7

CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW, CONCEPT, THEORETICAL

FRAMEWORK, AND RESEARCH MODEL

2.1 Literature Review

Literature review in this study is taken from some articles, journals, and

thesis about interpreting, which include the following:

Zhong (2003) in the journal of interpreting, volume 7, entitled “Memory

Training in Interpreting”, discusses the memory training in the process of

interpreting. According to Zhong, a short-term memory is an essential part in the

process of interpreting. In this journal, Zhong analyses the major characteristics of

Short-Term Memory (STM) and also their implications on the interpreter‟s

memory training. Zhong believes that interpreting an STM-centered activity

includes decoding information from the source language, storing of information,

retrieval of information, and encoding of information into the target language. The

training of STM skill is the first step in training a professional interpreter followed

by the tactics of the memory training for interpreters like retelling, categorization,

generalization, comparison, shadowing exercises, etc.

Mikkelson (2006) in her thesis entitled “Interpreting is Interpreting-Or is

it?” analyzes different types of interpreting; Simultaneous, Whispered,

Consecutive, Escort, Conference, Community, Court, Media, Medical,

Educational, and Over the phone interpreting. She stresses that what is essential in

good interpreting is determined by the quality of interpreters which is identified

8

by various author descriptions of the ideal interpreter such as language skill,

listening and recall, interpersonal skill, behavior, speaking, cultural knowledge,

and subject knowledge. His analysis has shown that regardless of the adjective

preceding the word “interpreter”, practitioners of this profession in the world

perform the same service and should meet the same standards of competence. She

also proposes the qualities of the interpreters which are identified by various

authors in the description of the ideal interpreter as an essential for good

interpreting. This article gives a good contribution to this study as it becomes one

of the theoretical sources to support this research.

Sutopo (2006) analyses the role of the interpreter in developing

international trading. Throughout his thesis, there are four roles of an interpreter

in developing the international trading of rattan furniture at Trangsan, Gatak,

Sukoharjo. They play the role as inspirators, mediators, explanators and guides.

As an inspirator, the interpreter may take his role in pre-trading. In this step, the

interpreter can take a part to play his role as an inspirator. For this need, the role

of interpreter is very important. As the mediator, the interpreter helps the seller to

negotiate with the buyer. In negotiaiting the business, the role of an interpreter is

as the mediator who helps the seller to negotiate with the buyer especially in re-

explaining or transferring the oral communication. He is the helper of the

communication between the seller and buyer. As explanatory, the interpreter has a

role to give an explanation to the speaker. At this point, the interpreter may apply

sight interpreting. As a guide, the interpreter accompanies the buyer who wants to

check the furniture. The buyer wants to know not only the result of the products

9

but also the process of making those products; therefore, the interpreter also gives

all information needed by the buyer. The interpreter only applies two modes of

interpreting, they are sight and liaison interpretings. Sight interpreting is applied

by the interpreter when he has a job to explain the content of the letter or facsimile

received by the boss directly. Meanwhile, liaison interpreting is applied by the

interpreter when he has a job to accompany the boss for hunting buyers,

negotiating projects and serving a site visit programme. Sutopo‟s research gives

contribution in analyzing the types of interpreting performed by the interpreter.

Another article available in the National Association of Judiciary

Interpreters & Translators (NAJIT) is entitled “Modes of Interpreting:

Simultaneous, Consecutive and Sight Translation” (2006); it discusses the modes

of interpreting used in legal setting. It is stated that there are three recognized

modes in the interpreting profession and have been adopted in federal and state

statutes and court rules namely simultaneous interpreting, consecutive

interpreting, and sight interpreting. Each mode fits particular needs and

circumstances in the judical process and in legal setting. This article also explains

the use of each mode of interpreting, gives reasons for the use of each , and

provides practical suggestions for effective use of interpreters when working with

individuals with limited English proficiency. This article gives contribution in the

mode of interpreting.

Budiartana (2007) in his thesis entitled “The Process of Interpreting

Performed by the Tour Guides at Sukawati Art Market” analyzes the process of

interpreting performed by the tour guides at the traditional art market. He states

10

that the interpreting performed by the tour guide belongs to a liaison interpreting

who mediates the communication process between the buyers and sellers,

meanwhile the setting is conducted in a community setting. Budiartana‟s research

only focuses on the mode and procedures of interpreting used by the tour guide at

Sukawati art market. The problems in his research still can be elaborated more,

not only about the mode and procedures of interpreting used by tour guides, but

also the deep concern about the strategies used by the tour guides in transfering

the message from the source language to the target language.

His research is different in the product of interpeting from this present

study. His research was conducted at the traditional market, which is out of the

formal context and done by the tour guide not by the professional interpreter;

however, this research was undertaken at an international conference, and was

performed by a professional interpreter. His thesis reveals the analysis of the

interpreting process at a traditional market which is familiar to our daily life. This

study shows relevance in regard to the mode of interpreting, in terms of the use of

liaison interpreting.

