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Scientific English
Augusta University, June 7, 2017
Donald L. Hill, PhD
Education Research Coordinator
Comprehensive Cancer Center
University of Alabama at Birmingham
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Scientific English
Scientific English
DONALD (DON) L. HILL, PhD
Education Research Coordinator
Comprehensive Cancer Center
University of Alabama at Birmingham
E-mail: [email protected]
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Scientific English
Donald L. Hill
Education
Middle Tennessee State College, Murfreesboro, TN,
BS, Science
Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, PhD,
Biochemistry
University of California, Berkeley, CA, Postdoctoral
Research Assistant
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Scientific English
Donald L. Hill
Professional Positions (part 1 of 2)
US Air Force
Southern Research Institute, Birmingham, AL
Research Biochemist
Senior Biochemist
Head, Membrane Biochemistry Section
Head, Biochemical Pharmacology Division
Associate Director, Biochemistry Research
Director, Biochemistry Research
Vice President, Biochemistry Research
Distinguished Scientist
Manager, Bioanalytical Chemistry Group
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Scientific English
Donald L. Hill
Professional Positions (part 2 of 2)
University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL
Part-time faculty, College of General Studies
Adjunct Assoc. Professor of Pharmacology &Toxicology
Adjunct Senior Scientist, UAB Center for AIDS Research
Senior Scientist, UAB Comprehensive Cancer Center
Senior Scientist, UAB Center for AIDS Research
Professor, Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology
Education Research Coordinator, Division of Preventive Medicine, 2008-2017
Education Research Coordinator, Comprehensive Cancer Center, 2017-present
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Scientific English
Donald L. Hill
Experience:
Chemical disposition and site of action of cancer chemopreventive agents, antitumor agents, antiviral agents, and xenobiotics.
Professional activities:
Advisory Committee on Clinical Investigations, American Cancer Society
Ad hoc reviewer: NCI Chemo-Dietary Study Section, Department of Defense, Komen Foundation
Reviewer for numerous scientific journals
Publications:
More than 175, including two books:
Hill, D.L. The Biochemistry and Physiology of Tetrahymena. Academic Press (translated into Japanese).
Hill, D.L. A Review of Cyclophosphamide. Charles C Thomas.
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Choice and Use of Words
Scientific English is not the same as literary English.
The fewer words you use to express an idea, the more effect the idea will have. Make every word count.
The more words, the less the meaning, and how does that profit anyone? - Ecclesiastes
Don’t use long words when short ones will do.
Don’t use the same word repeatedly.
Scientific English
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Application of Principles
Poor: The reality is that products purchased
from these types of places are often
processed …
Principle: Unnecessary words.
Better: Products purchased from these
places are often processed …
Scientific English
Scientific English
Weak and/or vague words:
study (as a verb)
examine, explore
characterize
potential
attempt
suggest
affect, impact
might, can, could, possibly, eventually
some
several
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Scientific English
Suggested words to be used instead of ‘study’:
analysis
evaluation
experiments
inquiry
survey
investigation
research effort
work
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Scientific English
Example of weak words:
Poor: Herein, we have tried to
introduce the pharmacophores of
some anti-cancer agents ...
Better: As described herein, we
introduced the pharmacophores of
anti-cancer agents ...
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Scientific English
Powerful words indicating action:
• strategy
• create
• determine, establish, identify
• elucidate
• achieve
• enhance
• decrease/increase
• improve
• produce
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Overused (and imprecise) words
Scientific English
Poor Better
novel previously undefined
unique unusual, distinctive
critical, crucial essential, necessary
major (omit)
recently (omit)
using by use of, with
role (state involvement)
impact (state type of effect)
important (state involvement)
specifically in particular
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Scientific English
Example:
Weak: These studies enhance knowledge
in the field of diabetes.
Better: These results are expected to
provide a new approach to therapy for
diabetic patients.
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Scientific English
The findings
of this study
might
possibly
perhaps
be novel,
eventually.
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Scientific English
Sentence Structure
The average length of effective sentences
is 15-20 words.
Variety in sentence structure changes the
rhythm in a paragraph and keeps the
reader’s attention.
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Scientific English
Poor: The remaining fluid was drawn off
and the kidneys washed.
