfor48hourswithastirringrateof250rpm.Uponwhichtheywereplacedinarefrigeratorof4°Cforanadditional24hours.
Table19:FTIRresultsforHVOwhenagedwithAgedOilandMetals
Sample OH-stretchpeaks
C-HStretchpeaks
Carbonylpeaks
CarboxylicIonpeaks
BrassB100 + + B10 +++ ++ +++ ++HVO + +
CopperB100 + + B10 ++ ++ ++ ++HVO ++ ++ ++ +
IronB100 ++ +++ +++B10 + + ++ ++HVO + +
TheresultsusingFTIRAnalysiscanbeseenaboveinTable19.ThemetalsgenerallyincreasedcarbonylpeaksandC-Hstretchpeaks,however,onlytheB10canbeshowntoproduceaconsistentcarboxylicionpeakforallmetals.ItcanalsobeshowninTable20thatwhilebothB10agedwithbrassandwater,andB10agedwithcopperandwaterhaveasignificantweightchange,B10agedwithIronandwaterhasaveryminimalweightchangepost-filtration.
Sample InitialWeight[g] FinalWeight[g] ΔWeight Filtrationtime[s]
B100 0.0303 0.0333 0.0030 *3396B10 0.0237 0.0271 0.0034 *2400HVO 0.0313 0.0327 0.0014 2160
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Table20:PropertiesofFiltrationofAgedSamplesusingAgedOilandMetals(MAM7)
*Thefilterwasheavilycloggedatthistimeproducingnoadditionalfiltration
AgingofBiofuelswithAgedOil,MetalsandWater(MAM8)Forthisversionoftheacceleratedmethod,theeffectofthecombinationofmetalsandwaterontheagingofbiofuelswastestingusingthreesamplesof350-mlB100,B10,andHVO.Subsequently,theywereheatedat90°Cfor48hourswithastirringrateof250rpm.Uponwhichtheywereplacedinarefrigeratorof4°Cforanadditional24hours.
Table21:FTIRresultsforHVOwhenagedwithAgedOil,MetalsandWater
Sample OH-peaks
C-HStretchpeaks
Carbonyl-peaks
CarboxylicIon-peaks
BrassB100 +++ ++ +++ +++B10 +++ ++ +++ ++HVO ++ ++ ++ ++
CopperB100 + + + +++B10 +++ ++ +++ +HVO + + ++ ++
IronB100 + + + +++B10 +++ ++ +++ +HVO + + +
Whenagingwithagedoil,metals,andwater,theFTIRanalysisshowsmuchhigherconcentrationsofcarbonylpeaksandcarboxylicionpeaksrelativetobiofuelsagedwithaged
Sample InitialWeight[g] FinalWeight[g] ΔWeight Filtrationtime[s]1A 0.0297 0.0300 0.0003 36001B 0.0298 0.0810 0.0512 *9001C 0.0210 0.0211 0.0001 296
2A 0.0257 0.0261 0.0004 16412B 0.0347 0.0853 0.0506 *9002C 0.0238 0.0243 0.0005 *1560
3A 0.0282 0.0299 0.0017 *21603B 0.0272 0.0279 0.0007 *15003C 0.0277 0.0278 0.0001 420
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oilandmetals.WhencomparingresultsinTable21above,theresultsareindicativeofalargeinfluenceofbrassonB100,comparedwiththeresultingconcentrationofactivityinB100withcopperandB100.Additionally,HVOseemstobehighlyaffectedbybrassrelativetoCopperandIron.AscanbeseeninTable22,AgedB10withcopper,agedoil,andwaterfilteredoutthemostparticlesifanassumptionismadethattheweightcorrelatestoparticles.
Table22:PropertiesofFiltrationofAgedSamplesusingAgedOil,MetalsandWater(MAM8)
*filterwasheavilycloggedatthistimeproducingnoadditionalfiltration
Itwasveryinterestingthatuponfilteringthebiofuelsageswithcopper,theyseemedtoretaintheorangecolor.Asimilarphenomenonoccurredwhenagingwithiron.
