7
CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW, CONCEPT, THEORETICAL
FRAMEWORK, AND RESEARCH MODEL
2.1 Literature Review
Literature review in this study is taken from some articles, journals, and
thesis about interpreting, which include the following:
Zhong (2003) in the journal of interpreting, volume 7, entitled “Memory
Training in Interpreting”, discusses the memory training in the process of
interpreting. According to Zhong, a short-term memory is an essential part in the
process of interpreting. In this journal, Zhong analyses the major characteristics of
Short-Term Memory (STM) and also their implications on the interpreter‟s
memory training. Zhong believes that interpreting an STM-centered activity
includes decoding information from the source language, storing of information,
retrieval of information, and encoding of information into the target language. The
training of STM skill is the first step in training a professional interpreter followed
by the tactics of the memory training for interpreters like retelling, categorization,
generalization, comparison, shadowing exercises, etc.
Mikkelson (2006) in her thesis entitled “Interpreting is Interpreting-Or is
it?” analyzes different types of interpreting; Simultaneous, Whispered,
Consecutive, Escort, Conference, Community, Court, Media, Medical,
Educational, and Over the phone interpreting. She stresses that what is essential in
good interpreting is determined by the quality of interpreters which is identified
8
by various author descriptions of the ideal interpreter such as language skill,
listening and recall, interpersonal skill, behavior, speaking, cultural knowledge,
and subject knowledge. His analysis has shown that regardless of the adjective
preceding the word “interpreter”, practitioners of this profession in the world
perform the same service and should meet the same standards of competence. She
also proposes the qualities of the interpreters which are identified by various
authors in the description of the ideal interpreter as an essential for good
interpreting. This article gives a good contribution to this study as it becomes one
of the theoretical sources to support this research.
Sutopo (2006) analyses the role of the interpreter in developing
international trading. Throughout his thesis, there are four roles of an interpreter
in developing the international trading of rattan furniture at Trangsan, Gatak,
Sukoharjo. They play the role as inspirators, mediators, explanators and guides.
As an inspirator, the interpreter may take his role in pre-trading. In this step, the
interpreter can take a part to play his role as an inspirator. For this need, the role
of interpreter is very important. As the mediator, the interpreter helps the seller to
negotiate with the buyer. In negotiaiting the business, the role of an interpreter is
as the mediator who helps the seller to negotiate with the buyer especially in re-
explaining or transferring the oral communication. He is the helper of the
communication between the seller and buyer. As explanatory, the interpreter has a
role to give an explanation to the speaker. At this point, the interpreter may apply
sight interpreting. As a guide, the interpreter accompanies the buyer who wants to
check the furniture. The buyer wants to know not only the result of the products
9
but also the process of making those products; therefore, the interpreter also gives
all information needed by the buyer. The interpreter only applies two modes of
interpreting, they are sight and liaison interpretings. Sight interpreting is applied
by the interpreter when he has a job to explain the content of the letter or facsimile
received by the boss directly. Meanwhile, liaison interpreting is applied by the
interpreter when he has a job to accompany the boss for hunting buyers,
negotiating projects and serving a site visit programme. Sutopo‟s research gives
contribution in analyzing the types of interpreting performed by the interpreter.
Another article available in the National Association of Judiciary
Interpreters & Translators (NAJIT) is entitled “Modes of Interpreting:
Simultaneous, Consecutive and Sight Translation” (2006); it discusses the modes
of interpreting used in legal setting. It is stated that there are three recognized
modes in the interpreting profession and have been adopted in federal and state
statutes and court rules namely simultaneous interpreting, consecutive
interpreting, and sight interpreting. Each mode fits particular needs and
circumstances in the judical process and in legal setting. This article also explains
the use of each mode of interpreting, gives reasons for the use of each , and
provides practical suggestions for effective use of interpreters when working with
individuals with limited English proficiency. This article gives contribution in the
mode of interpreting.
Budiartana (2007) in his thesis entitled “The Process of Interpreting
Performed by the Tour Guides at Sukawati Art Market” analyzes the process of
interpreting performed by the tour guides at the traditional art market. He states
10
that the interpreting performed by the tour guide belongs to a liaison interpreting
who mediates the communication process between the buyers and sellers,
meanwhile the setting is conducted in a community setting. Budiartana‟s research
only focuses on the mode and procedures of interpreting used by the tour guide at
Sukawati art market. The problems in his research still can be elaborated more,
not only about the mode and procedures of interpreting used by tour guides, but
also the deep concern about the strategies used by the tour guides in transfering
the message from the source language to the target language.
His research is different in the product of interpeting from this present
study. His research was conducted at the traditional market, which is out of the
formal context and done by the tour guide not by the professional interpreter;
however, this research was undertaken at an international conference, and was
performed by a professional interpreter. His thesis reveals the analysis of the
interpreting process at a traditional market which is familiar to our daily life. This
study shows relevance in regard to the mode of interpreting, in terms of the use of
liaison interpreting.