Better: The remaining fluid was drawn
off, and the kidneys were washed.
Parallel Construction
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Paragraph Structure
Part 1 of 3
A paragraph should have 4-5 related sentences and
cover about one-half of a double-spaced, typed page.
Paragraphs usually contain 50-250 words, averaging
about 100 words.
A paragraph should be unified, containing one set of
information.
An effective paragraph could have an “hourglass”
structure, with the content moving from general (wide),
to specifics (narrow) to the conclusion (wide).
Scientific English
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Paragraph Structure
Part 2 of 3
The topic sentence, usually placed at the
beginning, introduces the subject and main
thought.
Other sentences support the topic sentence, and
flow to the end of the paragraph.
It is advisable to use the same tense and voice
throughout a paragraph.
Paragraphs should connect with the preceding and
following paragraphs.
Scientific English
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Paragraph Structure
Part 3 of 3
Techniques for linking paragraphs (and sentences)
Addition: moreover, further, furthermore, in addition
Comparison: similarly, likewise
Contrast: however, nevertheless, conversely, in contrast, otherwise
Cause/result: therefore, consequently, thus
Repetition: in other words
Exemplification: for example
Summary: in brief, in sum, finally
Scientific English
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Use of Commas
Part 1 of 4
Before the words and, but, for, or, nor, yet, and still when
joining independent clauses.
Example: A PA28γ mutant without amino acids 76-103 did not
bind to MDM2, but a mutant lacking amino acids 66-161 did
bind.
Between all terms in a series, including the last two.
Example: PA28γ, REGγ, PSMe3, and Ki antigen are names for
the same protein.
Scientific English
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Use of Commas
Part 2 of 4
To set off parenthetical openers.
Example: Here, we show that PA28γ serves as a cofactor.
Before and after parenthetical insertions (two commas).
Example: Over-expression of PA28γ, but not PA28β, reduced the level of p53 protein.
Scientific English
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Scientific English
Part 3 of 4
Poor: Included are the optimum instrument settings
for temperature humidity rainfall and performance.
Better: Included are the optimum instrument
settings for temperature, humidity, rainfall, and
performance.
Use of Commas
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Scientific English
Part 4 of 4
Poor: The kidney is an essential organ. It has the
capacity to secrete substances selectively. This
allows it to maintain proper composition of the
blood and other body fluids.
Better: The kidney, an essential organ, has the
capacity to secrete substances selectively,
allowing it to maintain proper composition of the
blood and other body fluids.
Use of Commas
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Use of Semicolons
Use a semicolon between two main clauses not linked by a
conjunction. That is, subject + predicate ; subject + predicate.
Example: A PA28γ mutant lacking amino acids 66-161 bound to
MDM2; a mutant without amino acids 76-103 did not bind.
Use a semicolon to separate a series of items that themselves
contain commas.
Example: Expression of methylation in relation to TNM stage
was as follows: stage 1, 1/1; stage 2, 2/14; stage 3, 5/18; and
stage 4, 7/20.
Scientific English
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Use of Colons
Use a colon to call attention to what follows.
Example: Expression of methylation in relation to TNM
stage was as follows: stage 1, 1/1; stage 2, 2/14;
stage 3, 5/18; and stage 4, 7/20.
Example: To detect unmethylated DNA, PCR was
accomplished with the following conditions: starting
at 95°C for 12 min, followed by 35 cycles of 94°C
for 30 sec.
Scientific English
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Improper Language Use
Poor: Dr. Jones established that MDM2 was over-
expressed by use of Western blots. Western blots
measure the amount of protein present. The
amount of this protein relates to the capacity of
cells to divide.
Principles: Repetition of words and ‘choppy’
sentences
Better: By use of Western blots, which measure the
amount of protein present, Dr. Jones established
that MDM2 was over-expressed and thereby
determined the capacity of the cells to divide.
Scientific English
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Use of Parentheses
Use parentheses as follows:
For citations: (Zhang et al., 2012)
For abbreviations: The purpose was to determine the
relationship between expression of methylation of the
gene promoter and metastasis in hepatocellular
carcinomas (HCCs).
To set off parenthetical material: For the two groups,
correlations between expression of thymidylate
synthase (determined by two different methods) and
response rate are expressed as relative ratios.