Lahallo (2011), in her thesis entitled “The Interpreting Process at Bali

Gospel Festival” analyses the process of interpreting performed by the interpreter

at Gospel Festival. She states that the process of interpreting performed at the

gospel festival belongs to the consecutive mode and the setting was the formal

situation or community interpreting. Her research only focused on the mode and

procedures of interpreting performed by the interpreter at the Bali Gospel Festival,

11

eventhough her research gives contribution to the understanding of the mode and

the setting of interpreting.

Puspani (2010), in her dissertation entitled “Penerjemahan Lisan di

Pengadilan Negeri Denpasar”, describes the process and product of interpreting

performed by the interpreters at Denpasar Court. Her study also discusses the

process of interpreting in court to justify how the relevance theory is

implemented in interpreting on an oral text communication in terms of law in

court proceeding. The role of the interpreter here is only as a co-participant in the

interaction at court proceeding. Her research brings a wide knowledge of

interpreting in court with a variety of problems as its discussion started from the

modes of interpreting, translation strategies, factor that underlie the application of

the strategies to the impact of the application of those strategies on the quality of

interpreting.

Her dissertation is similar to this research, both took place in the

community setting. The difference is that her study focused on the process and

product of interpreting in court, while this study focuses on the techniques of

simultaneous interpreting at the international conference.

1.2 Concepts

There are some concepts which need to be explained in relation to this study,

such as the definition of technique, the definition of strategy, interpreting,

12

simultaneous interpreting, and a glimpse of the International Co-operative

Alliance Asia Pacific Conference. Those concepts used in this research can be

seen as follows:

2.2.1 Technique

There is a wide range of techniques that can be used for organising public

participation. The choice of correct technique (or the combination of techniques)

is made within the strategy and depends on public participation aims. Based on

Oxford Advance Learner‟s Dictionary (Hornby: 1995), technique is “a way of

carrying out a particular task, especially the execution or performance of an

artistic work or a scientific procedure”. Technique is also mean skill or ability in a

particular field, and a skilful or efficient way of doing or achieving something.

2.2.2 Strategy

A strategy is a general action plan made to reach an aim based on future

forecasts. Strategies focus more on the way public participation is embedded in

the decision making process. When choosing the strategy it is necessary to

identify strategic aims - main activity directions leading to the implementation of

the action plan. A strategy determines what techniques will be used in public

participation. The process of public participation presumes realisation of basic

actions leading to the achievement of the main aim. Based on Oxford Advance

Learner‟s Dictionary (Hornby: 1995), strategy is “a plan of action designed to

achieve a long-term or overall aim. A plan for directing overall military

operations and movements”.

13

2.2.3 Interpreting

Various definitions are presented by linguists on interpreting such as

proposed by Pochhacker (2004:9-11); interpreting is regarded as “a translational

activity, as a special form of translation in which the first and the final rendition in

another language is produced on the basis of one time presentation of an utterance

in the source language”. It means that the interpreter has to render the utterances

of the source language message immediately to the target langauge utterances.

The oral translation is known as interpreting. Pochhacker (2004:13) also states

that “the process of interpreting can also be applied without the presence of

participants where it can be conducted by using technology as in the phone

interpreting”.

According to Setton (1999) interpreting is “a process by which a spoken

language or utterance take place in one language which is intended or presumed to

convey the same meaning as previously existing utterances in another language”.

Interpreting has been conducted to mediate participants of communication who

have different language backgrounds as well they do not speak the language

acquired by each of them, so an interpreter is needed to mediate the gap in

communication between those participants.

Meanwhile, Seleskovitch (1989) states that interpreting is

communication, i.e. analysis of the original message and its conversion into a

form accesible to the listener. The process broken into three stages as follows:

14

1. Auditory perception of a linguistic utterance which carries meaning.

Apprehension of the language and comprehension of the message

through a process of analysis and exegesis.

2. Immediete and deliberite discarding of the wording and retention of

the mental representation of the message (concepts, ideas,etc)

3. Production of new utterance in the target language must meet a dual

requirement: it must express the original message in its entirety and it

must be geared to the recepient.

Mikkelson (2006:2) states that interpreting in simple terms as the

interpreter has first to listen to the speaker, understand and analyze what is being

said and then re-synthesize the speech in the appropriate form in a different

language. He stated that interpreting activity is now an essential part of human

interaction at all levels; more and more people are employed as interpreters in

goverment and public agencies, non-goverment organizations, and private

industry.

2.2.4 Simultaneous Interpreting

Pochhacker (2004) proposed that the type of interpreting based on the way

how the interpreting is performed (modes) and where it takes place (the setting),

in which the activity is carried out. He states four modes of interpreting, such as;

simultaneous, consecutive, whispered, and relay interpreting. Pochhacker

(2004:10) states that simultaneous interpreting is performed as the source

language is being presented by the first speaker. It means that the interpreter

15

renders the target language almost at the same time from the source language with

a limitation of time and there is no time for note taking.

Jones (1998:6) states that simultaneous interpreting is performed with

appropriate equipment such as the delegates speak into microphones which relay

the sound directly into the interpreter seated in sound-proofed booth listening to

the proceddings through earphones; the interpreters in turn speak into a

microphone worn by the delegations who wish to listen to the interpreting.

