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CRACKING
THE
PHILOSOPHERS
STONE
Origins, Evolution and Chemistry
of Gold-Making
__________
J. Erik LaPort&
Roger Gabrielsson PhD
Quintessence
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CONTENTS
Acknowledgments ........................................................................i
Foreword ................................................................................... iii
AuthorsPreface.......................................................................... v
EditorsPreface ......................................................................... xi
IntroducingtheStone...............................................................
xiii
Chapter 1 SophicSubstances...............................................1
Chapter 2MosesandtheGoldenCalf ..............................69
Chapter 3MariaHebreasTincture .................................115
Chapter 4 TheWhiteStoneofHermes............................167
Chapter5
Stephanos
Chrysopia
..................................
217
Chapter 6 FromChrysopiatoAlKmy ......................259
Chapter 7 ParacelsusandtheAlkahest ...........................299
Chapter 8 LaborsofHercules ..........................................357
Chapter 9 TheChemicalWedding ...................................395
Chapter10 PowderofProjection ......................................415
Chapter11 AurumPotabile...............................................477
Chapter12 UniversalMedicine .........................................551
AppendixATimelineofDevelopmentalAlchemy................573
AppendixBTheScorpionFormulaforGoldmaking ...........583
AppendixCAlchemicalImageryIndex ................................593
Afterword...............................................................................
599
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FIRST PREFACE
Duringearly2009,RogerandIwereresearchingnovelagoldcompound,
when itoccurred tomewhilebrowsing through16thand17th century
literature on the development of gold salts, that the legendary
PhilosophersStoneofalchemywasperhapsatypeofgoldsalt.Delving
alittledeeperintothealchemicalliterature,itbecameclearlyapparent
that many famous writers on alchemy specifically stated that the
Philosophers Stone was nothing more than gold in its finest state,
whereasothersourceswereadamantthatthePhilosophersStonewas
indeed a salt.One thingwas certain; all these alchemical authorities
treatedthePhilosophersStoneasagenuinecompoundsynthesizedina
laboratory.Afteracursorystudy,Iconcludedthatthechemicalidentity
ofthe
Philosophers
Stone
remained
an
unsolved
mystery
that
would
potentially yield its secrets. I was immediately captivated and initial
curiosityquicklygavewaytosheerobsessiveandcompulsiveresearch
into thematter. Itwas an honorable riddle pursued by greatminds
throughouthistoryand I immediately regarded thequestasaworthy
endeavor.
Iknew
that
Icould
not
do
this
alone
and
harangued
my
good
friend
and
mad scientistgeniusDrRogerGabrielssonPhD intocollaboratingwith
measthechemistryconsultantandcoauthor.Iamdeeplyindebtedto
himforhishelpandunfailingencouragement.Iknewthathewouldnot
declinebecauseitwasRogerwhoonceexplainedtomethatanyquestion
ofchemistrywasvalidasfarashewasconcernedandthattherewasno
suchthing
as
an
absurd
or
unimportant
chemistry
question,
as
long
as
it
wasnot framed in termsofunicornsand rainbows.The resultof that
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collaborationandyearsofpassionateresearchisthistreatiseCracking
thePhilosophersStone.
Thisbook
is
divided
into
three
sections.
The
first
is
ageneral
introduction
to the Philosophers Stone, its origins and historical development in
Alexandria,EgyptduringthepreIslamicperiod.TheStonescomposition,
applicationsand culturalvaluearepresented inhistorical contextand
explored in detail. Section 2 describes the preparation of the basic
alchemical ingredients, overall chemistry and confection of the
PhilosophersStone,alongwithaccountsofreproducibilityexperiments
performed in our laboratory. Section 3 examines the traditional
applicationsforthePhilosophersStoneandexpandsonthenotionofthe
alchemicalprocessasaworkbenchwisdomtradition.
Any exploration of history and this is especially implicit concerning
alchemy, is thataconclusion isprimarilyaworkof interpretation.The
purpose
of
this
book
is
to
present
just
such
an
interpretation,
which
ultimatelyleadstoaworkinghypothesis,ormoreaccurately,aseriesof
hypothesestoexplain thephenomenonof thePhilosophersStone, its
origins,evolution,chemistry,valuationsandapplications.Werepeatedly
stressplausibility statements throughout thebook that arenot tobe
construedasstatementsoffact,butratheraddressplausible,possibleor
most likely scenarios for the subjectathand.This serves to stimulate
future research efforts and to advance current understanding while
leavingthesubjectfullyexposedtoalternatehypothesesandscenarios.
Wehaveattempted to remainunbiasedwith regard toanyparticular
school or system of alchemy, focusing our concerns throughout on
numerousscenariosthatwefeltmademostsensegivenseveralfactors
andsubstantiatingevidence.Thiswasnotalwayseasyandoftentheonly
evidenceavailable
was
scanty
or
circumstantial
in
which
case
we
plainly
stateasmuchinthenarrative.
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vii
WebeganthejourneyofdecodingthePhilosophersStonefromthedual
premisethat1)thestonewasanactualchemicalcompound,and2)that
ithadmanifestedasvariousdiverseproductsatdifferenttimesinhistory.
Researchinto
the
matter
has
confirmed
both,
yet
adangling
question
remained.Whatwas the original archetypal Philosophers Stone and
coulditberediscoveredandreestablishedtoday?Theattempttoanswer
these questions brought me into contact with some wonderfully
intriguingandinsightfulpeopleonajourneythroughhistory,traditions
and practices that broadened my understanding of the alchemical
process
in
unpredictable
yet
very
welcome
ways,
least
of
which
was
developingaprofoundadmirationforalchemaltraditions.