Scientific English
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Capitalization
Part 1 of 2
Title Case = Initial upper-case letters for nouns and for
words of four or more letters (e.g., Prognostic Significance
of p53 Codon 72 Polymorphism Differs With Race in
Colorectal Adenocarcinoma)
Use the Title Case/capitals in the following:
• titles and subheadings
• titles of journals and books
• proper nouns, including trade names (e.g., Nanjing,
Sephadex)
• abbreviations previously defined (e.g., BMI, COPD)
Scientific English
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Capitalization
Part 2 of 2
Use the Title Case (capitals) in the following:
• nouns followed by numbers (e.g., Day 1, Group 3)
• official names of departments (e.g., the Department
of Medicine at UAB) and courses (e.g., Chemistry
101) but not of disciplines (e.g., chemistry and
biology)
• references to sections of an article (e.g., see
Results; in Figure 1; see Appendix 3)
Scientific English
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Use of Hyphens
Examples:
• down-regulation
• two-way analysis
• high-frequency waves
• 2-min intervals
• long- and short-term memory
• forty-six, ninety-nine
But:
• widely used
• randomly assigned
Scientific English
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Use of Apostrophes
An apostrophe (’) denotes possession.
• Example: A scientist’s manuscript.
• Example: Two scientists’ publications.
An apostrophe is used in contractions: “it’s” for “it is.”
In scientific writing, try to avoid use of apostrophes.
• Poor: The DNA’s sequence.
• Better: The sequence of the DNA.
Scientific Writing
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Prepositional Phrases
Try to use no more than two
prepositional phrases in a row.
Poor: A deficiency in the number of
people in this category ...
Better: A deficient number of people in
this category ...
Scientific English
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Which and That
Part 1 of 2
Use the word “which,” preceded by a comma, to introduce a nonrestrictive clause (one that is not essential to the meaning of a sentence).
Example: The NF-κB signaling pathway, which is constitutively active, drives the malignant phenotype.
Use the word “that,” without a comma, to introduce a restrictive clause (one that is essential to the meaning of the sentence).
Example: A pathway that is constitutively active drives the malignant phenotype.
Scientific English
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Which and That
Part 2 of 2
Poor: The skeleton has bumps, that project
from the surface of the animal.
Better: The skeleton has bumps that project
from the surface of the animal.
Scientific English
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Improper Language Use
Misplaced modifier:
Poor: The patient was treated in the
emergency room by physicians after
being wounded.
Better: After being wounded, the patient
was treated in the emergency room by
physicians.
Scientific English
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Improper Language Use
Misplaced modifier:
Poor: A fasting urine specimen was
collected.
Better: A urine specimen was collected
after the patient had fasted for 12
hours.
Scientific English
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Improper Language Use
Use of passive voice:
Poor: Since the methodology was faulty,
the results of the experiment were
determined to be inconclusive.
Better: Because of faulty methodology,
the experiment showed inconclusive
results.
Scientific English
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Improper Language Use
Use of passive voice:
Poor: No bacteria were observed using
dimethyl sulfoxide.
Better: When dimethyl sulfoxide was present,
no bacteria were evident.
Scientific English
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Application of Principles
Poor: Kaiso has been demonstrated to regulate
the cyclin D1 promoter by binding to
methylated CpG-dinucleotides.
Principles: Unnecessary words; passive voice.
Better: Kaiso regulates the cyclin D1 promoter
by binding to methylated CpG-dinucleotides.
Scientific English
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Improper Language Use
Use of jargon:
Poor: The experiment was carried out in our lab
with dose preps provided by Dr. Anderson.
Better: The experiment was accomplished in our
laboratory with dose preparations provided by
Dr. Anderson.
Scientific English
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Improper Language Use
Use of jargon and overuse of words:
Poor: It might be expected that treatment of
dogs with these shots would be effective.
Better: These inoculations should be effective
for treatment of dogs.
Scientific English
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Improper Language Use
Noun strings:
Poor: Surface water quality protection
procedures ...
Better: Procedures to protect the quality
of surface water ...