According to Hatim and Mason (1997:219), simultaneous interpreting is

conducted in special booths where the interpreter listens through earphones and

sometimes watches what is going on. Simultaneous interpreting is considered a

harder mode of interpreting and involves the interpreter continuously interpreting

from the source language into the target language as the source speaker is

speaking. In simultaneous interpretation continously at the same time someone is

speaking as quickly as the interpreter can reformulate the message in the target

language. Normally, in simultaneous interpreting between spoken languages the

interpreter sits in a soundproof booth, usually with a clear view of the speaker, at

a microphone, listening through headphones to the incoming message in the

source language; the interpreter relays the message in the target language into the

microphone to whosoever is listening. Simultaneous interpreting is intended to be

heard only by the person receiving the interpretation and is usually accomplished

by speaking in whispered tones or using equipment specially designed for the

purpose in order to be as unobtrusive as possible. It is usually used in a conference

or in a big seminar.

16

The simultaneous interpreter has to settle for a partial view of both context

and text structure and has therefore to rely more heavily on the emerging texture

in order to make and maintain sense. This is because, in this mode of interpreting,

reception and production of the text take place at more or less the same time. In

the case of simultaneous interpreting, context and structure are revealed only

piecemeal and can thus be accessed more effectively via texture, i.e. the words as

they are spoken. Input for simultaneous interpreting is characterized by context

and structure being less readily usable than texture. In this interpreting, the input

is received piecemeal, and the interpreter‟s task is basically reacting and

interacting with utterance 1, then utterance 2, and so on, allowing for the

inevitable to overlap between the various elements of the sequence. Of course,

experienced interpreters use all kinds of anticipation strategies which anable them

to formulate in advance plausible hypotheses regarding both context and structure.

Unlike the simultaneous interpreting where the interpreter has at least

something to embark upon, the consecutive interpreter has to wait before he/she

can deliver the output text. It means that it will add pressure and extra load on

memory, which results that information related to texture and context become

rather too detail to hold. According to Hatim and Mason (1997: 42), consecutive

interpreter, whose output comes after the source text has been delivered, tends to

focus on information relevant to text structure. Effective consecutive output thus

exhibits a clear outline of the way the text is structured. In consecutive

interpreting (CI), the interpreter speaks after the source-language speaker

17

completes one or two complete sentences. The speech is divided into segments,

and the interpreter sits or stands beside the source-language speaker, listening and

taking notes as the speaker progresses through the message. When the speaker

pauses or finishes speaking, the interpreter then renders a portion of the message

or the entire message in the target language. A good interpreter have to highly

proficient in both English and the other language, impartiality, able to accurately

and idiomatically turn the message from the source language into the receptor

language without any additions, omissions or other misleading factors that alter

the intended meaning of the message from the speaker can adept at simultaneous

interpretation, which is the most frequent form of interpretation used in the

courtroom, and in consecutive interpretation and sight translation, able to

communicate orally including appropriate delivery and poise and can

demonstrates high professional standards for courtroom demeanor and

professional conduct.

2.2.5 International Co-operative Alliance Asia Pacific

The International Co-operative Alliance (ICA) is a non-governmental co-

operative federation or a co-operative union representing co-operatives and the

co-operative movement worldwide. It was founded in 1895 to unite, represent and

serve co-operatives worldwide. The Alliance maintains the internationally

recognised definition of a co-operative in the Statement on the Co-operative

Identity. The ICA represents 272 co-operative federations and organisations in 94

countries.

18

The Alliance provides a global voice and forum for knowledge, expertise

and co-ordinated action for and about co-operatives. The members of the Alliance

are international and national co-operative organisations from all sectors of the

economy, including agriculture, banking, consumer, fisheries, health, housing,

insurance, and workers. The Alliance has members from 100 countries,

representing close to one billion individuals worldwide. Around one hundred

million people work for a co-operative globally. Co-operatives are successful

values based businesses owned by their members. Whether they are customers,

employees or residents, the members get an equal say in the business and a share

of the profits.

On the first Saturday of July each year, the ICA coordinates celebrations

of the International Co-operative Day. In December 2009, the United Nations

declared 2012 as the International Year of Co-operatives. The ICA consists of a

20-member governing board, a General Assembly, four regions (one each for

Africa, Europe, Asia-Pacific, and Americas), sectoral organisations and thematic

committees. Sectoral Organisations include International Co-operative

Agricultural Organisation (ICAO), International Co-operative Banking

Association (ICBA), Consumer Co-operatives Worldwide (CCW), International

Co-operative Fisheries Organisation (ICFO), International Health Co-operative

Organisation (IHCO), International Co-operative Housing Organisation (ICA

Housing), International Co-operative and Mutual Insurance Federation (ICMIF),

International Organisation of Industrial, and Artisanal and Service Producers' Co-

operatives (CICOPA). Furthermore, thematic committees include Committee on

19

Co-operative Research, Communications Committee, Human Resource

Development Committee and Gender Equality Committee. (http://www.ica-

ap.coop/aboutus/ica-asia-pacific)

2.3 Theoretical Framework

Theoretical framework gives description of the theories used in this study to

support the research. The theories used as the main theories in this research are

the theory about techniques on simultaneous interpreting proposed by Jones

(1998) and theory about the impact of applying the techiques on the meaning of

target language proposed by Larson (1998).