Lahallo (2011), in her thesis entitled “The Interpreting Process at Bali
Gospel Festival” analyses the process of interpreting performed by the interpreter
at Gospel Festival. She states that the process of interpreting performed at the
gospel festival belongs to the consecutive mode and the setting was the formal
situation or community interpreting. Her research only focused on the mode and
procedures of interpreting performed by the interpreter at the Bali Gospel Festival,
11
eventhough her research gives contribution to the understanding of the mode and
the setting of interpreting.
Puspani (2010), in her dissertation entitled “Penerjemahan Lisan di
Pengadilan Negeri Denpasar”, describes the process and product of interpreting
performed by the interpreters at Denpasar Court. Her study also discusses the
process of interpreting in court to justify how the relevance theory is
implemented in interpreting on an oral text communication in terms of law in
court proceeding. The role of the interpreter here is only as a co-participant in the
interaction at court proceeding. Her research brings a wide knowledge of
interpreting in court with a variety of problems as its discussion started from the
modes of interpreting, translation strategies, factor that underlie the application of
the strategies to the impact of the application of those strategies on the quality of
interpreting.
Her dissertation is similar to this research, both took place in the
community setting. The difference is that her study focused on the process and
product of interpreting in court, while this study focuses on the techniques of
simultaneous interpreting at the international conference.
1.2 Concepts
There are some concepts which need to be explained in relation to this study,
such as the definition of technique, the definition of strategy, interpreting,
12
simultaneous interpreting, and a glimpse of the International Co-operative
Alliance Asia Pacific Conference. Those concepts used in this research can be
seen as follows:
2.2.1 Technique
There is a wide range of techniques that can be used for organising public
participation. The choice of correct technique (or the combination of techniques)
is made within the strategy and depends on public participation aims. Based on
Oxford Advance Learner‟s Dictionary (Hornby: 1995), technique is “a way of
carrying out a particular task, especially the execution or performance of an
artistic work or a scientific procedure”. Technique is also mean skill or ability in a
particular field, and a skilful or efficient way of doing or achieving something.
2.2.2 Strategy
A strategy is a general action plan made to reach an aim based on future
forecasts. Strategies focus more on the way public participation is embedded in
the decision making process. When choosing the strategy it is necessary to
identify strategic aims - main activity directions leading to the implementation of
the action plan. A strategy determines what techniques will be used in public
participation. The process of public participation presumes realisation of basic
actions leading to the achievement of the main aim. Based on Oxford Advance
Learner‟s Dictionary (Hornby: 1995), strategy is “a plan of action designed to
achieve a long-term or overall aim. A plan for directing overall military
operations and movements”.
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2.2.3 Interpreting
Various definitions are presented by linguists on interpreting such as
proposed by Pochhacker (2004:9-11); interpreting is regarded as “a translational
activity, as a special form of translation in which the first and the final rendition in
another language is produced on the basis of one time presentation of an utterance
in the source language”. It means that the interpreter has to render the utterances
of the source language message immediately to the target langauge utterances.
The oral translation is known as interpreting. Pochhacker (2004:13) also states
that “the process of interpreting can also be applied without the presence of
participants where it can be conducted by using technology as in the phone
interpreting”.
According to Setton (1999) interpreting is “a process by which a spoken
language or utterance take place in one language which is intended or presumed to
convey the same meaning as previously existing utterances in another language”.
Interpreting has been conducted to mediate participants of communication who
have different language backgrounds as well they do not speak the language
acquired by each of them, so an interpreter is needed to mediate the gap in
communication between those participants.
Meanwhile, Seleskovitch (1989) states that interpreting is
communication, i.e. analysis of the original message and its conversion into a
form accesible to the listener. The process broken into three stages as follows:
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1. Auditory perception of a linguistic utterance which carries meaning.
Apprehension of the language and comprehension of the message
through a process of analysis and exegesis.
2. Immediete and deliberite discarding of the wording and retention of
the mental representation of the message (concepts, ideas,etc)
3. Production of new utterance in the target language must meet a dual
requirement: it must express the original message in its entirety and it
must be geared to the recepient.
Mikkelson (2006:2) states that interpreting in simple terms as the
interpreter has first to listen to the speaker, understand and analyze what is being
said and then re-synthesize the speech in the appropriate form in a different
language. He stated that interpreting activity is now an essential part of human
interaction at all levels; more and more people are employed as interpreters in
goverment and public agencies, non-goverment organizations, and private
industry.
2.2.4 Simultaneous Interpreting
Pochhacker (2004) proposed that the type of interpreting based on the way
how the interpreting is performed (modes) and where it takes place (the setting),
in which the activity is carried out. He states four modes of interpreting, such as;
simultaneous, consecutive, whispered, and relay interpreting. Pochhacker
(2004:10) states that simultaneous interpreting is performed as the source
language is being presented by the first speaker. It means that the interpreter
15
renders the target language almost at the same time from the source language with
a limitation of time and there is no time for note taking.
Jones (1998:6) states that simultaneous interpreting is performed with
appropriate equipment such as the delegates speak into microphones which relay
the sound directly into the interpreter seated in sound-proofed booth listening to
the proceddings through earphones; the interpreters in turn speak into a
microphone worn by the delegations who wish to listen to the interpreting.