Scientific English
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Improper Language Use
Noun strings:
Poor: renal lithium excretion
Better: renal excretion of lithium
Scientific English
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Improper Language Use
Stacked modifiers:
Poor: The three patients had histologically
confirmed malignant metastatic intra-
abdominal tumors.
Better: In their abdomens, the three patients
had tumors that were histologically
confirmed to be malignant and metastatic.
Scientific English
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Application of Principles
Poor: Subcutaneous and metastasis xenograft
models were used for therapeutic efficacy
evaluation.
Principle: Stacked words (x2).
Better: Subcutaneous and xenograft models of
metastasis were used for evaluation of therapeutic
efficacy.
Scientific English
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Improper Language Use
Inconsistent tense:
Poor: Dr. Grizzle evaluated the test results, which show that protein expression was enhanced.
Better: Dr. Grizzle evaluated the test results, which showed enhanced protein expression.
Scientific English
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Improper Language Use
Indefinite pronouns:
Poor: When the instrument recorded the
value, it was out of the calibration
range.
Better: When the instrument recorded the
value, the instrument was out of the
calibration range.
Scientific English
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Improper Language Use
Overuse of the verb “to be”:
Poor: This course is a presentation of guidelines for
scientific writing. It is intended to provide writers
with appropriate skills. At the end, scientists are to
prepare and submit a manuscript.
Better: This course, which presents guidelines for
scientific writing, provides writers with appropriate
skills so that, at the end, they are able to prepare
and submit a manuscript.
Scientific English
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Improper Language Use
Which is better?
“800 mL of acetone was added to the preparation.”
“800 mL of acetone were added to the preparation.”
Questions:
Should a sentence begin with a number?
Is 800 mL singular or plural?
Answer:
A better construction is “Acetone (800 mL) was added to
the preparation.”
Scientific English
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Concise Writing
Poor: The authors conclude that there is
evidence that the limiting diameter lies
between sixteen and twenty angstroms
in these cells taken from mammals.
Better: Thus, these mammalian cells have a
limiting diameter of 16-20 Å.
Scientific English
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Concise Writing
Poor: Numerous strains of T. cruzi are
reported to cause chronic chagas’
disease.
Better: Various strains of Trypanosoma
cruzi cause Chagas disease.
Scientific English
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Concise Writing
Poor: Figure 24 is a cichlid fish from a
Florida pond where metacercariae (at
arrow) were found in the gill cavity.
Better: Metacercariae (arrow, Figure 24)
were present in the gill cavity of a
cichlid fish found in a Florida pond.
Scientific English
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Concise Writing
Poor: Glipizide, metformin and
thiazolidinediones have all three been shown
to be effective at lowering blood sugar in
larval zebrafish.
Better: In larval zebrafish, glipizide, metformin,
and thiazolidinediones lower blood sugar.
Scientific English
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Improper Language Use
Poor: An excessive amount of solar radiation
received at a rapid rate has been shown by a
large body of data to have the capability of
inflicting epidermal damage.
Better: Too much sunlight burns the skin.
Scientific English
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Undesirable in Scientific English
Use of “emotion-based” words:
Poor: Surprisingly, the MDM2 protein with a C-terminal
deletion down-regulated the p21 protein.
Poor: Unfortunately, the MDM2 protein with a C-terminal
deletion down-regulated the p21 protein.
Poor: Interestingly, the MDM2 protein with a C-terminal
deletion down-regulated the p21 protein.
Better: Nevertheless, the MDM2 protein with a C-
terminal deletion down-regulated the p21 protein.
Scientific English
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Language Use
Use of ‘respectively’:
Poor: The drug concentrations in plasma were
10, 17, 23, and 87 ng/mL, respectively.
Better: The drug concentrations in plasma were
10, 17, 23, and 87 ng/mL.
Correct: The drug concentrations in plasma at 1,
2, 4, and 60 min were 10, 17, 23, and 87 ng/mL,
respectively.
Acceptable: The drug concentrations in plasma
at 1, 2, 4, and 60 min were 10, 17, 23, and 87
ng/mL.