One might assume that the chemistry would prove the greatest
challenge. It was actually the language of alchemy however, that
presentedanalmostinsurmountableyetironicallymarvelousobstacleto
writingthisbook.Atremendousamountofdataandarobustconceptual
frameworklie
just
below
the
surface
of
every
cover
name
and
cover
term
encryptingalchemicalsubstancesandprocesses.IrealizedthatifIwere
todecodealchemicalabstractions, itwouldbeoftremendousvalueto
approach someone fluent in the arcane language of alchemy for
assistance.Afterseveralattemptsatcollaborationwithauthoritiesinthe
field,followedbysnubs,politeresponsestothenegativeornoreplyat
all,IrealizedthatIwasonmyowninthisregard.Ibegantoselfstudythe
etymology and history of each coverterm,which exposed a fantastic
worldofimagery,historicalcontext,mythology,andtradejargon,which
upon being understood, revealed that each covertermwas far from
haphazard,encryptingsubstancesandprocessesinmanylayersofsubtle
and interconnected meaning. Indeed some terms were truly multi
culturalwiththeirpracticalusespanningmillennia.Learningthelanguage
ofalchemy
was
as
difficult
as
learning
any
other
bits
and
pieces
at
first,
crudephrases later,beforebecoming fluent inalchemysdialectsand
sophisticatedabstractions.
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The research processwas arduous. Upon decoding a covername or
terminology, we then embarked upon a detailed study of each
correspondingsubstanceorprocess.Weattemptedtofindtheearliest
recordof
each,
its
discoverer
and
its
various
applications,
which
were
oftenatoddswithestablishedscientificliterature.Ifitwereasubstance,
weattempted togleanwhether itmayhavebeenused ina chemical
technology prior to the accepted scientific date of discovery, then
searchedforabodyofevidencetosupportanearlierdate.Eachtimewe
felt close to understanding a substance or process fully, we then
consulted
numerous
traditional
alchemical
texts
and
compared
those
accountstowhatweobservedinthelaboratory.Aprimaryconsideration
wasthatperfectreproducibilitymayprovechallengingonthebasisthat
adeptswereartisansandextremelyskilledattheirart.Itcouldtakeones
career to develop the skills possessed by an adeptalchemist. As any
chemistknows,itcantakeinnumerabletriesbeforeareactionhappens
inanexpectedoroptimalmanner.Onlyafterensuringthathistoricaland
alchemicaltexts
accorded
with
our
lab
results
and
observations,
did
we
feelconfidenttopresentthehypothesesherein.
Theentirebookprojecttookoverfouryearstocomplete,thousandsof
hoursofresearch,entire librariesofbooksandjournalarticles,ancient
andmodern, scoured and scrutinized for helpful information. Library
effortswerecombinedwithlaboratoryfrustrationandelationbeforethe
bookreached itsfinalform.IbegantounderstandthatanAlexandrian
alchemistwasmoreanartisanandphilosopherthanprotochemist,yet
alchemistswould goon to assumemany roles throughout alchemical
history such as pharmacologist and experimental chemist of later
alchemical traditions. It also became clear thatmuch of the existing
researchintoAlexandrianalchemywasbasedonPseudoDemocritusand
hisPersian
Babylonian
approach
to
chemical
technologies,
reinforced
by
works such as the Leyden and Stockholm papyri that typified this
tradition.ThePhilosophersStonehoweveroriginatedwithMariaHebrea
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ix
andherJudeoEgyptianschooloralternatelyaHermeticGrecoEgyptian
school these being completely dissimilar in every manner to the
PseudoDemocritantype.Thechallengewastoelucidatethis longheld
misunderstandingin
regards
to
Alexandrian
alchemy
beyond
a
reasonabledoubt.
Todays alchemy enthusiasts, historians and chemists understandably
havespecificareasofinterestorspecializationintheirrespectivefields
of research. Nevertheless, Cracking the Philosophers Stone promises
somethingnewandinterestingtoeveryone.Whileitispossibletoread
thistreatisefromcovertocover,itisnotnecessarytodoso,whichisto
saythatthisbookiswrittensothateachchapterstandsonitsownmerit
as a minicourse on the specific aspect of the Philosophers Stone
addressed.Forthosenewtoalchemy,beginwithchapter1,followedby
1012 prior to delving deeper. For those primarily interested in the
PhilosophersStonefromasociohistoricalperspective,readchapters2
7,followed
by
10
12
and
Appendix
A.
For
the
rare
aspirants,
operative
alchemists or qualified chemists primarily interested in operative
reproducibilityofAlexandrianalchemyssubstancesandprocesses,read
chapters1,3,4,69andAppendixBtosatisfycuriositybeforemovingon
to the remainder of the Stones historical context. For those more
interested in the speculative aspects of the Philosophers Stone, its
philosophical and psychospiritual connotations, its value as an early
cosmologicalmodelorasawisdomtradition,chapters4,5and12focus
ontheseintriguingvaluationsoftheStone.Itismysincerestaspiration
thateach readerdiscovers somethingof lasting valueby reading this
bookandenjoysthejourneyasmuchaswedid.
J.ErikLaPort
QeraTechResearch,Thailand
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EDITORS NOTE
Astheeditorofthisbook,Iamoneofitsfirstreaders.WhenErikLaPort
askedmetoedithistome,Iinitiallyhadverylittleideaoftheweightof
whathehadactuallysetouttodowiththispublication.Thisisnotmerely
an attempt at giving a chronological account of the development of
alchemy. It is rather thework of a practising alchemist (although he
assertsthatheisnt)whosetsforthanincrediblyexcitingnewtheoryof
whatthePhilosophersStonereallyis,andwhatithasbeenthroughthe
agesintheMiddleEast,inEurope,andelsewhere.
Thisbookcontainsdaringnewideasandsurprisingtwists,butnonethat
maybedescribedasmythmaking.Meticulousdetailsinthelanguageof
chemistry
support
historical
and
textual
research.