2.3.1 Types of Interpreting

The types of interpreting can be divided based on the modes and the

settings of interpreting (Gardenia, 1999). These two types of interpreting are

differentiated through how it is done and where it takes place. The mode of

interpreting refers to the way in which interpreting is offered and the setting of

interpreting refers to where the interpreting takes place.

2.3.1.1 The Modes of Interpreting

Hatim and Mason (1997:41-43) propose three principal modes of

interpreting: Simultaneous interpreting, Consecutive Interpreting and Liaison

Interpreting. According to Hatim and Mason (1997:219), simultaneous

interpreting is conducted in special booths where the interpreter listens through

earphones and sometimes watches what is going on. Simultaneous interpreting is

20

considered a harder mode of interpreting and involves the interpreter continuously

interpreting from the source language into the target language as the source

speaker is speaking. In simultaneous interpretation at the same time someone is

speaking.

Consecutive interpreting involves the interpreter in taking notes of what is

being said. At the end of each fairly large chunk of speech (or an entire speech),

the interpreter gives an oral translation (normally in a reduced form) with the help

of notes. Consecutive interpreting thus affords the interpreter the advantage of not

having constantly to wait for or anticipate the next fragment of input. The input

processed by the consecutive interpreter is a text that can be said to be complete

and antonomous. In the case of consecutive interpreting, texture and context are

retained only in a most short-lived manner and can thus be stored more effectively

via structure.

Hatim and Mason (1997:219) define liaison interpreting as a form of oral

interpreting in which two speakers who do not know each other‟s language or

know them imperfectly communicate through an interpreter, normally in

spontaneous conversational settings. In case of Liaison interpreting, texture and

structure are manifested only partially and can be negotiated more effectively via

context. Hatim and Mason (1997) illustrate this with an example from a real life

situation.

2.3.1.2 The Setting of Interpreting

21

The setting based on where the interpreting takes place can be classified

into two major settings: Conference and Community interpreting (Mikkelson,

2006).

1. Conference Interpreting

Based on Mikkelson (2006), conference interpreting is performed at a

conference environment where the participants in the multinational meeting need

to communicate with each other in a seamless fashion, making the language

barrier almost imperceptible. Mikkelson states that these days, most conferences

are conducted with simultaneous interpreting, though interpreters must be

prepared to perfom it in the consecutive mode as well.

2. Community Interpreting

Mikkelson (2006) states that the community interpreting refers to the

interpreting that enables people who are not fluent speakers of the official

languages of the country to communicate with the provider of public services so

as to facilitate full and equal access to legal, health, education, goverment, and

social services. Mikkelson (2006) states that the community interpreting is as

umbrella term that includes such settings as described below:

1. Court Interpreting

It is known as a legal, judiciary, or forensic interpreting, which refers to

interpreting services in courts of law and legal cases of any sort (Mikkelson,

2006:03).

22

2. Seminar Interpreting

According to Mikkelson (2006:03) this term is used by U.S Department of

States to designate the interpreting that takes place in meetings or seminar events.

3. Media Interpreting

It is performed at press conferences publicity appearances at interviews, as

well as on films, videos, video conferences, and television/radio programmes

(Mikkelson, 2006:03).

4. Medical Interpreting

Based on Mikelson (2006), interpreting in medical setting encompasses a

variety of situation, from routine consultation with a physician to emergency

procedures, from preparing childbirth classes to support for complex laboratory

testing.

5. Business Interpreting

It is sometimes known as a commercial or trade interpreting. This term

denotes two or more business people discussing business matters, patents

negotiations or goverment-to-goverment meetings and delegations through

interpreters (Mikkelson, 2006:03-04)

6. Educational Interpreting

23

According to Mikkelson (2006), educational interpreting is a rapidly growing

field of specialization, especially among sign-language interpreters. It involves

interpreting in the classroom for students who cannot understand the language

instruction, interpreting between teachers and parents at school board meeting or

disciplinary hearings.

7. Over-the-phone interpreting (OPI)

This is also known as remote interpreting; this term refers to interpreing

services provided via telephonic link (occasionally with video links as well), in

which the parties are not in the same physical location. This type of interpreting

is used when great distances are involved (Mikkelson, 2006: 04)

8. Escort Interpreting

Based on Mikkelson (2006), escort interpreting is marked by the spontaneity

concersation and the broad spectrum of situations. It is performed at informal

settings where the interpreter accompanies a person or a delegation on a walking

tour, on a visit, on shopping excursion, etc and the interpretation is usually limited

to a few sentences at a time.

2.3.2 How to be a Good Interpreter?

Based on Freixas (2011:02), to be a good interpreter, the following criteria is a

must:

24

1. The interpreter must be thoughtfully following the ideas in the speech, the

“thread” of the conversation, as it were, and must be prepared to extrapolate

meaning from context, in order to bridge or gloss over the spots that were unclear.