According to Hatim and Mason (1997:219), simultaneous interpreting is
conducted in special booths where the interpreter listens through earphones and
sometimes watches what is going on. Simultaneous interpreting is considered a
harder mode of interpreting and involves the interpreter continuously interpreting
from the source language into the target language as the source speaker is
speaking. In simultaneous interpretation continously at the same time someone is
speaking as quickly as the interpreter can reformulate the message in the target
language. Normally, in simultaneous interpreting between spoken languages the
interpreter sits in a soundproof booth, usually with a clear view of the speaker, at
a microphone, listening through headphones to the incoming message in the
source language; the interpreter relays the message in the target language into the
microphone to whosoever is listening. Simultaneous interpreting is intended to be
heard only by the person receiving the interpretation and is usually accomplished
by speaking in whispered tones or using equipment specially designed for the
purpose in order to be as unobtrusive as possible. It is usually used in a conference
or in a big seminar.
16
The simultaneous interpreter has to settle for a partial view of both context
and text structure and has therefore to rely more heavily on the emerging texture
in order to make and maintain sense. This is because, in this mode of interpreting,
reception and production of the text take place at more or less the same time. In
the case of simultaneous interpreting, context and structure are revealed only
piecemeal and can thus be accessed more effectively via texture, i.e. the words as
they are spoken. Input for simultaneous interpreting is characterized by context
and structure being less readily usable than texture. In this interpreting, the input
is received piecemeal, and the interpreter‟s task is basically reacting and
interacting with utterance 1, then utterance 2, and so on, allowing for the
inevitable to overlap between the various elements of the sequence. Of course,
experienced interpreters use all kinds of anticipation strategies which anable them
to formulate in advance plausible hypotheses regarding both context and structure.
Unlike the simultaneous interpreting where the interpreter has at least
something to embark upon, the consecutive interpreter has to wait before he/she
can deliver the output text. It means that it will add pressure and extra load on
memory, which results that information related to texture and context become
rather too detail to hold. According to Hatim and Mason (1997: 42), consecutive
interpreter, whose output comes after the source text has been delivered, tends to
focus on information relevant to text structure. Effective consecutive output thus
exhibits a clear outline of the way the text is structured. In consecutive
interpreting (CI), the interpreter speaks after the source-language speaker
17
completes one or two complete sentences. The speech is divided into segments,
and the interpreter sits or stands beside the source-language speaker, listening and
taking notes as the speaker progresses through the message. When the speaker
pauses or finishes speaking, the interpreter then renders a portion of the message
or the entire message in the target language. A good interpreter have to highly
proficient in both English and the other language, impartiality, able to accurately
and idiomatically turn the message from the source language into the receptor
language without any additions, omissions or other misleading factors that alter
the intended meaning of the message from the speaker can adept at simultaneous
interpretation, which is the most frequent form of interpretation used in the
courtroom, and in consecutive interpretation and sight translation, able to
communicate orally including appropriate delivery and poise and can
demonstrates high professional standards for courtroom demeanor and
professional conduct.
2.2.5 International Co-operative Alliance Asia Pacific
The International Co-operative Alliance (ICA) is a non-governmental co-
operative federation or a co-operative union representing co-operatives and the
co-operative movement worldwide. It was founded in 1895 to unite, represent and
serve co-operatives worldwide. The Alliance maintains the internationally
recognised definition of a co-operative in the Statement on the Co-operative
Identity. The ICA represents 272 co-operative federations and organisations in 94
countries.
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The Alliance provides a global voice and forum for knowledge, expertise
and co-ordinated action for and about co-operatives. The members of the Alliance
are international and national co-operative organisations from all sectors of the
economy, including agriculture, banking, consumer, fisheries, health, housing,
insurance, and workers. The Alliance has members from 100 countries,
representing close to one billion individuals worldwide. Around one hundred
million people work for a co-operative globally. Co-operatives are successful
values based businesses owned by their members. Whether they are customers,
employees or residents, the members get an equal say in the business and a share
of the profits.
On the first Saturday of July each year, the ICA coordinates celebrations
of the International Co-operative Day. In December 2009, the United Nations
declared 2012 as the International Year of Co-operatives. The ICA consists of a
20-member governing board, a General Assembly, four regions (one each for
Africa, Europe, Asia-Pacific, and Americas), sectoral organisations and thematic
committees. Sectoral Organisations include International Co-operative
Agricultural Organisation (ICAO), International Co-operative Banking
Association (ICBA), Consumer Co-operatives Worldwide (CCW), International
Co-operative Fisheries Organisation (ICFO), International Health Co-operative
Organisation (IHCO), International Co-operative Housing Organisation (ICA
Housing), International Co-operative and Mutual Insurance Federation (ICMIF),
International Organisation of Industrial, and Artisanal and Service Producers' Co-
operatives (CICOPA). Furthermore, thematic committees include Committee on
19
Co-operative Research, Communications Committee, Human Resource
Development Committee and Gender Equality Committee. (http://www.ica-
ap.coop/aboutus/ica-asia-pacific)
2.3 Theoretical Framework
Theoretical framework gives description of the theories used in this study to
support the research. The theories used as the main theories in this research are
the theory about techniques on simultaneous interpreting proposed by Jones
(1998) and theory about the impact of applying the techiques on the meaning of
target language proposed by Larson (1998).