The
scholarship
behind
thisbookismassive,butthelanguageisstillaccessibletotheenthusiast
aswellastheadvancedstudentofalchemy.
BeforeIreadLaPortstext,IwasconvincedbyCarlGustavJungactually,
whomheof course references thatalchemywas firstand foremost
metaphorical and its real relevancewas limited to the depths of the
humansoul.
Those
ways
of
reading
alchemical
texts
remain
and
LaPort
emphasizeshowrichalchemysculturalandphilosophicaltraditionreally
is. He presents an entirely plausible hypothesis that allows for the
practicaluseofalchemy,rootedintraditionbutrelevanttotodaysman.
Iamsurethatmanyareaderwillexperiencethekindofexcitementthat
Ifeltreadingthisbook.
AdamMayer
WebsterUniversity,Thailand
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ntroducing the Stone
Alltruthsareeasytounderstandoncetheyarediscovered;
thepointistodiscoverthem.
GalileoGalilei
racingthedevelopmentofmostsciencesfromtheirancientorigins
and
this
is
particularly
true
regarding
pharmacy
and
chemistry
ultimatelyleadstoalchemy.Formillennia,thebeatingheartofalchemy
wasalegendarysubstancethatwasbelievedtoconferwealth,powerand
immortalitytoanyonewhocouldunlockthesecretofitsconfection.This
substancewascalledthePhilosophersStone.Therecipetocreatethis
substancedatesbacktotheBronzeAgeinEgypt,Mesopotamiaandthe
Levant.
Because
of
the
numerous
sources,
there
seems
to
be
very
little
doubtthatthissubstanceactuallyexistedtherealmysterylieswiththe
secretofitsconfection.ThequesttorediscoverthePhilosophersStone
hasspannednumerousculturesoverthousandsofyearsuntilthepresent
day.
ThePhilosophersStonewasthesourceoftwointerrelatedproducts:the
universalmedicine,believed
to
confer
unnatural
longevity
to
all
who
ingestedit;andthepowderofprojectionthattransmutescopper,leador
mercuryintoalchemicalgold.Thepromiseofimmortalityandunlimited
wealth earned the Philosophers Stone special status as one of the
greatestmysteriestocaptivateearlyscientists,physicians,philosophers,
nobility,andconartiststhroughouthistory.
Thequest
to
reveal
the
process
for
confecting
the
Stone
exposed
one
to
many unique dangers of the period, among the worst being self
poisoning,madness,torture,orexecution.Despiteeverpresentperils,
T
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LAPORT & GABRIELSSON
xiv
the promise of rediscovering the secrets of the Philosophers Stone
served as theproverbial carrotonastring that played a large role in
driving thedonkey cartof scientificpursuitsofancientandmedival
timesinto
the
modern
age
of
advanced
science
and
technology.
Thephilosophers
The Philosophers Stone dates back thousands of years to a time in
historywhenscience,philosophy,magic,andmysteryweresynonymous.
Philosophers in former times addressed important issues such as the
natureof reality, formsofknowledge, socialorganization, technology,
and the human condition. These lovers of wisdom attempted to
understandandharnesstheforcesofNaturethroughwhatmighttoday
bedescribedasamultidisciplinaryholisticapproach.
Alchemy began with the manipulation of minerals and metals for
medicinaland industrialpurposes. Itwasanancientscienceofmatter
basedupontrialanderror.Earlyalchemistssoughttodiscoverasingle
substancethatwouldenablethemtoperfectmatter.ThePhilosophers
Stonefittheprofilesowellthat,becauseoftheirattemptstorevealits
secrets, alchemists developed equipment and discovered new
substances and processes very relevant to modern science and
chemistry.
The
secret
of
the
Philosophers
Stone
believed
to
be
a
key
that
would
unlockthemysteriesofcreationandchangeplayedacentralroleinthe
philosophicalpursuitsofallalchemicaltraditions.Successatconfecting
the Stone was a rite of passage and a milestone accomplishment
passionatelypursuedbyancientalchemistsandphilosophers.Thosewho
attainedsuccessbecamelegends,whereasotherswere ledtoabsolute
ruin,madness and, in some cases, death arising from their obsessive
pursuitof
the
Stone.
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INTRODUCING THE STONE
xv
ThePhilosophersStonemadeitsappearanceinEuropearoundthe12th
century,remainingmainlywithinalchemicalcircles.Bythetimeofthe
ItalianRenaissanceofthe16thcentury,the legendofthePhilosophers
Stoneand
its
power
was
so
great
that
it
rivaled
the
Holy
Grail
and
the
Ark
oftheCovenantasanobjectofquest.
TheStonespotentialpowerwasnolongersecret,posingagreatthreat
to the Catholic Church and Europes ruling elite. They addressed this
threat by criminalising the practice of alchemy for all but court and
churchsanctionedalchemists.InthefrenzytogainaccesstotheStone
and its power, even royalty were ensnared by the quest. Europes
powerfulelitesuchastheMedicisofFlorence,KingCharlesIIofBritain,
HolyRomanEmperorRudolfII,andQueenChristinaofSweden,among
othersnotonlysupportedcourtalchemists,butalsooutfittedprivate
alchemical laboratories and activelyparticipated in the search for the
PhilosophersStone.
AlthoughPopeJohnXXIIissuedapapalbullagainstalchemy,thewords
inhisprohibitionapplied to pooralchemists,meaning falseones.He
was reputed to havemaintained a personal alchemical laboratory in
Avignonandwasrespectedbyskilledalchemistsasapatronoftheirart.