2. The interpreter must thoughtfully follow the fast-paced original speech,

while at the same time formulating and delivering an equivalent TL version, and

monitoring his/her own output for errors.

3. The interpreter must focus on meaning not words

Interpreters do not translate the words, but rather reconstruct and restate the

meaning. If we were to actually translate the words and phrases in a message, the

process would take too long, and we would inevitably get stuck every time a

source-language (SL) word in unclear or a target-language (TL) word evades us.

So instead, interpreters listen and understand the SL message; they mostly let go

of the original words and keep only the meaning; they make the meaning their

own or “become” the speaker; and then they quickly restate the meaning in their

own words in the TL, as though expressing their own ideas.

4. Fluid listening

Active listening is the foundation of all interpreting, because we cannot

interpret what we have not heard, understood, analyzed, and abstracted. So

listening not only comes first chronologically speaking, but it is also the first

priority in SI multitasking. That is, listening is the one task that must be fluidly

maintained, even as attention is momentarily diverted to one of the other SI tasks.

Here, good volume on our headsets is extremely helpful for deep message

reception, as well as for long-lasting retention when we are trailing behind the

25

speaker (see “acoustic memory” below). Headset volume should be as loud

ascomfort and conditions allow. Finally, fluid listening means listening in a state

of relaxed concentration, letting the words flow through you while you follow the

meaning, without allowing your attention to get fixed, to linger on any one spot,

or to dwell on any particular word or idea.

5. Clean delivery

Delivery should be smooth and even-paced, emulating the quality of broadcast

voice. In order to achieve smooth pacing, the interpreter should avoid: a) jerky

spurts typical of too short a décalage (heeling); b) stop-and-go where SI actually

becomes a sort of fast consecutive; and c) hurried slurs that result from catching

up after queuing, without using shortcuts. The voice should be clear and

expressive, with meaningful tone; yet diction should always be natural and never

overacted, ultra-correct, or affected. To achieve appropriate expressiveness, the

interpreter should “become” the speaker and purposefully direct the

communication to the listener. That is, even if you are interpreting from an

isolation booth, you should visualize a direct and purposeful face-to-face

communication with the audience. This will make the communication meaningful

and appropriate, as opposed to a self-involved soliloquy. Finally, each phrase or

segment should be formulated and delivered fluidly and confidently, avoiding the

hesitant tone, fillers, uneven pace, and insecure volume of one who is deciphering,

pondering, or doubting.

2.3.3 Techniques on Simultaneous Interpreting

26

Jones (1998) proposes more specifically on the techniques of interpreting

performed in the conference setting especially in the mode of simultaneous

interpreting since this study analyzes the techniques applied at simultaneous

interpreting at the International Co-operative Alliance Asia Pacific Conference.

Those techniques can be explained as follows:

1. When to Start Speaking

Jones (1998) stresses that the interpreter should clearly pay attention to

understand when to start speaking in conducting interpreting particularly in the

modes of simultaneous interpreting. The interpreter must say something

immediately, the interpreter must start speaking as soon as possible. It means that

they must have understood something meaningful in order to have something

meaningful to say. If a speaker begins and the interpreter says absolutely nothing,

be it only for a few seconds, because they are waiting for the right moment to

begin their interpretation, the participants listening to the interpreter may become

very nervous, turn round and make signs at the interpreters‟ booth, or event

interrupt proceedings to complain that there is no interpretation. The interpreter

must, therefore, make at least some sound. (Jones, 1998: 78).

2. Reformulation

Jones (1998:88) states that the interpreter needs to reformulate the wording of

the original to maintain the right distance from the speaker. Long and complicated

sentences are to be broken down into a series of easier, shorter ones; relative and

27

subordinate clauses can be shifted around within a sentence; active clauses

changed into passive. The interpreter must therefore seize upon reformulation as

the tool that will enable them to deal with all kinds of difficulties while remaining

as true as the possible speaker. A fundamental difficulty that can be dealt with

through reformulation is the case where the source language has a word or

concept that does not exist in the target language (Jones, 1998: 89). The aim of the

interpreter is to provide a correct translation of the original in a form of that

sounds as natural as and as authentic as possible in the target language. According

to Jones (1998: 90), this means that reformulation should also be used by the

interpreter for stylistic reasons. The interpreter needs to make value judgements as

to the most appropriate way of saying things in the target language.

3. The Salami Technique

Jones (1998: 100) uses this technique as “salami” or a slicing up a sentence

rather as one might cut slices of salami. Speaker, however, in simultaneous mode

of interpreting may indeed, usually do-use long, complicated sentences. The

logical conclusion is that the interpreter must divide up the speaker‟s sentences

into a number of short, self contained ones and then link them as appropriate.

4. Efficiency in Reformulation

The interpreter needs to be able to reformulate so as to express that oneself

effeiciently exists for all languages, but it should be noted that for some languages

it is more accurate than others. The interpreter can also save a lot of time by

referring to documents, organizations, etc in abbreviations of simplified forms.