Sample InitialWeight[g] FinalWeight[g] ΔWeight Filtrationtime[s]1A 0.0303 0.0378 0.0075 *5161B 0.0270 0.0488 0.0218 19351C 0.0315 0.0320 0.0005 1140
2A 0.0325 0.0395 0.0070 *6002B 0.0275 0.1034 0.0759 *3002C 0.0299 0.0305 0.0006 *1560
3A 0.0288 0.0321 0.0033 *10803B 0.0232 0.0285 0.0053 *6603C 0.0314 0.0324 0.0010 *1920
B100agedwithWater,CopperandAgedOil
B10agedwithWater,CopperandAgedOil
B100agedwithWater,IronandAgedOil
B10agedwithWater,IronandAgedOil
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AgingwithAgedOilandMetals(MAM9)Forthisversionoftheacceleratedmethod,theeffectofthecombinationofwaterandmetalsontheagingofbiofuelswastestingusingthree-samplesof350-mlB100,B10,andHVO.Subsequently,therewereheatedat90°Cfor48hourswithastirringrateof250rpm.Uponwhichtheywereplacedinarefrigeratorof4°Cforanadditional24hours.
Table23:FTIRresultsforHVOwhenagedwithMetalsandWater
Sample OH-peaks C-HStretchpeaks
Carbonyl-peaks
CarboxylicIon-peaks
BrassB100 +++ + +++ +++B10 +++ + +++ HVO + +
CopperB100 +++ + +++ ++B10 +++ + +++ +HVO ++ + ++ +++
IronB100 +++ ++ +++ +B10 + + + HVO +++ ++ +++
AccordingtoTable23,itshowsthatHVOwasgreatlyaffectedbybothCopperandIron,thoughCopperproducedcarbonylpeakswhilethelatterdidnot.Incomparingtheweightchangeforalloftheagedbiofuelsusingthedifferentmetals,thismethodproducedthemostparticlescollectedonthefilters.B10agedwithagedoilandbrassfilteredoutthemostparticlesfollowedbyB10agedwithagedoilandcopper,andB10agedwithagedoilandiron.However,itisveryinterestingthatwhenHVOwasagedwithagedoilandironitproducedaverysignificantamountoffilteredparticles.Itproducesveryredparticlesascanbeseenbelow.Furthermore,alloftheB100samplesagedproducedflaky,dryparticles.
B100agedwithBrassandWater
B100agedwithCopperandWater
B100agedwithIronandWater
HVOagedwithIronandWater
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Table24:PropertiesofFiltrationofAgingSampleswithWaterandMetals(MAM9)
*Thefilterwasheavilycloggedatthistimeproducingnoadditionalfiltration
DiscussionProducingsoftparticlesinalaboratorywithouttheuseofanengineutilizedmanymethodsincludingthemodifiedacceleratedmethodandColdSoakFiltration.Initially,6samplesofB100wereagedusinganovenat80°Cfor72hoursbaseduponthedegradationrateofthebiofuel.Thistemperaturewaschoseninordertostaybelowtheflashpointofthebiofuelintheovensincethegasesvaporizearound110°C.However,thismethodfailedtoproduceanysoftparticlesbaseduponananalysiscompletedusingbothFTIRandSEM-EDX.Followingthis,anexperiment(ModifiedAcceleratedMethod2)wasdesignedwhere3samplesofHVO,B10,andB100wereheatedonahotplateat110°Cfor72hourswhilebeingstirredat250rpm.Thismethodprovedmorepromisingandbecamethebasistoinvestigatetheeffectofadditionalparametersincludingfreshoil(ScaniaREFoil10W30),heavilyoxidizedoil,waterandmetals(brass,copper,andiron).