Countless friars, monks, bishops, and archbishops practiced and
published alchemical treatises. Religious reformer Martin Luther,
throughhis
support
of
alchemy,
played
an
important
role
in
inspiring
German alchemists to continue alchemical pursuits and advance
chemicaltechnologies:
TheArtofAlchemyisrightlyandtrulythePhilosophyoftheSagesofold,
with which I amwellpleased, not only by reason of its virtue and
manifoldusefulness,whichithaththroughDistillationandSublimation
inthemetals,herbs,waters,oleities,butalsobyreasonofthenobleand
beautifullikenesswhichithathwiththeResurrectionoftheDeadonthe
DayofJudgment.
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LAPORT & GABRIELSSON
xvi
GreatscientificfiguressuchasRogerBacon,RobertBoyle,JohannRudolf
Glauber, and Sir Isaac Newton pursued the Philosophers Stone
enthusiastically. Even founding father of the United States Benjamin
Franklintook
akeen
interest
in
alchemy.
Things
appeared
to
change
after
Robert Boyle published The Sceptical Chymist and Antoine Lavoisier
usheredintheageofmodernchemistry.
However,theloreofthePhilosophersStonewaskeptalivebyaccounts
ofcolorfulfiguressuchasGiacomoGirolamoCasanova,CountAlessandro
diCagliostroand theenigmaticComtedeSt.Germainwho consorted
with European aristocracy, providing elixirs and organising secret
societiesingrandfashion.ComtedeSt.GermaininitiatedComteFranois
de Chazalwho passed on the Rosicrucian tradition to noted Swedish
adventurer and doctor, Sigismund Bacstrom. Bacstrom did much to
preserve the Rosicrucian tradition and the secrets of confecting the
PhilosophersStone.
Theformula
Theearliestaccountclearenoughtoidentifythematerials,methodsand
application of the Philosophers Stone is found in the teachings of
AlexandrianalchemistandteacherMariaHebrea(alsoknownasMaria
Prophetissa)sometimebetweenthe1stand3rdcenturiesoftheCommon
Era(CE).Incrypticfashion,sheliststhethreeingredientsanddivulgesnot
onlythe
archetypal
method,
but
also
reveals
knowledge
of
an
alternative
fasterprocesstoconfecttheStone.InEuropethesetwomethodswould
cometobeknownastheArsMagna(orGreatArt)andtheArsBrevis(or
BriefArt)respectively.
Maria Hebrea also clearly explained that the application of the
Philosophers Stone was to change the properties of copper. This
importantclue
argues
for
atechnology
originating
during
the
Bronze
Age
and is important because, at the time of Marias Alexandria, bronze
technologywasalreadyconsideredaremnantofgreatantiquitythathad
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INTRODUCING THE STONE
xvii
reached an advanced level.Maria also implied that the Philosophers
StonewasalegacyoftheraceofAbraham,yetdisclosednothingofits
origins.
One interpretation from amuch earlier source reveals an encrypted
recipeinaccordancewithMariasmethodology.Alegendaryworkcalled
theEmeraldTabletofHermesTrismegistusknown toAlexander the
GreatcenturiespriortoMariasuggestsGrcoEgyptianoriginsforthe
recipe.ThenamesEnoch(Jewish),Thoth(Egyptian)andHermes(Greek)
were synonymous for themytholegendary individualwho introduced
science and technology tohumanityduring thedevelopment of early
civilization.
TheStonesvalue
InAlexandria,theartofalchemywasdescribedbysomeaschrysopia,
meaninggoldmaking.Thisartofaurifactioninvolvedchangingcopperto
a unique type of alchemical gold. This was in direct contrast with
established gilding technology of the period, which involved surface
treatingbronzethatresulted inwhatmightbedescribedasaurifiction
meaningfalsifiedgold.Alchemistsbelievedthattheywereharnessingthe
powersofcreatingandtransmutinginnerproperties,ratherthanmerely
falsifyinganouterappearance.
Philosophers
and
alchemists
made
keen
observations
of
the
natural
world,andwitnessedtransformationandchangeasadailyphenomenon.
Intheanimalkingdom,eggstransformedintohatchlingsandcaterpillars
morphed into butterflies. From seeds, sprouts emerged and flowers
became fruit in the plant kingdom. The philosophers and alchemists
realizedthatmancouldparticipateintheprocessoftransformationvia
practicalmeanssuchascreatingbutterandcheesefrommilk,breadfrom
grains,or
wine
from
grapes
and
vinegar
from
wine.
Long
before
living
cells or chemicals and their reactions were identified, alchemists
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LAPORT & GABRIELSSON
xviii
witnessed the dynamic processes of transformation and change in
Natureandtermedittransmutation.
Themineral
kingdom
likewise
showed
signs
of
growth
and
regeneration.
Seawater crystallized into salt and cinnabar ore magically produced
mercury and sulfur. Gold was a byproduct of stibnite mining. The
observationthatsulphideores,suchascinnabarandstibnite,commonly
occurinthepresenceofgoldcausedalchemiststodeterminethatmetal
oresandbasemetalswereinanorganicgeologicalprocessofmaturing
intogold.
From theperspectiveofanalchemist, the ideaof transmutingabase
metalintoalchemicalgoldwasmerelytheactofassistingthequickening
ofanaturalprocess.Iftransmutationisunderstoodtomeanachangein
theproperties of matter, it engenders a better understanding of the
alchemistsmindset.TheStonesabilitytoaffecttransmutation inbase
metals,resultinginalchemicalgold,wasaveryrealprimarypowerinthe
mindsofthoseinsearchofitssecrets.
TheStonesdualvalueisbestdescribedby13thcenturyFranciscanfriar,
philosopherandearlyEuropeanadvocateofthescientificmethod,Roger
Bacon.Baconexplainedthatalchemy:
is the science which teaches how to make and generate a certain
medicine,called
elixir,
which
when
projected
onto
metals
or
imperfect
bodiesperfectsthemcompletelyatthemomentofprojection.
