B0H4MCHAPTER 14

14.1 Individual Needs and MotivationTypes of content theories:

Hierarchy of needs theory ERG theory Two-factor theory Acquired needs theory

Motivation and individual needs◦ Motivation—the forces within the individual that

account for the level, direction, and persistence of effort expended at work.

Needs◦ Unfulfilled physiological and psychological desires

of an individual.◦ Explain workplace behaviour and attitudes.◦ Create tensions that influence attitudes and

behaviour.◦ Good managers and leaders facilitate employee

need satisfaction.

Hierarchy of needs theory◦ Developed by Abraham Maslow.◦ Lower-order and higher-order needs affect

workplace behavior and attitudes.◦ Lower-order needs:

Physiological, safety, and social needs. Desires for physical and social well being.

◦ Higher-order needs: Esteem and self-actualization needs. Desire for psychological growth and

development.

ERG theory◦Developed by Clayton Alderfer.◦Three need levels:

Existence needs — desires for physiological and material well-being.

Relatedness needs — desires for satisfying interpersonal relationships.

Growth needs — desires for continued psychological growth and development.

Two-factor theory◦Developed by Frederick Herzberg.◦Hygiene factors:

Elements of the job context. Sources of job dissatisfaction.

◦Satisfier factors: Elements of the job content. Sources of job satisfaction and

motivation.

Acquired needs theory◦ Developed by David McClelland.◦ People acquire needs through their

life experiences.◦ Needs that are acquired:

Need for Achievement (nAch) Need for Power (nPower) Need for Affiliation (nAff)

14.2 Process theories of motivation

◦ How people make choices to work hard or not.◦ Choices are based on:

Individual preferences. Available rewards. Possible work outcomes.

Types of process theories:◦ Equity theory.◦ Expectancy theory.◦ Goal-setting theory.◦ Self-efficacy theory.

Equity Theory◦Developed by J. Stacy Adams.◦When people believe that they have been

treated unfairly in comparison to others, they try to eliminate the discomfort and restore a perceived sense of equity to the situation. Perceived inequity. Perceived equity.

◦People respond to perceived negative inequity by changing: Work inputs, Rewards received, Comparison points, Situation.

Expectancy Theory◦ Developed by Victor Vroom.◦ Key expectancy theory variables:

Expectancy — belief that working hard will result in desired level of performance.

Instrumentality — belief that successful performance will be followed by rewards.

◦ Valence — value a person assigns to rewards and other work related outcomes.

◦ Motivation (M), expectancy (E), instrumentality (I), and valence (V) are related to one another in a multiplicative fashion:

M = E x I x V

◦ If either E, I, or V is low, motivation will be low.

Goal-setting theory◦ Developed by Edwin Locke.◦ Properly set and well-managed task goals can be

highly motivating.◦ Motivational effects of task goals:

Provide direction to people in their work. Clarify performance expectations. Establish a frame of reference for feedback. Provide a foundation for behavioural self-

management.

Self-Efficacy Theory

◦ a person’s belief that he or she is capable of performing a task

◦ Capability directly affects motivation higher self-efficacy will have higher expectancy. self-efficacy is linked to performance goal setting.

◦ Enactive mastery – person gains confidence through positive experience

◦ Vicarious modeling – learning by observing others◦ Verbal persuasion – encouragement from others that one

can perform a task◦ Emotional arousal – high stimulation or energy to perform

well in a situation

14.3 Reinforcement Theory pf Motivation

◦ Law of effect — impact of type of consequence on future behavior.

◦ Operant conditioning: Applies law of effect to control behavior by manipulating its consequences.

Operant conditioning strategies:

◦ Positive reinforcement Increases the frequency of a behaviour through the

contingent presentation of a pleasant consequence.◦ Negative reinforcement

Increases the frequency of a behaviour through the contingent removal of an unpleasant consequence.

◦ Punishment Decreases the frequency of a behaviour through the

contingent presentation of an unpleasant consequence.

◦ Extinction Decreases the frequency of a behaviour through the

contingent removal of an pleasant consequence.

Successful implementation of positive reinforcement is based on◦Law of contingent reinforcement —

Reward delivered only if desired behaviour is exhibited.

◦Law of immediate reinforcement — More immediate the delivery of a

reward, the more reinforcement value it has.

14.4 Motivation and Job designJob

◦ A collection of tasks performed in support of organizational objectives.

Job design◦ The process of creating or defining jobs by

assigning specific work tasks to individuals and groups.

◦ Jobs should be designed so that both performance and satisfaction result.

Job simplification.◦Standardizing work procedures and

employing people in well-defined and highly specialized tasks.

◦Simplified jobs are narrow in job scope and low in job depth.

◦Automation. Total mechanization of a job. Most extreme form of job simplification.

Job rotation and job enlargement:◦ Expands job scope.◦ Job rotation.

Increases task variety by periodically shifting workers among jobs involving different task assignments.

◦ Job enlargement. Increases task variety by combining two or more

tasks previously assigned to separate workers. Horizontal loading.

Job enrichment.◦Building more opportunities for

satisfaction into a job by expanding its content.

◦Expands both job scope and job depth.

◦Frequently accomplished through vertical loading.

Core job characteristics:◦Skill variety.◦Task identity.◦Task significance.◦Autonomy.◦Feedback.

Improving core job characteristics:◦Form natural units of work.◦Combine tasks.◦Establish client relationships.◦Open feedback channels.◦Practice vertical loading.

Flexible working hours.◦Any work schedule that gives

employees some choice in the pattern of their daily work hours. Core time — all employees must be at

work. Flextime — allows employees to

schedule around personal and family responsibilities.

Compressed workweek

Job sharing.◦One full-time job is split between two or

more persons.Telecommuting.

◦A work arrangement that allows a portion of scheduled work hours to be completed outside of the office.

◦Hoteling.◦Virtual offices.

◦ Freedom from Constraints of commuting. Fixed hours. Special work attire. Direct contact with supervisors.

◦ Increased productivity.◦ Fewer distractions.◦ Being one’s own boss.◦ Having more personal time.

Potential advantages of telecommuting

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◦ Working too much.◦ Having less personal time.◦ Difficulty in separating work and personal life.◦ Less time for family.◦ Feelings of isolation.◦ Loss of visibility for promotion.◦ Difficulties supervising work-at-home employees

from a distance.

Potential disadvantages of telecommuting

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Part-time work.◦Work done on any schedule less

than the standard 40-hour workweek and does not qualify person as a full-time employee.

◦Contingency workers Part-time workers who supplement the

full-time workforce, often on a long-term basis.

Now constitute 30 percent of the American workforce.

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Implications of part-time work:◦Provides employers with flexibility

in controlling labour costs and dealing with cyclical labour demands.

◦Temporary workers may lack commitment and be less productive.

◦Contingency workers are often paid less and don’t receive important fringe benefits.

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