Upontestingtheseparameters,atrendwasidentifiedinwhichuponagingB100,B10andHVOallshowedadecreaseinC-Hstretchfunctiongroups(3300-2280cm-1)whileanincreaseincarbonylfunctiongrouppeaks.HVOandB100generallyproducedaverysmallamountofparticlesrelativetoB10,however,differenceswerefoundbetweenthesampleswhenanalyzed.UponagingtheB100,B10andHVOwithoutanyadditives(ModifiedAcceleratedMethod2),B10showedsignificantaffinitytodegraderelativetoB100andHVO.Somuchso,thatthelengthofthetreatmentwasdecreasedfrom72hoursto48hourstoincreasefilterability.However,oneexplanationaboutthelackoflargeconcentrationofparticlesinB100canbethattheparticlesaresolubleinthefuel.Furthermore,thetrendofhavingahighconcentrationofcarbonylsrelativetoC-Hstretchfunctionalgroupspost-agingwascorroboratedinHVO(themoststableofthethreebiofuels).
Uponinvestigationtheeffectoffreshoil(ScaniaREFoil10W30)versusheavilyoxidizedoilwithaoxidationnumberof12.8fromamotorcellatScania,itwasfoundthatthefreshoildoesnothaveanyvisualeffectwhenanalyzingusingFTIR.However,uponmeasuringthe
Sample InitialWeight[g] FinalWeight[g] ΔWeight Filtrationtime[s]1A 0.0261 0.0390 0.0129 2724*1B 0.0957 0.5235 0.4278 240*1C 0.0947 0.1588 0.0641 75*2A 0.0945 0.2021 0.1076 195*2B 0.0950 0.2816 0.1866 281*2C 0.0954 0.1642 0.0688 107*3A 0.0947 0.1822 0.0875 160*3B 0.0962 0.1623 0.0661 81*3C 0.0947 0.1762 0.0815 83*
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weightoftheparticlesproducedthatremainonthefilterpost-filtration,atrendofincreaseddepositscanbeidentified.Furthermore,whentheagedoilispresentitseemstoreducethenumberofparticlesthatarefilteredout.Thiscanbeseenveryclearlyincomparingtheresultsforthebiofuelswithagedoil,metalandwaterversusthebiofuelswithmetalsandwater.Thismaybeduetotheadditivesintheoilthatprecipitateoutofthefuelmixturesuponaging.UsingSEM-EDX,theconcentrationoftheseadditivescouldbeseen.Theseadditivesmayproducesomeatypeofactivedegradationprotectioninthefuel.
Uponinvestigatingtheeffectofwaterontheagingoffuel,itseemsthatwatermayplayinroleinincreasingparticlegrowthaswillbediscussedinmoredetailfortheseparatecasesofbiofuels.Thismaybethecasebecauseitoxidizesthemetals,producingparticlesintheprocessandcatalyzestheoxidationprocess.Additionally,whenB100wasagedwithagedoilandwater,alargeamountofsand-likeparticleswereformed.Similarly,forB10asmallamountofsandlikeparticleswasformed.NosuchparticleswereformedintheagingofHVOwithagedoilandwaterthough.Infact,whentheseparticleswereexaminedusingSEM,theycouldbedescribedashavingarose-likeshapetothem.SeeFigure20andFigure21.
UponexaminingtheeffectoftheagingofHVOwithoxidizedoil(ModifiedAcceleratedMethod5),itwasveryinterestingtofindthattheHVOsamplewithoutaddedoxidizedoil(HVO1)producedamoresignificant,thoughstillrelativelysmall,carbonylfunctionalgroupafteragingthefuelfor144hoursrelativetothefuelsamplewiththeheavilyoxidizedoil(HVO2).Additionally,HVO2producedaslightlylargeconcentrationofOHfunctionalgroupsrelativetoHVO1.