28

Such as the Treaty establishing the “European Economic Community” can

become the “EEC Treaty”. (Jones: 1998:106). Because the main formal objectives

of simultaneous interpreter is the efficiency of expression; this means, first, the

interpreter should seek economy of expression everywhere. This means that the

interpreter has to remove all useless filler words such as well, actually, etc.

Second, not taking rhetorical precautions with one‟s audience by adding phrases

such as if you see what I mean, etc. Third, unnecessary repetitions are banned.

Speakers may delibereately repeat notions with synonyms to make a point

particularly forcefully. Fourth, interpreters must be generally vigilant about their

own form of expression, and choose the shorter form, where possible. Fifth, the

interpreters should be prepared to provide a „no frills‟ interpretation where this is

appropriate. This means an interpretation where the speaker‟s verbosity is ironed

out. (Jones, 1998: 107).

5. Simplification

Jones (1998:108) mentioned two reasons for making a simplification; it may

be that the speech is so technical that the interpreter, despite their best efforts to

prepare a meeting and despite documentation made available to them, just cannot

render all of the technical detail. In that case, the interpreter must at least try to

save the essentials by simplication. Second, the interpreter may be taking over the

heads of their audience. Simplification is also a technique to help the interpreter

when the going gets too tough for them.

6. Generalization

29

Jones (1998:112) states that an interpreter does not feel that technical

simplification is necessary for either of the reasons mentioned above, but that to

save time perhaps with a very fast speaker, a number of specific items mentioned

can be expressed in one generic term. Again, this technique should be used only

where appropriate. If a speaker gives a list where each element is significant, then

the interpreter must do his best to reproduce the list.

7. Omission

The strategies of ommision cannot be avoided in transferring the mesage from

source language to target language. Jones (1998:112) desribes that the deletion of

information can be the strategies when sometimes the interpreter faces under

dures because of the technical of a subject and the mode expression of the speaker

is too fast. Therefore, he suggested that there are two ways that can be made;

keeping the essential elements and missing out only what is illustrative or in some

way accessory such as asides, digressions, etc. The second is to make analysis, the

interpreter must give himself a bit of time and have sufficient intellectual

distances from the original.

8. Summarizing and Recapitulation

Adding information can also be the strategies which are frequently

performed by the interpreter. Jones (1998:115) stresses that „summarize‟ is not

being used here in the sense of providing a summary that replaces the full text. It

is summary that is added to the full text, recapitulating the main idea. The

30

interpreter should not edit what the speaker said in the source language in order to

ensure full understanding on the part of audience.

9. Explanation

Jones (1998:116) said if an interpreter cannot fit in an explanation, they

should not force themselves to provide the explanation to the detriment of the

speaker‟s other comments. But a brief explanation can actually save time in the

long run. Interpreter can use this technique if the notion delivered by the speaker

is repeated in a speech. Then, the interpreter can explain its meaning; the first time

it is mentioned and thereafter refer to it an abbreviated form, thus saving time.

10. Anticipation

Jones (1998: 116) suggests that the interpreter should take anticipation when

he often begins a sentence without knowing exactly where the sentence is going.

First, the anticipation can be possible from the context of a meeting. If there is a

discussion or a negotiation the delegation‟s position or arguments will become

known, they will return to the points they have already made, or react to the points

made by other participants. Second, the interpreter should learn to recognize

speech patterns and rhetorical structures, particularly in the languages he has to

interpret from. Third, interpreters can anticipate specific words or phrases in

individual sentences because it is simply so obvious how the sentence is going to

end. Jones (1998: 117) said that to deal with this problem, the interpreter uses

reformulation in any case, but there are occasions when waiting for a key word,

31

which would allow the interpreter to formulate his own sentence, would take so

long that it is better to anticipate.

11. If the interpreter makes a clear mistake

Jones (1998: 119) admittes that if the mistake is made there are a number of

posible scenarios. First, if the error makes no material difference, it is a waste of

time to make corrections and the interpreter should just pass it. If the interpreter

makes a mistake that is more significant, for instance, in interpreting page

reference or something that is logically inconsistent or technically impossible, it is

not necessary to make a correction for the good order of the meeting. But if he can

slip in a correction quickly, it is a god idea. Finally, if the interpreter might make

a clear mistake that is important, and his audience does not realize it. He must

shallow his pride and correct the point as quickly and as clearly as possible. It is

totally unethical for an inrterpreter to try to „cover up‟ for a mistake just to avoid

the embarrassment of admiting it.

12. If the speaker makes a mistake

Jones (19998:121) says that if the speaker makes a mistake over a slip of the

tounge, it would be a waste of time to repeat the speakers words and the offer a

putative correction to the audience. The interpreter knows that the speaker says

something quite wrong and knows what the right version would be, but are not

totally sure. It is, therefore, the interpreter should interpret the sentence faithfully

and then add as quickly as possible. The speaker might say something clearly

wrong but the interpreter has no clear idea what the correct text would be. Then

32

the interpreter should proceed as in the second scenario but not give any

alternative, thus just adding to the speaker‟s words.