ThesecondpowerinherentinthePhilosophersStonewasthatitcould
extendhumanlifetoitsfullestpotential.Thiswasmistakenlyinterpreted
bysometomeanthatoneinpossessionofthePhilosophersStonehad
accesstopotentialimmortality.Baconaddressesthispropertyasfollows:
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INTRODUCING THE STONE
xix
Thatmedicinewhichwill remove all impurities and incorruptibilities
fromthelessermetalswillalso,intheopinionofthewise,takeoffso
much of the incorruptibility of the body that human life may be
prolongedformanycenturies.
Similar ideasoccur inChinese, Indian, Persian, and Islamic alchemical
traditions long before arriving in Europe. The idea that lifemight be
prolonged by centuries,orpossibly to the extent of immortality,was
appealingtomanywhoencountereddescriptionssuchasthese.
The
ability
to
create
gold
would
provide
the
alchemist
or
his
patron
with
unparalleled power through manipulation of local and worldwide
economiesbaseduponagoldstandard.Itwasviewedbythebenevolent
asaweaponwith thepotential to toppleunjustpower structures.By
devaluing gold, some alchemists hoped to usher in an age of
enlightenment, as the Harvard educated American physician and
alchemist George Starkey, writing under the pseudonym Eirenus
Philalethes,alludes
to
in
the
following:
Ihopethatinafewyearsgold(notasgivenbyGod,butasabusedby
man)willbesocommonthatthosewhoarenowsomadafteritshall
contemptuouslyspurnasidethisbulwarkofAntichrist.Thenwilltheday
ofourdeliverancebeathandforthengold,thegreatidolofmankind,
wouldloseitsvalue,andweshouldprizeitonlyforitsscientificteaching.
The incredible power attributed to the Philosophers Stone, and the
secret of its manufacture, obsessed many of the greatest minds
throughoutthehistoryofscienceandchemistry.Theallureofasingle
substance created and held in the palm of ones hand which
embodiedpotentiallyunlimitedwealth,powerand immortality this
provedsuchadifficulttemptationtoresistthatitkeptmanyseekersof
thePhilosophers
Stone
spellbound.
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LAPORT & GABRIELSSON
xx
Transmission
During the 12th century, alchemy and the Philosophers Stone were
makingathreeprongedarrivalintoEurope.MuslimssettledinSpainand
Sicilyin
the
western
Mediterranean
where
Islamic
literature
was
translated into Latin. Muslims valued science and technology and,
accordingtotheirwritings,heldalchemyandthePhilosophersStonein
highregard.CrusadersreturningfromtheEastalsoimportedalchemical
works fromConstantinople and theHoly Land. It isprimarily through
Arabic translationsoforiginalGreek, Egyptian andHebrew alchemical
texts,
along
with
a
corpus
found
at
Constantinople,
that
European
intellectuals were first introduced to alchemy and the Philosophers
Stone.
KnowledgeofthePhilosophersStoneremainedwithintightcircles,asa
mysterycraft tradition, for approximately 300 years after arriving in
Europe.Talesofitspowerandeyewitnessaccountsincreaseditsstatus
inEurope
to
the
point
where
the
quest
for
the
Philosophers
Stone
was
on par with great mysteries like the Holy Grail and the Ark of the
Covenant. The Stones secrecy, yet alleged achievability, added to its
allure.
Much like masonry, glass making, metallurgy and art, alchemy was
considered a mysterycraft whereby one learned through long
apprenticeshipwith
amaster
artisan.
The
trade
was
passed
on
primarily
throughoral teachings andphysicalwork.Anywritten instructionsor
recordswereencodedinimagesorsymbolismintelligibleonlytothose
initiated into the particular tradition being studied. Throughout
alchemyshistory,and ineachculturethatpracticed it,transmissionof
the art followed this manner. This approach allowed for the
communication
of
discoveries
and
new
techniques,
and
a
general
sharing
of information between brothersinthecraft without revealing any
secretstooutsiders.Doctor,Rosicrucianandalchemicaladept,Sigismund
Bacstromexplainsthat:
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xxi
manywroteonthisart,moreforthepurposeofshowingtoothers
whopossessedthesecret,thattheauthoralsoknewit,thanfromany
desiretocommunicateknowledgetotheignorantandwhatisworse,manywroteandpublishedbookswhoknewnothingwhateverof the
subject.
ThisfactiswhatmakesmodernresearchintothePhilosophersStoneso
challenging.Theelaboratealchemicaljargonwhichhassosuccessfully
encrypted the secrets of the Philosophers Stone forms a complex
matrixof
symbols,
cover
names,
allegory,
and
emblematic
art.
For
many
alchemists,thegrandtestorriteofpassagewastodecodetheencryption
andrediscoverthesecretsubstancesandprocessesnecessarytoconfect
the Stone.Often only a fraction of the recipe or a few of the easier
procedures would be uncovered, revealingjust enough to keep the
alchemistencouraged.
Fromthe
time
of
the
scientific
revolution
up
until
fairly
recently,
alchemicaljargonhadbeenderidedascharlatanism,superstitionandof
no relevance tomodern scholarship.Glaubersbiographer,K.F.Gugel,
attempted to impress upon the reader that alchemical imagery was
actuallythelanguageofscienceforthatera,comparabletothechemical
equationsofmodernchemistry,bydeclaringthat:
The convoluted symbolic language [of alchemy] was just as
comprehensibletothechemistsofhisdayasmodernformulaearetous
now.
Alchemists needed to be fluent in Latin and possibly many other
languages inordertoreadandcomparevarioussourceworks. JohnT.