UponinvestigationofagingB100,B10,andHVOwithmetals(Brass,Copper,andIron)atrendofwidenedpeaksinthecarbonylregions,aswellas,carboxylionpeaks.However,atrendinparticleformationfrommosttoleaststartedtoformasfollows:
1.Fuel+Metal+Water
Figure20:SEMImagesofB100AgedwithAgedOilandWater
Figure21:SEMImageofB10AgedwithAgedOilandWater
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2.Fuel+AgedOil+Metal+Water
3.Fuel+AgedOil
4.Fuel+AgedOil+Metal
5.Fuel+AgedOil+Water
AsFigure22shows,thetrenddescribedisvalidundertheagingofB100underthepreviouslymentionedconditions.Though,thedatasupportstheconclusionthatcopperispossiblythemosteffectivemetalatproducinglargeramountsofparticlestoexamine.Ironwasthesecondmostproblematic,followedbyBrass.Toconfirmthistrend,IwouldrecommendarepeatexperimentoftheexperimentagingB100withIronandWater,aswellas,agingB100withagedoilandCopper.ThecopperseemstobeverysensitivetowaterastheweightchangejumpsdrasticallybetweentheB100agedwithagedoilandcopper(B100+AO+Cu)totheB100sampleagedwithagedoil,copper,andwater(B100+AO+CU+Water).
0 0,02 0,04 0,06 0,08 0,1 0,12
B100 B100 + FO B100 + AO
B100 + AO + W B100 + AO +B
B100 + AO + CU B100 + AO + FE
B100 + AO + B + W B100 + AO + CU + WB100 + AO + FE + W
B100 + B + W B100 +CU + W
B100 + FE + W
AMOUNT OF PARTICLES FORMED USINGDIFFERENTAGING PARAMETERSWITH
B100
Figure22:ParticlesformedwithagingB100withdifferentcombinationofparameters
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Figure23:ParticlesformedwithagingB10withdifferentcombinationparameters
ForB10,theresultsidentifybrassasthemetalthatproducesthehighestamountofparticlesuponaging.ThecombinationofB10fuelwithIronandWaterproducedaverylargeamountofparticles.Itshouldbenoted,thatB10tendstoproduceveryoilyparticles,thereforeonemustbeawarethatperhapsthefilterweightgainmaynotbeentirelyattributedtoparticles,butmaybecompromisedbyasmallamountofoilstillabsorbedinthefiltermaterial.Inthiscase,inordertofurthersupportthetrendofbrasshavingthestrongesteffectonaging,itwouldberecommendedtorepeattheexperimentofwhichB10wasagedwithagedoilandcopper(MAM72B),andB10agedwithagedoilandbrass(MAM71B).Thismayshowthatbrasshasalargeeffect,sincethecollectedvalueswereverycloseforthesesamples.Additionally,itmightbeusefultorepeattheexperimentfortheagingofB10withagedoil,brass,andwater(MAM81B)andB10agedwithagedoil,copper,andwater(MAM82B)toonceagainfurtherestablishthepreviouslyidentifiedtrend.
0 0,05 0,1 0,15 0,2 0,25 0,3 0,35 0,4 0,45
B10 B10 + FO B10 + AO
B10 + AO + W B10 + AO +B
B10 + AO + CU B10 + AO + FE
B10 + AO + B + W B10 + AO + CU + WB10 + AO + FE + W
B10 + B + W B10 +CU + W
B10 + FE + W
AMOUNTOFPARTICLESFORMEDUSINGDIFFERENTAGINGPARAMETERSWITHB10
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Figure24:ParticlesformedwithagingHVOwithdifferentparameters
TheresultsfromagingHVOinFigure24showsthattheadditionofthefreshoilproducedmoreweightchangeincomparisontheHVOagedwithagedoil.Furthermore,thesampleagedwithagedoilandwateralsoshowsdecreasedparticlegrowth.UponanalyzingtheweightsobtainedfromtheHVOsamplesagingwithoilandwater,Ironshowsadominanteffect.Moreover,theIrononceagainproducesthemostweightchangewhenHVOwasagedwithwaterandmetals.Ironcanbedeemedtobethemosteffectiveatproducingparticles,followedbycopper.OneexperimentthatcouldberedonetotestwhetherthetrendholdsistoageHVOwithagedoilandIron(HVO+AO+FE)becauseifthatweretoproducemorethanHVO+AO+CuthenthetrendofIronbeingmosteffectiveatproducingparticlescouldbeconfirmed.