2.3.1 Types of Interpreting
The types of interpreting can be divided based on the modes and the
settings of interpreting (Gardenia, 1999). These two types of interpreting are
differentiated through how it is done and where it takes place. The mode of
interpreting refers to the way in which interpreting is offered and the setting of
interpreting refers to where the interpreting takes place.
2.3.1.1 The Modes of Interpreting
Hatim and Mason (1997:41-43) propose three principal modes of
interpreting: Simultaneous interpreting, Consecutive Interpreting and Liaison
Interpreting. According to Hatim and Mason (1997:219), simultaneous
interpreting is conducted in special booths where the interpreter listens through
earphones and sometimes watches what is going on. Simultaneous interpreting is
20
considered a harder mode of interpreting and involves the interpreter continuously
interpreting from the source language into the target language as the source
speaker is speaking. In simultaneous interpretation at the same time someone is
speaking.
Consecutive interpreting involves the interpreter in taking notes of what is
being said. At the end of each fairly large chunk of speech (or an entire speech),
the interpreter gives an oral translation (normally in a reduced form) with the help
of notes. Consecutive interpreting thus affords the interpreter the advantage of not
having constantly to wait for or anticipate the next fragment of input. The input
processed by the consecutive interpreter is a text that can be said to be complete
and antonomous. In the case of consecutive interpreting, texture and context are
retained only in a most short-lived manner and can thus be stored more effectively
via structure.
Hatim and Mason (1997:219) define liaison interpreting as a form of oral
interpreting in which two speakers who do not know each other‟s language or
know them imperfectly communicate through an interpreter, normally in
spontaneous conversational settings. In case of Liaison interpreting, texture and
structure are manifested only partially and can be negotiated more effectively via
context. Hatim and Mason (1997) illustrate this with an example from a real life
situation.
2.3.1.2 The Setting of Interpreting
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The setting based on where the interpreting takes place can be classified
into two major settings: Conference and Community interpreting (Mikkelson,
2006).
1. Conference Interpreting
Based on Mikkelson (2006), conference interpreting is performed at a
conference environment where the participants in the multinational meeting need
to communicate with each other in a seamless fashion, making the language
barrier almost imperceptible. Mikkelson states that these days, most conferences
are conducted with simultaneous interpreting, though interpreters must be
prepared to perfom it in the consecutive mode as well.
2. Community Interpreting
Mikkelson (2006) states that the community interpreting refers to the
interpreting that enables people who are not fluent speakers of the official
languages of the country to communicate with the provider of public services so
as to facilitate full and equal access to legal, health, education, goverment, and
social services. Mikkelson (2006) states that the community interpreting is as
umbrella term that includes such settings as described below:
1. Court Interpreting
It is known as a legal, judiciary, or forensic interpreting, which refers to
interpreting services in courts of law and legal cases of any sort (Mikkelson,
2006:03).
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2. Seminar Interpreting
According to Mikkelson (2006:03) this term is used by U.S Department of
States to designate the interpreting that takes place in meetings or seminar events.
3. Media Interpreting
It is performed at press conferences publicity appearances at interviews, as
well as on films, videos, video conferences, and television/radio programmes
(Mikkelson, 2006:03).
4. Medical Interpreting
Based on Mikelson (2006), interpreting in medical setting encompasses a
variety of situation, from routine consultation with a physician to emergency
procedures, from preparing childbirth classes to support for complex laboratory
testing.
5. Business Interpreting
It is sometimes known as a commercial or trade interpreting. This term
denotes two or more business people discussing business matters, patents
negotiations or goverment-to-goverment meetings and delegations through
interpreters (Mikkelson, 2006:03-04)
6. Educational Interpreting
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According to Mikkelson (2006), educational interpreting is a rapidly growing
field of specialization, especially among sign-language interpreters. It involves
interpreting in the classroom for students who cannot understand the language
instruction, interpreting between teachers and parents at school board meeting or
disciplinary hearings.
7. Over-the-phone interpreting (OPI)
This is also known as remote interpreting; this term refers to interpreing
services provided via telephonic link (occasionally with video links as well), in
which the parties are not in the same physical location. This type of interpreting
is used when great distances are involved (Mikkelson, 2006: 04)
8. Escort Interpreting
Based on Mikkelson (2006), escort interpreting is marked by the spontaneity
concersation and the broad spectrum of situations. It is performed at informal
settings where the interpreter accompanies a person or a delegation on a walking
tour, on a visit, on shopping excursion, etc and the interpretation is usually limited
to a few sentences at a time.
2.3.2 How to be a Good Interpreter?
Based on Freixas (2011:02), to be a good interpreter, the following criteria is a
must:
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1. The interpreter must be thoughtfully following the ideas in the speech, the
“thread” of the conversation, as it were, and must be prepared to extrapolate
meaning from context, in order to bridge or gloss over the spots that were unclear.