13. Avoiding Committing Yourself

When using anticipation the interpreter will note all the signs given by a

speaker as to what will come next, and make use of those signs. Jones (1998:123)

explains that it is dangerous to announce a joke. Even if the speaker is funny in

the source language, jokes are notoriously difficult to translate, that is, the joke

may depend on an untranslatable or may just seem funny to someone of a

different language and culture of the speaker. If the joke is translatable, then the

interpreter should obviously do his best to render it.

14. Metaphors and sayings

Sayings and metaphors should not be announced. They should be interpreted

into the corresponding form in the target language, where possible, without

further explanation. If the meaning of saying is clear to the interpreter but the

saying does not have an equivalent in the target language, the interpreter should

express the sense to best of his ability without being off by the form used by the

speaker. If, however, the interpreter does not understand and the saying is

important- for example used to express the speaker‟s conclusion at the end of a

complicated line of argument and is thus crucial to understand the speaker‟s

position- the interpreter can only translate the saying as literally as possible.

(Jones, 1998: 126).

33

15. Using “Pat Phrases”

Jones (1998:127) states that “Pat” means known throughly and ready for any

occasion. For such circumstances all interpreters should have a battery of pat

phrases that they can use without having to make any intelectual effort. There are

many formulations that can occur frequently in meetings. For such circumstances,

all the interpreters should have a battery of pat phrases that economize their

energies, allowing them to concentrate more on genuinely problematic things.

16. Intonation, Stress, and Pauses

Jones (1998:128) states that when people communicate, they express what

they want to say not just through the words they use but also by intonation, by

stressing certain words, and by pauses between words. Simultaneous interpreters

are subject to a number of constraints and temptations that may prevent them from

using intonation, stress and pauses correctly. Jones also stressed for the interpreter

who is providing too much stress, emphasizing words that do not deserve it and

generally hamming it up. The interpreter‟s intonation may indicate that they are

always in a state of expectation, waiting for what comes next. Sentences should be

clearly separated by the appropriate intonation and, if necesarry, a brief pause.

Paragraphs and sections in a speech should be clearly denoted by slightly longer

pauses in the interpretation.

17. Numbers

34

Jones (1998: 130) states that numbers can be very difficult for simultaneous

interpreters and can be absolutely crucial pieces of information where no error is

permissible. If the interpreter cannot catch up with the speaker, they must finish

the sentence preceding the number as quickly as possible and move on to the

sentence including the numbers by saying the numbers first. Based on what is

stated by Jones (1998: 130), there are two tactics for coping with the number.

First, the interpreter has to deal not just with the bare arithmatic value but with as

many as five elements, such as arithmetical value, the order of magnitude, unit,

what the numbers refer to, and the last one is the relative value of a number. The

second tactics is the interpreter should unload his memory and say numbers as

soon as possible after the speaker has said them.

18. “Retour”

Jones (1998:134) states that if a professional conference interpreter works into

a language other than his mother tounge and is thus engaged in “retour”

interpreting, he should be able to interpret accurately, clearly, and with correct

grammar. The interpreter should accept that there are certain nuances, shades of

meaning or stylistic niceties that he will not be able to express. The interpreter

doing a retour should be modest in the style he adopts. That is, he should not try

to do things that are really beyond him stylistically using a very literary style or a

lot of images, metaphors, amd smiles, cultural reference, etc. And the last, retour

interpreter should make life as easy as possible for himself by avoiding highly

complex grammatical forms.

35

19. Relay

When an interpreter serves as a relay, he is working under special

circumstances that have to be taken into account. Not only is he working for an

audience directly but his interpretattion also has to serve as a source text for one

more collagues. The relay should give absolute priority to clarity in his

interpretation and should also be closer in time to the original than would other

modes of simultaneous. The interpreter has to say something almost as soon as

you know you are being taken on relay, in order to let him know you are there.

The last, relay should remember that the colleagues listening to him may have an

imperect knowledge of the relay language, particularly as far as idiomatic usage

and specific cultural references are concerned. ( Jones, 1998: 137)

The strategies proposed by Jones (1998) can be clue for the interpreter as the

strategies in transferring the message from source language to target language

particularly in the mode of simultaneous interpreting.

2.3.4 Translation Equivalence

The interpreter‟s task is not easy when the object or events are not known in

the target language due to the difference in cognitive point of view, beliefs, and

customs in the source language. The interpreter has to decide either to preserve

the meaning of the source language by keeping the form for correctness and

accuracy for the closest natural equivalent or to adapt the meaning by changing

the form for the intelligibility for the intended reader. The difference in linguistic

systems and cultures of two languages which are not in the same family has made

36

the interpreter‟s task become more difficult. Equivalence is one of the aspects that

should be well recognized in translating the source language text into target

language. Equivalence is taken to be the basis on which the source langugae

textual material is replaced by the target language textual material, Catford (1978:

20).

The problem of equivalence is of central importance to translation. In finding

the closest equivalence translation, it is often necessary to translate one word of

the source language by several words in the target language in order to guarantee

the maintenance of the same meaning and sometimes the opposite will be true.