Scientific English
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Words and Phrases to Avoid (1)
Avoid Preferred
in the event that if
due to the fact that because
it is often the case that frequently
in spite of the fact that although
so as to to
over (amount) more than
this study the present investigation
Scientific English
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Words and Phrases to Avoid (2)
Avoid Preferred
take into consideration consider
at the present time now
in order to to
in a number of cases (state number)
in many cases often
in view of the fact that since
subsequent to after
it has been reported by Smith Smith reported
Scientific English
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Words and Phrases to Avoid (3)
Avoid Preferred
paradigm pattern
causal factor cause
during the time that when or while
fewer in number fewer
in spite of the fact despite
with regard to concerning
it is often the case that (state how often)
a sufficient number of enough
Scientific English
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Words and Phrases to Avoid (4)
Avoid Preferred
very (omit)
important (define)
importantly (omit)
more/most importantly (omit)
it has been found that (omit)
recent studies have indicated that (omit)
Scientific English
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Words and Phrases to Avoid (5)
Avoid Preferred
a majority of most
one of the a
hopefully (omit)
above (as an adjective) (define)
aforementioned (define)
so as to to
subsequent to after
Scientific English
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Words and Phrases to Avoid (6)
Avoid Preferred
significant substantial
for the purpose of for
on a daily basis daily
of great practical importance useful
It has long been known that . . . (look up the reference)
It is clear that much additional (omit)
work will be required before
there is a complete understanding.
Scientific English
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Redundant words
Avoid Preferred
exact same same
possibly may may
possibly suggest suggest
total absence absence
true fact fact
eliminate completely eliminate
absolutely essential essential
refer back to refer to
pooled together pooled
Scientific English
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Scientific English
Little Words
“the”, “a”, and “an”
“the mouse” and “a mouse”
“the experiment” and “an experiment”
Fundamentals of Chemistry and
The Fundamentals of Chemistry
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Examples of Precise Word Choice
Poor: To allow penetration of the drug
into PC3 cells, we exposed them to a
phospholipid.
Better: To allow penetration of the drug
into PC3 cells, they were exposed to
L-α-phosphatidylcholine.
Scientific English
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Improper Language Use
Improve the following sentence:
Poor: Reduced oxygen tension provides a favorable
environment for in vitro parasite development.
Better: Reduced oxygen tension provides a favorable
environment for parasite development in vitro.
Even better: In laboratory cultures, reduced oxygen
tension provides a favorable environment for
parasite development.
Scientific English
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Examples of Precise Word Choice (2)
Note: “In in vitro experiments . . .” is
improper because of the overuse of
“in” and because “in vitro” is not an
adjective.
Note: The terms, in vitro and in vivo,
are generally ambiguous.
Scientific English
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Abbreviations and Units (1)
Limit the use of abbreviations.
Use an abbreviation if the full name is long or if the abbreviation is known to researchers in the field.
Standard abbreviations (e.g., DNA, ATP, EDTA) do not require definition.
Do not abbreviate single words.
Define abbreviations at the first use.
If a term is used only once, do not abbreviate it.
Scientific English
69
Abbreviations and Units (2)
Figure, figure, Fig, Fig., fig, fig., Figure, figure, Fig, Fig., fig, or fig.?
“ml” or “mL”?
Poor: This disease occurs in mice, rats,
hamsters, etc.
Better: This disease occurs in rodents.
Scientific English
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Scientific English
Numbers and Time
Single-digit numbers, especially those ≤10, are
normally written as words.
Numbers should be rounded appropriately: 2.17
~ 2.2; 2.15 ~ 2.2; 2.14 ~ 2.1.
Use consistent abbreviations for seconds,
minutes, hours, days, weeks, months, and
years.
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Augusta University, June 7, 2017
Donald L. Hill, PhD
Education Research Coordinator
Comprehensive Cancer Center
University of Alabama at Birmingham
Preparation of Scientific Manuscripts
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Overview: The Publication Process
Submit manuscript
Assignment and peer review
Editorial decisionRejection Revision
Acceptance
Publication
Research
Resubmission
Re-review
Rejection
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Original research results
First report of the data
Allows peers to repeat the experiments (not necessarily the results)
Published in a journal or other public document
Qualities of a an Effective Manuscript (1)
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Qualities of an Effective Manuscript (2)
Characteristic format (generally):
IMRaD [Introduction, Methods (& Materials),
Results, and Discussion]
• Introduction: What was studied and why?
