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B0H4MCHAPTER 14
14.1 Individual Needs and MotivationTypes of content theories:
Hierarchy of needs theory ERG theory Two-factor theory Acquired needs theory
Motivation and individual needs◦ Motivation—the forces within the individual that
account for the level, direction, and persistence of effort expended at work.
Needs◦ Unfulfilled physiological and psychological desires
of an individual.◦ Explain workplace behaviour and attitudes.◦ Create tensions that influence attitudes and
behaviour.◦ Good managers and leaders facilitate employee
need satisfaction.
Hierarchy of needs theory◦ Developed by Abraham Maslow.◦ Lower-order and higher-order needs affect
workplace behavior and attitudes.◦ Lower-order needs:
Physiological, safety, and social needs. Desires for physical and social well being.
◦ Higher-order needs: Esteem and self-actualization needs. Desire for psychological growth and
development.
ERG theory◦Developed by Clayton Alderfer.◦Three need levels:
Existence needs — desires for physiological and material well-being.
Relatedness needs — desires for satisfying interpersonal relationships.
Growth needs — desires for continued psychological growth and development.
Two-factor theory◦Developed by Frederick Herzberg.◦Hygiene factors:
Elements of the job context. Sources of job dissatisfaction.
◦Satisfier factors: Elements of the job content. Sources of job satisfaction and
motivation.
Acquired needs theory◦ Developed by David McClelland.◦ People acquire needs through their
life experiences.◦ Needs that are acquired:
Need for Achievement (nAch) Need for Power (nPower) Need for Affiliation (nAff)
14.2 Process theories of motivation
◦ How people make choices to work hard or not.◦ Choices are based on:
Individual preferences. Available rewards. Possible work outcomes.
Types of process theories:◦ Equity theory.◦ Expectancy theory.◦ Goal-setting theory.◦ Self-efficacy theory.
Equity Theory◦Developed by J. Stacy Adams.◦When people believe that they have been
treated unfairly in comparison to others, they try to eliminate the discomfort and restore a perceived sense of equity to the situation. Perceived inequity. Perceived equity.
◦People respond to perceived negative inequity by changing: Work inputs, Rewards received, Comparison points, Situation.
Expectancy Theory◦ Developed by Victor Vroom.◦ Key expectancy theory variables:
Expectancy — belief that working hard will result in desired level of performance.
Instrumentality — belief that successful performance will be followed by rewards.
◦ Valence — value a person assigns to rewards and other work related outcomes.
◦ Motivation (M), expectancy (E), instrumentality (I), and valence (V) are related to one another in a multiplicative fashion:
M = E x I x V
◦ If either E, I, or V is low, motivation will be low.
Goal-setting theory◦ Developed by Edwin Locke.◦ Properly set and well-managed task goals can be
highly motivating.◦ Motivational effects of task goals:
Provide direction to people in their work. Clarify performance expectations. Establish a frame of reference for feedback. Provide a foundation for behavioural self-
management.
Self-Efficacy Theory
◦ a person’s belief that he or she is capable of performing a task
◦ Capability directly affects motivation higher self-efficacy will have higher expectancy. self-efficacy is linked to performance goal setting.
◦ Enactive mastery – person gains confidence through positive experience
◦ Vicarious modeling – learning by observing others◦ Verbal persuasion – encouragement from others that one
can perform a task◦ Emotional arousal – high stimulation or energy to perform
well in a situation
14.3 Reinforcement Theory pf Motivation
◦ Law of effect — impact of type of consequence on future behavior.
◦ Operant conditioning: Applies law of effect to control behavior by manipulating its consequences.
Operant conditioning strategies:
◦ Positive reinforcement Increases the frequency of a behaviour through the
contingent presentation of a pleasant consequence.◦ Negative reinforcement
Increases the frequency of a behaviour through the contingent removal of an unpleasant consequence.
◦ Punishment Decreases the frequency of a behaviour through the
contingent presentation of an unpleasant consequence.
◦ Extinction Decreases the frequency of a behaviour through the
contingent removal of an pleasant consequence.
Successful implementation of positive reinforcement is based on◦Law of contingent reinforcement —
Reward delivered only if desired behaviour is exhibited.
◦Law of immediate reinforcement — More immediate the delivery of a
reward, the more reinforcement value it has.
14.4 Motivation and Job designJob
◦ A collection of tasks performed in support of organizational objectives.
Job design◦ The process of creating or defining jobs by
assigning specific work tasks to individuals and groups.
◦ Jobs should be designed so that both performance and satisfaction result.
Job simplification.◦Standardizing work procedures and
employing people in well-defined and highly specialized tasks.
◦Simplified jobs are narrow in job scope and low in job depth.
◦Automation. Total mechanization of a job. Most extreme form of job simplification.
Job rotation and job enlargement:◦ Expands job scope.◦ Job rotation.
Increases task variety by periodically shifting workers among jobs involving different task assignments.
◦ Job enlargement. Increases task variety by combining two or more
tasks previously assigned to separate workers. Horizontal loading.
Job enrichment.◦Building more opportunities for
satisfaction into a job by expanding its content.
◦Expands both job scope and job depth.
◦Frequently accomplished through vertical loading.
Core job characteristics:◦Skill variety.◦Task identity.◦Task significance.◦Autonomy.◦Feedback.
Improving core job characteristics:◦Form natural units of work.◦Combine tasks.◦Establish client relationships.◦Open feedback channels.◦Practice vertical loading.
Flexible working hours.◦Any work schedule that gives
employees some choice in the pattern of their daily work hours. Core time — all employees must be at
work. Flextime — allows employees to
schedule around personal and family responsibilities.
Compressed workweek
Job sharing.◦One full-time job is split between two or
more persons.Telecommuting.
◦A work arrangement that allows a portion of scheduled work hours to be completed outside of the office.
◦Hoteling.◦Virtual offices.
◦ Freedom from Constraints of commuting. Fixed hours. Special work attire. Direct contact with supervisors.
◦ Increased productivity.◦ Fewer distractions.◦ Being one’s own boss.◦ Having more personal time.
Potential advantages of telecommuting
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◦ Working too much.◦ Having less personal time.◦ Difficulty in separating work and personal life.◦ Less time for family.◦ Feelings of isolation.◦ Loss of visibility for promotion.◦ Difficulties supervising work-at-home employees
from a distance.
Potential disadvantages of telecommuting
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Part-time work.◦Work done on any schedule less
than the standard 40-hour workweek and does not qualify person as a full-time employee.
◦Contingency workers Part-time workers who supplement the
full-time workforce, often on a long-term basis.
Now constitute 30 percent of the American workforce.
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Implications of part-time work:◦Provides employers with flexibility
in controlling labour costs and dealing with cyclical labour demands.
◦Temporary workers may lack commitment and be less productive.
◦Contingency workers are often paid less and don’t receive important fringe benefits.
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