Young explains that the scientific language of alchemy required
extraordinarytalent
and
insight
on
the
part
of
the
alchemist
in
order
to
interpretalchemicaltextsandcreatesymbolicimagerytoapplytonew
discoveries:
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xxii
Hermetic writing was certainlynot incomprehensible to the initiated,
butitselucidationdependedonacombinationofskillsfarmorediverse
thanwouldbeexpectedofatwentiethcenturyresearchspecialistinany
field.It
demanded
great
practical
experience,
extensive
familiarity
with
avastrangeofrareliterature,andinmanycasesaccesstoaparticular
key obtainable only throughpersonal contact with the author or his
friends[althoughthekeywassometimesdiscoveredindependently].It
also demanded highly advanced reading skills of a type regarded
nowadays asfar more theprovince of the literary scholar. Symbol,
metaphor and often very heavily veiled allusion, not to mention
deliberatered
herrings
and
self
proclaimed
self
contradictions,
were
thestockintradeoftheseauthors.
Most important in thequoteabove is thementionofamaster Key
usually obtained by an initiate through direct transmission which
allowed the wouldbe adept to unlock the secret to confecting the
Philosophers Stone. It was this allimportant Key that was the most
guardedand
greatest
secret
of
alchemy.
The uninitiated generally experienced an overwhelming sense of
impenetrability. Accomplished alchemists, as part of their tradecraft,
wouldattempt to sidetrackoreven completelydiscourage seekersby
contradicting themselves in their writings, unnecessarily repeating or
presenting procedures out of order, or including imagery that had
nothingto
do
with
the
actual
recipe.
Starkey,
writing
as
Philalethes,
revealsasmuch:
AndtrulyitisnotourintenttomaketheArtcommontoallkindofmen,
wewritetothedeservingonly;intendingourBookstobebutasWay
markstosuchasshalltravelinthesepathsofNature,andwedowhat
wemaytoshutouttheunworthy:Yetsoplainlywewrite,thatasmany
asGod
hath
appointed
to
this
Mastery
shall
certainly
understand
us,
andhavecausetobethankfuluntousforourfaithfulnessherein.This
weshallreceivefromtheSonsofthisScience,whateverwehavefrom
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xxiii
others:thereforeourBooksareintendedfortheformer,wedonotwrite
awordtothelatter.
By
encrypting
the
details
of
their
craft
in
this
manner,
alchemists
protectedmedicalandindustrialchemicaltradesecretsandensuredthat
onlytheworthywouldevergainaccesstothePhilosophersStone.For
theuninitiated,alchemical researchoftenproved tobea frustratingly
labyrinthineexercise.Modernprivateandprofessionalresearchaimedat
decoding alchemys entire corpus ofmaterials andmethods remains
ongoingaftercenturiesofeffort.
Properties
and
Applications
The Philosophers Stone was not naturally occurring, but rather a
compoundsubstanceresultingfromskilledartisanship.Thealchemists
roleintheStonesconfectionwastopreparethematerialsproperlyand
combine them in the correctproportions.Onceprepared, sealed in a
vessel and fired at exactly the correct temperature regimen, the
Philosophers Stone was said to create itself by means of a self
synthesisingprocess;attentionneedonlybepaidtothedegreesoffire.
Thedeceptivesimplicityoftheprocesswasenticing;yetdiscoveringthe
exactingredientspresentedaseeminglyinsurmountableobstacletothe
uninitiated.Somealchemistsbecameobsessedwithrediscoveringthese
secrets,tothepointofinsanity.
Some tantalising success stories encouraged determined souls to
continuebypresentingdescriptionsofthefinishedproduct.Analchemist
whoachievedsuccessatconfectingtheStonewascalledanadept.One
oftheearliestEuropeanadeptstoprovideadescriptionofthefinished
Philosophers Stone was the 14th century French alchemist, Nicholas
Flamel,whowrote:
When thenoblemetal [gold]wasperfectlyprepared, itmadeafine
powderofgold,whichisthePhilosophers'Stone.
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xxiv
Theprimary ingredient in thearchetypalPhilosophersStone recipe is
alwaysalchemicallypreparedgold.GeorgeStarkeywouldechoFlamel
threecenturieslater,writingthat:
SomeAlchemists who are in search of ourArcanum seek toprepare
somethingofasolidnature,becausetheyhaveheardtheobjectoftheir
searchdescribedasaStone.
Know,then,thatitiscalledastone,notbecauseitislikeastone,but
onlybecause,byvirtueofitsfixednature,itresiststheactionoffireas
successfullyasanystone.Inspeciesitisgold,morepurethanthepurest;
itisfixedandincombustiblelikeastone,butitsappearanceisthatof
veryfinepowder
ItdoesnotexistinNature,buthastobepreparedbyArt,inobedience
toNature'slaw.Itssubstanceisinmetals;butinformitdifferswidely
fromthem,andinthissensethemetalsarenotourStone.
Thus,youseethatthoughourStoneismadeofgoldalone,yetitisnot
commongold.
Theabovequotationsclearlyidentifytheprimaryingredientasgold,yet
traditionaldescriptionsoftheStonescolor,density,structure,andeven
scentareatgreatvariancewiththoseofgold.ThePhilosophersStone
hasbeendescribedasaheavyvermilionpowder;arubycoloredwaxy
substance;adeep
red
translucent
crystal;
asaffron
or
yellow
powder,
andevenagoldencoloredliquid.Ithasbeendescribedaspossessingan
odourofseasalt,orhavingnoscentatall.Althoughdescriptiveaccounts
oftheseindicatorsmayatfirstseemcontradictory,theyareeachquite
accurate in thatwhat thesedepictionsportray aproduct at various
stagesofrefinement.
Dependingupon
the
intended
therapeutic
or
industrial
application
of
the
product,thePhilosophersStoneneededtoundergofurtherrefinement.