0 0,02 0,04 0,06 0,08 0,1
HVOHVO + FOHVO + AO
HVO + AO + WHVO + AO +B
HVO + AO + CUHVO + AO + FE
HVO + AO + B + W HVO + AO + CU + WHVO + AO + FE + W
HVO + B + WHVO +CU + W
HVO + FE + W
AMOUNT OF PARTICLES FORMED USINGDIFFERENTAGING PARAMETERSWITH
HVO
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ConclusionThefocusofthisprojectwastodevelopamethodinwhichsoftparticlesthatnaturallyforminatruckdieselengineinalabsetting,andthentoanalyzetheeffectofdifferentparametersthattendtoleadtodegradationofthefuel.Thiswasaccomplishedbyfirstheatinga350-cm3oftheselectedfuelsampleina600-cm3beakermixedwithparametersofinterest(agedengineoil,metals,water,etc.)for48hoursat110°C(90°Cforanysampleswithwater).Subsequently,thesesamplesarethenstoredinarefrigeratorat4°Cfor24hourstoallowforanyremainingparticlestoprecipitate.TheywerethenanalyzedusingFourier-TransformInfraredSpectroscopy(FTIR)andScanningElectronMicroscopywithX-rayenergy-dispersivespectroscopy(SEM-EDX).Atrendwasidentifiedwherethelargestamountofparticlesbyweightwereproducedinthefollowingorderfromgreatesttoleast:1.Fuel+Metal+Water
2.Fuel+AgedOil+Metal+Water
3.Fuel+AgedOil
4.Fuel+AgedOil+Metal
5.Fuel+AgedOil+Water
ThebiofuelsagedwithFuel+Metal+Waterproducedthehighestamountofparticles,possiblyduetotheinteractionbetweenwaterandthemetal.Meanwhile,whenthebiofuelswereagedwithFuel+Metal+Water+Agedoiltherewaslessparticleformationwhichcouldbeexplainedbyadditivesfromtheagedoilthatimprovestabilityofthefuel.AgingofbiofuelswithAgedOilproducedalargeramountofparticlesrelativetothebiofuelsagedwithAgedOilandMetal,aswellas,thebiofuelsagedwithOilandWater.Theresultsfoundthatagingofthebiofuelswithmetalsproducedahigheramountofparticlescomparativelytoagingofthebiofuelswithwater.Furthermore,thedifferentbiofuelsweremoreaffecteddifferentlybythemetalswhereB100producedthehighestamountofparticlesfromagingwithcopper,B10fromagingwithbrass,andHVOfromagingwithIron.
FuturerecommendationsSinceamethodhasbeendeveloped,thenextstepistobetterunderstandsoftparticleformationinmorerealisticparametersthatoccurintruckdieselengines.Namely,decreaseconcentrationofwaterandconcentrationofoil.Moreover,differentfiltersweretestedtofindasuitablematerialforthevacuumfiltrationstep.Infutureexperiments,theuseofa1-micronPTFEfilterwouldberecommendedduetotheminimizedeffectonfunctionalgroupsofinterestwhenanalysingusingFTIR,despitetherequiredadditionaltimeforfiltration.Additionally,theuseofthematerialcomponentsutilizedinthecurrenttruckssystemswouldaddanotherdimensionthatcouldbebeneficialforunderstandingtheformationofparticles.Throughouttheseexperiments,theeffectofoxygenhasnotbeenalargefocus,however,infutureexperiments,anaddedairstreamcouldbeusedtoaltertheconcentrationofoxygenwhileaging.Theoxygenaidsintheoxidationofthefuel,sothiswouldbeaveryinterestingparametertotestespeciallysincetheairstreamswouldallowforoxygentopenetratedeeperintothefuel.