2. The interpreter must thoughtfully follow the fast-paced original speech,
while at the same time formulating and delivering an equivalent TL version, and
monitoring his/her own output for errors.
3. The interpreter must focus on meaning not words
Interpreters do not translate the words, but rather reconstruct and restate the
meaning. If we were to actually translate the words and phrases in a message, the
process would take too long, and we would inevitably get stuck every time a
source-language (SL) word in unclear or a target-language (TL) word evades us.
So instead, interpreters listen and understand the SL message; they mostly let go
of the original words and keep only the meaning; they make the meaning their
own or “become” the speaker; and then they quickly restate the meaning in their
own words in the TL, as though expressing their own ideas.
4. Fluid listening
Active listening is the foundation of all interpreting, because we cannot
interpret what we have not heard, understood, analyzed, and abstracted. So
listening not only comes first chronologically speaking, but it is also the first
priority in SI multitasking. That is, listening is the one task that must be fluidly
maintained, even as attention is momentarily diverted to one of the other SI tasks.
Here, good volume on our headsets is extremely helpful for deep message
reception, as well as for long-lasting retention when we are trailing behind the
25
speaker (see “acoustic memory” below). Headset volume should be as loud
ascomfort and conditions allow. Finally, fluid listening means listening in a state
of relaxed concentration, letting the words flow through you while you follow the
meaning, without allowing your attention to get fixed, to linger on any one spot,
or to dwell on any particular word or idea.
5. Clean delivery
Delivery should be smooth and even-paced, emulating the quality of broadcast
voice. In order to achieve smooth pacing, the interpreter should avoid: a) jerky
spurts typical of too short a décalage (heeling); b) stop-and-go where SI actually
becomes a sort of fast consecutive; and c) hurried slurs that result from catching
up after queuing, without using shortcuts. The voice should be clear and
expressive, with meaningful tone; yet diction should always be natural and never
overacted, ultra-correct, or affected. To achieve appropriate expressiveness, the
interpreter should “become” the speaker and purposefully direct the
communication to the listener. That is, even if you are interpreting from an
isolation booth, you should visualize a direct and purposeful face-to-face
communication with the audience. This will make the communication meaningful
and appropriate, as opposed to a self-involved soliloquy. Finally, each phrase or
segment should be formulated and delivered fluidly and confidently, avoiding the
hesitant tone, fillers, uneven pace, and insecure volume of one who is deciphering,
pondering, or doubting.
2.3.3 Techniques on Simultaneous Interpreting
26
Jones (1998) proposes more specifically on the techniques of interpreting
performed in the conference setting especially in the mode of simultaneous
interpreting since this study analyzes the techniques applied at simultaneous
interpreting at the International Co-operative Alliance Asia Pacific Conference.
Those techniques can be explained as follows:
1. When to Start Speaking
Jones (1998) stresses that the interpreter should clearly pay attention to
understand when to start speaking in conducting interpreting particularly in the
modes of simultaneous interpreting. The interpreter must say something
immediately, the interpreter must start speaking as soon as possible. It means that
they must have understood something meaningful in order to have something
meaningful to say. If a speaker begins and the interpreter says absolutely nothing,
be it only for a few seconds, because they are waiting for the right moment to
begin their interpretation, the participants listening to the interpreter may become
very nervous, turn round and make signs at the interpreters‟ booth, or event
interrupt proceedings to complain that there is no interpretation. The interpreter
must, therefore, make at least some sound. (Jones, 1998: 78).
2. Reformulation
Jones (1998:88) states that the interpreter needs to reformulate the wording of
the original to maintain the right distance from the speaker. Long and complicated
sentences are to be broken down into a series of easier, shorter ones; relative and
27
subordinate clauses can be shifted around within a sentence; active clauses
changed into passive. The interpreter must therefore seize upon reformulation as
the tool that will enable them to deal with all kinds of difficulties while remaining
as true as the possible speaker. A fundamental difficulty that can be dealt with
through reformulation is the case where the source language has a word or
concept that does not exist in the target language (Jones, 1998: 89). The aim of the
interpreter is to provide a correct translation of the original in a form of that
sounds as natural as and as authentic as possible in the target language. According
to Jones (1998: 90), this means that reformulation should also be used by the
interpreter for stylistic reasons. The interpreter needs to make value judgements as
to the most appropriate way of saying things in the target language.
3. The Salami Technique
Jones (1998: 100) uses this technique as “salami” or a slicing up a sentence
rather as one might cut slices of salami. Speaker, however, in simultaneous mode
of interpreting may indeed, usually do-use long, complicated sentences. The
logical conclusion is that the interpreter must divide up the speaker‟s sentences
into a number of short, self contained ones and then link them as appropriate.
4. Efficiency in Reformulation
The interpreter needs to be able to reformulate so as to express that oneself
effeiciently exists for all languages, but it should be noted that for some languages
it is more accurate than others. The interpreter can also save a lot of time by
referring to documents, organizations, etc in abbreviations of simplified forms.