AlchemistsusedthebasicPhilosophersStoneproducttocreateeithera
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xxv
tonifying / rejuvenating universalmedicine in liquid form known as
aurum potabile or a powder of projection that facilitated the
manufacture of alchemical gold from copper, lead, mercury, or a
combinationthereof.
In
some
cases,
the
Stone
was
used
for
wet
gilding
silverwithalayerofmetallicgold.Itisalsothemostlikelycandidatefor
thesecretingredientrequiredinordertocreatetherosecoloredstained
glass,whichadornedthegreatGothiccathedrals.
Inherent
Dangers
ConfectingthePhilosophersStonewasfraughtwithdangers,bothinside
andoutsidethelaboratory.TheStonerequiredalaboratory,butdueto
widespreadprohibitionsonalchemy, ifonewasnotacourtsponsored
alchemist it meant working in an illegal laboratory. Clandestine
alchemical labs, as well as many operating under court patronage,
featuredbuiltincharcoalfurnacesposingthefirstobviousseverehealth
threat.Thetoxicnatureofvariouschemicalsandgasesassociatedwith
alchemyhad
not
been
fully
understood,
and
alchemists
handled
these
substanceswith littleornoprotective protocols.Alchemists routinely
inhalednoxious fumes, suchasmercury,and tested theirproductsby
tastingoringestingthem;ineffectactingashumanguineapigs.
Inadditiontoseverehealthrisks,alchemistsalsofacedlegaldangers.For
clandestine laboratories, thedangerofbeingdiscoveredwasanever
presentsource
of
concern.
Hauling
large
daily
loads
of
charcoal
into
small
privatequartersnot tomention thenoxiousodoursemanating from
suchlabswouldhaveattractedunwantedpublicattention.Desperate
characterssufferingfromdiseasealsotargetedalchemists,believingthat
theypossessedsecretcures.Themerehintthatanalchemistmaybein
possession of the Philosophers Stone placed him in grave danger as
Starkey,
writing
as
Philalethes,
reveals:
Itwas only a short time ago that, after visiting theplaguestricken
hauntsofacertaincity,andrestoringthesicktoperfecthealthbymeans
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xxvi
ofmymiraculousmedicine,Ifoundmyselfsurroundedbyayellingmob,
whodemandedthatIshouldgivetothemmyElixiroftheSages;andit
wasonlybychangingmydressandmyname,byshavingoffmybeard
andputting
on
awig,
that
Iwas
enabled
to
save
my
life,
and
escape
fromthehandsofthosewickedmen.Andevenwhenourlivesarenot
threatened, it is notpleasant tofind ourselves, wherever we go, the
centralobjectsofhumangreed
Iknowofseveralpersonswhowerefoundstrangledintheirbeds,simply
because they were suspected of possessing this secret, though, in
reality,theyknewnomoreaboutitthantheirmurderers;itwasenough
forsomedesperateruffians,thatamerewhisperofsuspicionhadbeen
breathedagainsttheirvictims.MenaresoeagertohavethisMedicine
thatyourverycautionwillarousetheirsuspicions,andendangeryour
safety.
Aswillbedetailedinsubsequentchapters,alchemicalgolddiffersfrom
genuine elemental gold. Nevertheless, the ruling elite would not
necessarilyhavefullyunderstoodthedifference.Afundamentalreason
for the prohibition of alchemy was the states belief that if the
Philosophers Stone was successfully achieved, alchemists could
potentially tap intoanunlimitedsourceofwealthandthusdestabilize
currencymarketsandexistingpowerstructures.Thisattitudewasfirst
recordedduringthelate3rdcenturyCE,inanedictbytheRomanEmperor
Diocletianwho
feared
that
Alexandrian
alchemical
gold
could
pass
for
genuine currency and thus empower those who opposed him. He
orderedallmaterialsintheEmpirewhichtreatedoftheadmirableart
ofmakinggoldandsilverdestroyed.Diocletiansedictwasthefirst,but
not final, criminalization of alchemy. During the 14th century, the
Dominican Directorium inquisitorum, the inquisitors directory, lists
alchemistsamongmagiciansandwizards.
Theperception that thePhilosophersStone couldgenerateunlimited
wealthandimmortalitywasalltooenticingforthoseinpower,andisone
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xxvii
of the reasons foralchemybeingpatronizedandpursuedbyEuropes
rulingeliteand religious figureheads.For this reason,courtsponsored
alchemists achieved somewhat of a celebrity status. If unsuccessful,
alchemistsrisked
punishment
for
either
being
afraud
or
withholding
secrets. Far from guaranteeing protection, successfully achieving the
PhilosophersStonepresenteditsownuniquesetofperils.Ifsuccesswas
evensuspected,thealchemist inquestionfaced interrogation,torture,
imprisonment,orevenexecution;thoseinpowerwouldstopatnothing
to acquire and harness the power of the Philosophers Stone.Greed
enticed
con
artists,
charlatans
and
impostors
to
seek
out
the
PhilosophersStoneand,uponinevitablyfailing,touseitsreputationto
defraud enthusiastic yet unwary patrons. This resulted in a very
precariousandunstableenvironmentforgenuinealchemistsoperating
withgoodintentionsandendowedwitharefinedskillset.
Despite thesedangerouspitfalls, thePhilosophersStonecontinued to
captivatesome
of
the
greatest
intellectual
minds
of
Europe.
Alchemy
survivedpublicscandal,legalprohibition,politicalintrigue,andreligious
persecution.Itevolvedintotheearlymodernchymistry,whichplayeda
foundational role in the development of pharmacy and modern
chemistry. By the 19th century, alchemists were responsible for the
discoveryofagreatmanysubstances.Alchemyhadplayedthe roleof
protoscienceforchemistry,iatrochemistry,pharmacology,andphysics,
amongothers,andhadcontributedtotheformulationofthescientific
method. Alchemy also profoundly influenced the development of
psychology,historiology,astronomy,astrology,andtheoccultsciences.