• Methods: How was it studied?
• Results: What were the findings?
• Discussion: What do the findings mean?
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Title (1)
Points to consider – part 1 of 2:
It is usually written in “Title Case,” with upper-
case letters for nouns and other words of more
than four letters.
Use specific terms (key words).
Use the fewest words possible to describe the
contents of the manuscript.
The first noun should be powerful.
Sentence titles, which are now often used, can
appear to be dogmatic.
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Title (2)
Points to consider – part 2 of 2:
It is generally appropriate to choose the title when
the manuscript is almost complete.
Many people (and abstracting services) will read the
title.
Titles should (almost never) contain abbreviations,
chemical formulas, or proprietary names.
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Title (3)
Poor: Action of Streptomycin on
Mycobacterium tuberculosis
Better: Inhibition of Mycobacterium
tuberculosis by Streptomycin
Poor: Suppression of Non-transmissible
Pneumonia in Mice Induced by Newcastle
Disease Virus
Better: Suppression of Non-transmissible
Pneumonia Induced in Mice by Newcastle
Disease Virus
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Title (4)
Do not include in the title:
Abbreviations other than well-accepted
standards such as, DNA, RNA, and RT-PCR
Punctuation other than commas
The words “study,” “critical,” or “first”
Extensive prepositional phrases
(of…in…of…)
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Title (5)
Example:
Poor: The Use of Microbiological and
Enzymatic Assays in Studies on the
Disposition of 2'-Deoxycoformycin in the
Mouse
Better: Disposition of 2’-Deoxycoformycin in
Mice as Determined by Microbiological and
Enzymatic Analyses
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Title (7)
Exercise:
Improve the following title:
Poor: Assay for TCGF in Leghorn
Chickens in the US
Better: An Analytical Method for T-
Cell Growth Factor in Chickens
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Abstract (1)
General Suggestions:
● It is a “window” that reveals the contents
of the manuscript.
● Except for some structured abstracts
(more common nowadays), it is a single
paragraph.
● It has limited length, often <250 words.
Abstract (2)
Should contain:
the background (1-3 sentences)
the hypothesis (1 sentence)
the purpose of the effort
model systems used
general methods
a short description of the results
the meaning of the work
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Abstract (3)
General Suggestions:
It should be complete without reference to the text.
All key findings should be included.
It should ordinarily be written after a semi-final
draft of the manuscript has been prepared.
In contrast to a meeting abstract, the abstract for a
manuscript should ordinarily not include data
values.
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Abstract (4)
General Suggestions:
Citations should not be included unless ...
Few abbreviations are included.
Terms included in the abstract are included in
databases for literature searches.
Contents should attract the interest of the editor and
reviewers.
Editors will often use the abstract to determine
whether the manuscript should be reviewed.
Readers may read only the abstract.
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Include in this section:
A brief review of the field (~1 paragraph), including a
description of areas that are unclear or
uncharacterized.
An introduction to the present report (~1 paragraph),
including the hypothesis, models, and conclusions
A simple figure (perhaps), e.g., the structure for a
newly identified chemical that has been published.
A brief comparison of the present results to the
current knowledge, concluding with the contribution
to health.
Background/Introduction (1)
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This section should be short – ≤500 words.
•Discuss any unknown factors and controversies that
exist with respect to the rationale for the studies.
•Much should be written in the present tense.
• It is best written in the active voice, which gives
writing a sense of strength, energy, and direction.
(The active voice is also 20-30% shorter than the
passive voice.)
Background/Introduction (2)
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The first sentence should stimulate the
interest of the reader.
Poor: The purpose of this article is to show
that case management can be a cost-
effective approach in patient care.
(unnecessary words)
Better: Case management is a cost-effective
approach in patient care.
Background/Introduction (3)
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Materials and Methods (1)
General Suggestions:
For beginning authors, this section, which is easiest
to write, can be written first.
Much of this section is written in the past tense,
passive voice.
Often used subheadings are: Chemicals and
reagents; Instruments; Subjects; Animal models and
treatments; Analytical methods; Statistical analyses.
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Materials and Methods (2)
Include in this section:
Sources of main materials.
Experimental animals, plants, and microorganisms
identified by genus, species, strain, and age.