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Appendices
IRSpectra
Table25:SpectraforFunctionalGroupsidentifiedinFTIRAnalysis
FunctionalGroup IRBand,cm-1O-HStretch
BondedO-HStretchinPolymers 3500-3300C-HStretch
C-HStretchinAromaticsorC=C-H 3100-3000C-HStretchinAlkane 3000-2800
C=OStretch AldehydeC=OStretch 1740-1690KetoneC=OStretch 1750-1680EsterC=OStretch 1750-1735
CarboxylicAcidC=OStretch 1780-1710Carboxylateion(Assymetric) 1610-1550
Filter´sPost-TreatmentAgedFuelwithFreshOil(MAM3)
AgedFuelwithAgedOil(MAM4)
AgedHVOwithAgedOil(MAM5)
BA C D
BA C D
BA C
Figure25:FiltersPost-treatmentofFuelsAgedwithFreshOilMAM3showinganunusedfilter(A),AgedB100(B),AgedB10(C),andAgedHVO(D)
Figure26:FiltersPost-treatmentofFuelsAgedwithAgedOil(MAM4)showinganunusedfilter(A),AgedB100(B),AgedB10(C),andAgedHVO(D)
Figure27:FiltersPost-treatmentofHVOAgedwithAgedOil(MAM5)showinganunusedfilter(A),AgedHVO1(B),AgedHVO2(C)
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AgedFuelwithAgedOil,andWater(MAM6)
AgedFuelwithAgedOil,andMetal(MAM7)Brass
Copper
Iron
A B C D
A B C D
A B C D
A B C D
Figure28:FiltersPost-treatmentofFuelsagedwithFreshOilandWater(MAM6)showinganunusedfilter(A),AgedB100(B),AgedB10(C),andAgedHVO(D)
Figure29:FiltersPost-treatmentofFuelsAgedwithAgedOilandBrass(MAM71A-C)showinganunusedfilter(A),AgedB100(B),AgedB10(C),andAgedHVO(D)
Figure30:FiltersPost-treatmentofFuelsAgedwithAgedOilandCopper(MAM72A-C)showinganunusedfilter(A),AgedB100(B),AgedB10(C),andAgedHVO(D)
Figure31:FiltersPost-treatmentofFuelsAgedwithAgedOilandIron(MAM73A-C)showinganunusedfilter(A),AgedB100(B),AgedB10(C),andAgedHVO(D)
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AgingofFuelswithAgedOil,MetalsandWater(MAM8)Brass
Copper
Iron
AgingofFuelswithMetalsandWater(MAM9)Brass
A B C D
A B C D
A B C D
A B C D
Figure32:FiltersPost-treatmentofFuelsAgedwithAgedOil,Brass,andWater(MAM81A-C)showinganunusedfilter(A),AgedB100(B),AgedB10(C),andAgedHVO(D)
Figure33:Figure32:FiltersPost-treatmentofFuelsAgedwithAgedOil,Copper,andWater(MAM82A-C)showinganunusedfilter(A),AgedB100(B),AgedB10(C),andAgedHVO(D)
Figure34:FiltersPost-treatmentofFuelsAgedwithAgedOil,Iron,andWater(MAM83A-C)showinganunusedfilter(A),AgedB100(B),AgedB10(C),andAgedHVO(D)
Figure35:FiltersPost-treatmentofFuelsAgedwithBrass,andWater(MAM91A-C)showinganunusedfilter(A),AgedB100(B),AgedB10(C),andAgedHVO(D)
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Copper
Iron
A B C D
A B C D
Figure36:FiltersPost-treatmentofFuelsAgedwithCopper,andWater(MAM92A-C)showinganunusedfilter(A),AgedB100(B),AgedB10(C),andAgedHVO(D)
Figure37:FiltersPost-treatmentofFuelsAgedwithIron,andWater(MAM93A-C)showinganunusedfilter(A),AgedB100(B),AgedB10(C),andAgedHVO(D)
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