28
Such as the Treaty establishing the “European Economic Community” can
become the “EEC Treaty”. (Jones: 1998:106). Because the main formal objectives
of simultaneous interpreter is the efficiency of expression; this means, first, the
interpreter should seek economy of expression everywhere. This means that the
interpreter has to remove all useless filler words such as well, actually, etc.
Second, not taking rhetorical precautions with one‟s audience by adding phrases
such as if you see what I mean, etc. Third, unnecessary repetitions are banned.
Speakers may delibereately repeat notions with synonyms to make a point
particularly forcefully. Fourth, interpreters must be generally vigilant about their
own form of expression, and choose the shorter form, where possible. Fifth, the
interpreters should be prepared to provide a „no frills‟ interpretation where this is
appropriate. This means an interpretation where the speaker‟s verbosity is ironed
out. (Jones, 1998: 107).
5. Simplification
Jones (1998:108) mentioned two reasons for making a simplification; it may
be that the speech is so technical that the interpreter, despite their best efforts to
prepare a meeting and despite documentation made available to them, just cannot
render all of the technical detail. In that case, the interpreter must at least try to
save the essentials by simplication. Second, the interpreter may be taking over the
heads of their audience. Simplification is also a technique to help the interpreter
when the going gets too tough for them.
6. Generalization
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Jones (1998:112) states that an interpreter does not feel that technical
simplification is necessary for either of the reasons mentioned above, but that to
save time perhaps with a very fast speaker, a number of specific items mentioned
can be expressed in one generic term. Again, this technique should be used only
where appropriate. If a speaker gives a list where each element is significant, then
the interpreter must do his best to reproduce the list.
7. Omission
The strategies of ommision cannot be avoided in transferring the mesage from
source language to target language. Jones (1998:112) desribes that the deletion of
information can be the strategies when sometimes the interpreter faces under
dures because of the technical of a subject and the mode expression of the speaker
is too fast. Therefore, he suggested that there are two ways that can be made;
keeping the essential elements and missing out only what is illustrative or in some
way accessory such as asides, digressions, etc. The second is to make analysis, the
interpreter must give himself a bit of time and have sufficient intellectual
distances from the original.
8. Summarizing and Recapitulation
Adding information can also be the strategies which are frequently
performed by the interpreter. Jones (1998:115) stresses that „summarize‟ is not
being used here in the sense of providing a summary that replaces the full text. It
is summary that is added to the full text, recapitulating the main idea. The
30
interpreter should not edit what the speaker said in the source language in order to
ensure full understanding on the part of audience.
9. Explanation
Jones (1998:116) said if an interpreter cannot fit in an explanation, they
should not force themselves to provide the explanation to the detriment of the
speaker‟s other comments. But a brief explanation can actually save time in the
long run. Interpreter can use this technique if the notion delivered by the speaker
is repeated in a speech. Then, the interpreter can explain its meaning; the first time
it is mentioned and thereafter refer to it an abbreviated form, thus saving time.
10. Anticipation
Jones (1998: 116) suggests that the interpreter should take anticipation when
he often begins a sentence without knowing exactly where the sentence is going.
First, the anticipation can be possible from the context of a meeting. If there is a
discussion or a negotiation the delegation‟s position or arguments will become
known, they will return to the points they have already made, or react to the points
made by other participants. Second, the interpreter should learn to recognize
speech patterns and rhetorical structures, particularly in the languages he has to
interpret from. Third, interpreters can anticipate specific words or phrases in
individual sentences because it is simply so obvious how the sentence is going to
end. Jones (1998: 117) said that to deal with this problem, the interpreter uses
reformulation in any case, but there are occasions when waiting for a key word,
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which would allow the interpreter to formulate his own sentence, would take so
long that it is better to anticipate.
11. If the interpreter makes a clear mistake
Jones (1998: 119) admittes that if the mistake is made there are a number of
posible scenarios. First, if the error makes no material difference, it is a waste of
time to make corrections and the interpreter should just pass it. If the interpreter
makes a mistake that is more significant, for instance, in interpreting page
reference or something that is logically inconsistent or technically impossible, it is
not necessary to make a correction for the good order of the meeting. But if he can
slip in a correction quickly, it is a god idea. Finally, if the interpreter might make
a clear mistake that is important, and his audience does not realize it. He must
shallow his pride and correct the point as quickly and as clearly as possible. It is
totally unethical for an inrterpreter to try to „cover up‟ for a mistake just to avoid
the embarrassment of admiting it.
12. If the speaker makes a mistake
Jones (19998:121) says that if the speaker makes a mistake over a slip of the
tounge, it would be a waste of time to repeat the speakers words and the offer a
putative correction to the audience. The interpreter knows that the speaker says
something quite wrong and knows what the right version would be, but are not
totally sure. It is, therefore, the interpreter should interpret the sentence faithfully
and then add as quickly as possible. The speaker might say something clearly
wrong but the interpreter has no clear idea what the correct text would be. Then
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the interpreter should proceed as in the second scenario but not give any
alternative, thus just adding to the speaker‟s words.