According to Larson (1998), translation involves the transfer of form and meaning

of the source language to target language. The translator will often find that there

is no exact equivalence between the words of one langauge and the words of

another. There will be words which have some of the meaning components

combine in them matching words having these components with some additional

ones.

Larson (1998:179) states that there are three basic alternative ways in which a

translator can find an equivalent expression in the receptor language. They are:

1. a generic word with a descriptive phrase

2. a loan word

37

3. a cultural substitute (Beekman and Callow 1974:191-211). The

translator needs to be aware that each alternative has a certain potential

problems.

1. Equivalence by modifiying a generic word

When words found in the source language do not occur in the receptor

language, it may be especially helpful to analyze the source language word to

discover its generic components, the constrastive components, and the function of

the word in its context. (Larson, 1998:183). Then from the analysis, the adequate

equivalent may be found in the receptor language. When a generic word is used as

the equivalent lexical item, and modified so as to carry the correct meaning, there

are four possible modifications which may be made. They are: by making the

form of the item explicit, by making the function of the item explicit, by making

both the form and the function explicit, or by modifiying with a comparison to

some thing or event which does occur in the receptor language.

The use of generic word as a base for constructing an adequate equivalent is

extremely useful. Sometimes the generic term by itself will be sufficient if the

focus is not on other meaning components or on function. But many times, more

needs to be added in order to make the form or function, or both clear. Notice the

following examples which have been used by translators to translate words which

do not have equivalents in the second language. (Larson, 1998:183).

The need to be careful that the modification does not become so long and

complicated that the sentence becomes hard to understand, and the hearer‟s

38

attention is taken away from the main theme of the passage. Complicated

modifications can make the receptor language text very difficult to read. The

purpose of the modification should help the receptor language to be understood,

not to make it difficult.

2. Equivalence by modiying a loan word

Based on what is stated by Larson (1998:186) loan word refers to a word

which is from another language and is unknown to most of the speakers of the

receptor language. Loan words are commonly used for the names of people,

places, geographical areas, etc. They are words of another language which have

no meaning to speakers of the receptor language unless they have learned the

language from which the loan word comes. A loan word will have no meaning

unless it is modified in some way to buid the meaning into the context and so into

the word. These words will often need to have a classifier added so that it is clear

wheather the word is the name of a person, town, country, river, etc. For example,

Christine could be translated a woman named Christine. Once this was included,

the name could be used without the classifier later if the language structure

indicated this as the best way to handle reference to participants. Besides being

modified with the classifier, loan words may be modified by the generic terms- by

modification which specifies the form or function, or both. The use of loan word

sometimes be the best solution to find a lexical equivalent, there are also some

dangers. Loan word is a word from another language. There are two kinds of

foreign words; borrowed words which have been assimilated into the receptor

39

language prior to the translation process, and those loan words which are

completely new to the receptor language speakers.

3. Equivalence by cultural substitute

There will be some lexical items where neither a generic term nor a loan

word with modification will be possible as a translation equivalent. There may be

times when the source language lexical items can best be translated by using the

word for some thing or event which is not exactly the same but occurs in the

receptor language. (Larson, 1998:188). Although a cultural substitute may

sometimes be the best alternative for a given translation situation, there are some

serious cautions that must be kept in mind. When a historical event is being

translated, or a narrative of an actual happening, the reference to specific things

and events is important to a faithful translation. When a historical document is

being translated, the use of cultural subsititutes may be anarchronistic; that is,

something is introduced which did not even exist at the time or in the place

reffered to in the source text.

40

2.4 Reasearch Model

Qualitative Method

Findings

Simultaneous Interpreting at

ICA Asia Pasific Conference

SL

English

Theories

1. Theory of Interpreting

Techniques by Jones

(1998)

2. Theory of Equivalence by

Larson (1998)

Problems

1. Techniques of interpreting

2. Equivalence of meaning

Analysis

TL

Indonesian

41

The explanation of diagram above is as follows:

This study is about interpreting, an oral form of translation which refers to

the process of transferring ideas and thoughts into the target language. The study is

focused on the conference interpreting. This interpreting took place at Nusantara

Room, Bali International Convention Centre, Nusa Dua, Bali. From the diagram

above, it can be seen that the analysis started by dividing the spoken language as

the primary data source transcribed into the source language text and the target

language text of interpreting product. The primary data of this study were the

recorded data of spoken language from the participants of the conference. The

data obtained through observation, recording the spoken utterances from the

participant using a digital voice recorder when the conference was going on and

then the recorded data were transcribed into written text.

The qualitative method was used to analyze the problems of study. In

order to answer the problems of the study, several theories were proposed. The

collected data were analyzed by applying the theory proposed by Jones (1998)

and also Larson (1998). There are two problems in this writing. The first one is

related to the techniques of simultaneous interpreting applied by the interpreter at

the International Co-operative Alliance Asia Pacific Conference and the second

one is related to how is the meaning tranferred into the target language in relation

to the use of the technique. This study is based on a number of theories. The

techniques of interpreting were analyzed based on the theory proposed by Jones

(1998) and how is the meaning tranferred into the target language in relation to

42

the use of the technique was analyzed based on the theory proposed by Larson

(1998).