As the various sciences became more compartmentalized alchemy
seemedtofadeintothebackground,withtheartsurvivingamongsecret
societies and fraternities or via individual transmission. Thousands of
alchemicaltexts
survive,
many
detailing
in
tantalisingly
veiled
language
thesecretsofconfectingthePhilosophersStone.Thesearchcontinues
eventoday.
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xxviii
TheRediscovery
The Philosophers Stonewas an actualmaterial substance; a tangible
product synthesized by an impressive number of wellrespected
historicalpersonalities
alchemists,
philosophers,
physicians,
and
the
like.ThequestionhasneverbeenwhetherthePhilosophersStonewas
real, but ratherwhat exactly is the molecular structure of the Stone
(considered in the light of modern chemistry, pharmacology and
industry)andhowcanitbereproduced?
Thisisnotatreatiseregardingalchemyperse.Rather,thisstudyfocuses
upon the reproducibility of a genuine Philosophers Stone substance
accordingtotraditionalprocesses.Theprimarygoalwastosynthesizethe
exactsubstancetraditionallyunderstoodtobethePhilosophersStone,
usingmaterialsandmethodsdetailedinalchemicaltexts,andtoanalyse
thehistoryandevolutionofthechemistryinvolved.
The study was limited to alchemical authors that were generally
considered authentic that is, the great adepts of alchemy in each
tradition.Themethodologywastofindacommondenominatorinherent
inthepublishedsynthesesofthesealchemistsandbeginresearchfrom
there. To do so, required an alchemical approach solve et coagula.
Hundredsofalchemicaltextswereexaminedforcommonalities linking
Maria Hebreas descriptions circa 200 CE with those of European
alchemistswriting
between
the
12thto
20th
centuries.
It
was
aquest
for
anarchetypalmaterialslistandmethodologyprofilethatstoodthetest
of time. The search resulted in the identification of the standard
ingredientsandchemicalreactionscommontomostrecipes:
1. Gold featured as the primary and most obvious of the three basic
ingredients; the gold described is always refined to a highpurity, then
reducedto
the
finest
particle
size
possible
before
being
used;
2. Antimonyoccursnaturallyasasulphideoretodaycalledstibnite;informer
timesstibnitewascalledantimony,whereaspurifiedmetallicantimonywas
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xxix
calledregulusand,earlierinhistory,flowersofantimony;bothstibniteand
purifiedantimonyareusedatspecificstagesinthearchetypalrecipe;
3. Flux / Menstruum the final constituent was far more difficult to
distinguish; it isasubstancewiththecapabilityofdissolvinggoldwithout
violenceorcorrosion,yethastheadditionalcapacitytocrystallize,congeal
or coagulate under the right conditions; described as being metallic in
nature,yettranslucentandviscous.
Theprimarychallengewas to identify the flux/menstruum.Goldand
antimony are considered by alchemists to be related. The flux /
menstruumis
described
as
being
intimately
related
to,
and
having
the
samenatureas,bothgoldandantimony.Thegreatestandmostguarded
secret toconfectingthePhilosophersStone is the identityof the flux,
morecommonlycalledtheuniversalsolvent.Complicationarisesbecause
differentsubstanceswereusedatdifferentperiodsthroughouthistory.
These substances ranged from a unique salt during the Alexandrian
period,to
the
salt
saturated
urine
of
Islamic
alchemy,
to
the
unique
chemical compounds developed and utilized throughout European
alchemy.Putsimply,theflux/menstruum istheKeytothewholeart,
andknowledgeof itunitesbrothers inan invisible fraternityofadepts
spanningcenturies.
Crossreferencing and carefully analysing original sources resulted in
reproducibilityof
the
various
flux
/menstruum
chemical
reactions
accordingtothematerialsandmethodspresented inalchemicaltexts.
Various indicators were scrutinized, such as appearance, vapour
temperature,viscosity,abilitytodissolvegoldwithoutviolence,etc.Once
workingsamplesofeachwerereproduced,thechemistrywasscrutinized
andcomparedtothereactionsdescribedinalchemicaltextsinorderto
discern historical variations. It became apparent that the flux /
menstruum was achieved by a variety of techniques, which offered
alchemistsamarginfordivergenceinmaterialsandmethods.Soended
the solve aspect of the research. What was next required was the
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coagulation of a vastbodyof arcanedata, sourced from centuriesof
alchemical
literature,
into
a
coherent
narrative
of
the
evolution
of
the
chemistry
associated
with
the
creation
of
the
Philosophers
Stone
and
its
valuations
and
applications.
Recipes written by alchemists who shared a common approach, in
accordance
with
an
archetypal
technique
of
uniting
gold
and
antimony
viaaflux/menstruumweregathered.Comparisonsbetweenvarious
recipes provided further insight into the core process that ultimately
enabled
reproducibility.
By
the
end
of
the
17th
century,
alchemists
had
developed
comprehensively
diverse
techniques,
yet
the
primary
ingredients and finished products remained essentially equivalent to
thoseof theAlexandrian adepts so many centuriesearlier.Achieving
reproducibility
resulted
in
the
writing
of
chemical
equations
for
the
Philosophers
Stone,
and
to
fully
elucidating
the
subject
of
alchemical
goldand transmutation froma contemporary scientificperspective.A
comprehensive
understanding
of
the
Stones
molecular
structure
was
fundamental
towards
creating
a
hypothesis
for
a
therapeutic
mechanism
of action in vivo. The following treatment reveals the origins and
evolution
of
Alexandrian,
Islamic
and
European
methods
to
achieve
the
samesinglechemicalcompoundthePhilosophersStone.