13. Avoiding Committing Yourself
When using anticipation the interpreter will note all the signs given by a
speaker as to what will come next, and make use of those signs. Jones (1998:123)
explains that it is dangerous to announce a joke. Even if the speaker is funny in
the source language, jokes are notoriously difficult to translate, that is, the joke
may depend on an untranslatable or may just seem funny to someone of a
different language and culture of the speaker. If the joke is translatable, then the
interpreter should obviously do his best to render it.
14. Metaphors and sayings
Sayings and metaphors should not be announced. They should be interpreted
into the corresponding form in the target language, where possible, without
further explanation. If the meaning of saying is clear to the interpreter but the
saying does not have an equivalent in the target language, the interpreter should
express the sense to best of his ability without being off by the form used by the
speaker. If, however, the interpreter does not understand and the saying is
important- for example used to express the speaker‟s conclusion at the end of a
complicated line of argument and is thus crucial to understand the speaker‟s
position- the interpreter can only translate the saying as literally as possible.
(Jones, 1998: 126).
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15. Using “Pat Phrases”
Jones (1998:127) states that “Pat” means known throughly and ready for any
occasion. For such circumstances all interpreters should have a battery of pat
phrases that they can use without having to make any intelectual effort. There are
many formulations that can occur frequently in meetings. For such circumstances,
all the interpreters should have a battery of pat phrases that economize their
energies, allowing them to concentrate more on genuinely problematic things.
16. Intonation, Stress, and Pauses
Jones (1998:128) states that when people communicate, they express what
they want to say not just through the words they use but also by intonation, by
stressing certain words, and by pauses between words. Simultaneous interpreters
are subject to a number of constraints and temptations that may prevent them from
using intonation, stress and pauses correctly. Jones also stressed for the interpreter
who is providing too much stress, emphasizing words that do not deserve it and
generally hamming it up. The interpreter‟s intonation may indicate that they are
always in a state of expectation, waiting for what comes next. Sentences should be
clearly separated by the appropriate intonation and, if necesarry, a brief pause.
Paragraphs and sections in a speech should be clearly denoted by slightly longer
pauses in the interpretation.
17. Numbers
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Jones (1998: 130) states that numbers can be very difficult for simultaneous
interpreters and can be absolutely crucial pieces of information where no error is
permissible. If the interpreter cannot catch up with the speaker, they must finish
the sentence preceding the number as quickly as possible and move on to the
sentence including the numbers by saying the numbers first. Based on what is
stated by Jones (1998: 130), there are two tactics for coping with the number.
First, the interpreter has to deal not just with the bare arithmatic value but with as
many as five elements, such as arithmetical value, the order of magnitude, unit,
what the numbers refer to, and the last one is the relative value of a number. The
second tactics is the interpreter should unload his memory and say numbers as
soon as possible after the speaker has said them.
18. “Retour”
Jones (1998:134) states that if a professional conference interpreter works into
a language other than his mother tounge and is thus engaged in “retour”
interpreting, he should be able to interpret accurately, clearly, and with correct
grammar. The interpreter should accept that there are certain nuances, shades of
meaning or stylistic niceties that he will not be able to express. The interpreter
doing a retour should be modest in the style he adopts. That is, he should not try
to do things that are really beyond him stylistically using a very literary style or a
lot of images, metaphors, amd smiles, cultural reference, etc. And the last, retour
interpreter should make life as easy as possible for himself by avoiding highly
complex grammatical forms.
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19. Relay
When an interpreter serves as a relay, he is working under special
circumstances that have to be taken into account. Not only is he working for an
audience directly but his interpretattion also has to serve as a source text for one
more collagues. The relay should give absolute priority to clarity in his
interpretation and should also be closer in time to the original than would other
modes of simultaneous. The interpreter has to say something almost as soon as
you know you are being taken on relay, in order to let him know you are there.
The last, relay should remember that the colleagues listening to him may have an
imperect knowledge of the relay language, particularly as far as idiomatic usage
and specific cultural references are concerned. ( Jones, 1998: 137)
The strategies proposed by Jones (1998) can be clue for the interpreter as the
strategies in transferring the message from source language to target language
particularly in the mode of simultaneous interpreting.
2.3.4 Translation Equivalence
The interpreter‟s task is not easy when the object or events are not known in
the target language due to the difference in cognitive point of view, beliefs, and
customs in the source language. The interpreter has to decide either to preserve
the meaning of the source language by keeping the form for correctness and
accuracy for the closest natural equivalent or to adapt the meaning by changing
the form for the intelligibility for the intended reader. The difference in linguistic
systems and cultures of two languages which are not in the same family has made
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the interpreter‟s task become more difficult. Equivalence is one of the aspects that
should be well recognized in translating the source language text into target
language. Equivalence is taken to be the basis on which the source langugae
textual material is replaced by the target language textual material, Catford (1978:
20).
The problem of equivalence is of central importance to translation. In finding
the closest equivalence translation, it is often necessary to translate one word of
the source language by several words in the target language in order to guarantee
the maintenance of the same meaning and sometimes the opposite will be true.
According to Larson (1998), translation involves the transfer of form and meaning
of the source language to target language. The translator will often find that there
is no exact equivalence between the words of one langauge and the words of
another. There will be words which have some of the meaning components
combine in them matching words having these components with some additional
ones.
Larson (1998:179) states that there are three basic alternative ways in which a
translator can find an equivalent expression in the receptor language. They are:
1. a generic word with a descriptive phrase
2. a loan word
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3. a cultural substitute (Beekman and Callow 1974:191-211). The
translator needs to be aware that each alternative has a certain potential
problems.
1. Equivalence by modifiying a generic word
When words found in the source language do not occur in the receptor
language, it may be especially helpful to analyze the source language word to
discover its generic components, the constrastive components, and the function of
the word in its context. (Larson, 1998:183). Then from the analysis, the adequate
equivalent may be found in the receptor language. When a generic word is used as
the equivalent lexical item, and modified so as to carry the correct meaning, there
are four possible modifications which may be made. They are: by making the
form of the item explicit, by making the function of the item explicit, by making
both the form and the function explicit, or by modifiying with a comparison to
some thing or event which does occur in the receptor language.
The use of generic word as a base for constructing an adequate equivalent is
extremely useful. Sometimes the generic term by itself will be sufficient if the
focus is not on other meaning components or on function. But many times, more
needs to be added in order to make the form or function, or both clear. Notice the
following examples which have been used by translators to translate words which
do not have equivalents in the second language. (Larson, 1998:183).
The need to be careful that the modification does not become so long and
complicated that the sentence becomes hard to understand, and the hearer‟s
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attention is taken away from the main theme of the passage. Complicated
modifications can make the receptor language text very difficult to read. The
purpose of the modification should help the receptor language to be understood,
not to make it difficult.
2. Equivalence by modiying a loan word
Based on what is stated by Larson (1998:186) loan word refers to a word
which is from another language and is unknown to most of the speakers of the
receptor language. Loan words are commonly used for the names of people,
places, geographical areas, etc. They are words of another language which have
no meaning to speakers of the receptor language unless they have learned the
language from which the loan word comes. A loan word will have no meaning
unless it is modified in some way to buid the meaning into the context and so into
the word. These words will often need to have a classifier added so that it is clear
wheather the word is the name of a person, town, country, river, etc. For example,
Christine could be translated a woman named Christine. Once this was included,
the name could be used without the classifier later if the language structure
indicated this as the best way to handle reference to participants. Besides being
modified with the classifier, loan words may be modified by the generic terms- by
modification which specifies the form or function, or both. The use of loan word
sometimes be the best solution to find a lexical equivalent, there are also some
dangers. Loan word is a word from another language. There are two kinds of
foreign words; borrowed words which have been assimilated into the receptor
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language prior to the translation process, and those loan words which are
completely new to the receptor language speakers.
3. Equivalence by cultural substitute
There will be some lexical items where neither a generic term nor a loan
word with modification will be possible as a translation equivalent. There may be
times when the source language lexical items can best be translated by using the
word for some thing or event which is not exactly the same but occurs in the
receptor language. (Larson, 1998:188). Although a cultural substitute may
sometimes be the best alternative for a given translation situation, there are some
serious cautions that must be kept in mind. When a historical event is being
translated, or a narrative of an actual happening, the reference to specific things
and events is important to a faithful translation. When a historical document is
being translated, the use of cultural subsititutes may be anarchronistic; that is,
something is introduced which did not even exist at the time or in the place
reffered to in the source text.
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2.4 Reasearch Model
Qualitative Method
Findings
Simultaneous Interpreting at
ICA Asia Pasific Conference
SL
English
Theories
1. Theory of Interpreting
Techniques by Jones
(1998)
2. Theory of Equivalence by
Larson (1998)
Problems
1. Techniques of interpreting
2. Equivalence of meaning
Analysis
TL
Indonesian
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The explanation of diagram above is as follows:
This study is about interpreting, an oral form of translation which refers to
the process of transferring ideas and thoughts into the target language. The study is
focused on the conference interpreting. This interpreting took place at Nusantara
Room, Bali International Convention Centre, Nusa Dua, Bali. From the diagram
above, it can be seen that the analysis started by dividing the spoken language as
the primary data source transcribed into the source language text and the target
language text of interpreting product. The primary data of this study were the
recorded data of spoken language from the participants of the conference. The
data obtained through observation, recording the spoken utterances from the
participant using a digital voice recorder when the conference was going on and
then the recorded data were transcribed into written text.
The qualitative method was used to analyze the problems of study. In
order to answer the problems of the study, several theories were proposed. The
collected data were analyzed by applying the theory proposed by Jones (1998)
and also Larson (1998). There are two problems in this writing. The first one is
related to the techniques of simultaneous interpreting applied by the interpreter at
the International Co-operative Alliance Asia Pacific Conference and the second
one is related to how is the meaning tranferred into the target language in relation
to the use of the technique. This study is based on a number of theories. The
techniques of interpreting were analyzed based on the theory proposed by Jones
(1998) and how is the meaning tranferred into the target language in relation to
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the use of the technique was analyzed based on the theory proposed by Larson
(1998).