Treatment routes and durations.
Descriptions of new techniques/models or
changes in standard techniques.
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Include in this section:
For human subjects, the criteria used for their
selection, a statement indicating that informed
consent was obtained, and that your IRB
approved the investigation.
For animals, a statement that your experiments
were in compliance with the animal regulations or
your institution .
Information on statistical analyses performed and
the number of observations in each group.
Materials and Methods (3)
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Results (1)
General Guidelines :
Present in a logical order.
Present only selected data.
Tell a story that supports the conclusion.
Write in the past tense.
Provide sufficient interpretation of data but leave analysis
and comparison of findings for the Discussion section.
Avoid duplication of information in the text and in tables
and figure legends.
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General suggestions for tables – part 1 of 2:
Should be understood without referring to the text.
In general, use no more than one table per 1000 words
of text.
Numbers should show no more decimal places than
are essential for precision and accuracy.
Align decimals in columns.
Captions (generally not sentences) should be concise,
contain key words, and be parallel for all tables.
Illustrations (1)
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Example for referring to a table:
Poor: Table 1 shows that animals dosed
with 4-HPR developed fewer
adenocarcinomas.
Better: Animals dosed with 4-HPR
developed fewer adenocarcinomas
(Table 1).
Illustrations (3)
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General suggestions for graphs – part 1 of 3:
Graphs should convey information better than text
or a table.
Graphs should be understood without referring to
the text.
Graphs show trends, overall patterns, and
interactions between variables.
Graphs demonstrate change over time or
concentration.
Illustrations (4)
Illustrations (5)
General suggestions for graphs – part 2 of 3:
Graphs do not emphasize individual
values.
Graphs should avoid wasted space.
The independent variable is on the x-axis,
and the dependent variable on the y-axis.
Plot the curves so that they are not
excessively flat or steep.
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Illustrations (6)
General suggestions for graphs – part 3 of 3:
Captions should be concise, contain key words,
and parallel for all graphs. Captions should not be
sentences.
The number of curves on a graph should be ≤ 5.
It is generally better to use symbols (●, ■, ▲)
than line patterns.
The curves should be bold and easy to see; the
axes and tic marks can be less bold, but still be
easy to see.
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Discussion (1)
General Suggestions:
The primary function is to relate the present work to
previous reports and to point to future efforts.
An introductory statement can describe – again – the
purpose of the experiments.
The topics should be parallel to those in the Results.
The main purpose is to present principles,
relationships, and generalizations.
The length is generally about 1/4 of the text.
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Discussion (2)
General Suggestions:
Use the present tense for other published work,
and past tense for the present work
Prepare the Discussion in the context of the
Background/Introduction.
Avoid reiteration of Results, but present
conclusions based on the results.
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Discussion (3)
General Suggestions:
Show how your data agree with previous
results; point out exceptions.
State the contribution of the results.
Limited speculation is acceptable.
Identify future studies that are needed.
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Discussion (4)
General Suggestions:
The conclusions should be logically
derived from the data presented.
Identify possible sources or error and
inadequacies in the work.
Present a strong ending.
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References (1)
General Suggestions:
Limit the number of citations. For most publications (except
reviews), < 50 citations are adequate.
Include primary citations.
Cite reviews rather than each article covered by the review.
Instead of listing numerous references for a prior
discovery, it is acceptable to state, “as summarized by . . .”
or “as reviewed by . . .”
Avoid excessive self-citation.
Include citations of pertinent manuscripts published by
others. (Remember who your reviewers might be!)
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References (2)
General Suggestions:
Check references for accuracy.
Include references to unpublished data in the text.
Example: (D. L. Hill, unpublished data)
Check abbreviations: Is it Journal of the American
Chemical Society, Jour. Am. Chem. Soc., J. Am.
Chem. Soc., J.A.C.S., or JACS?
Standard abbreviations for journals can be found at
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?db=journals
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References (3)
General Suggestions:
Do not cite more than three references per statement.
For a topic with a large number of possible references,
cite the one reporting the initial discovery and a recent
reference, or cite one or two reviews.
Sample references can be found at
http://www.nlm.nih.gov/bsd/uniform_requirements.html
Check a recent journal article for style of references.
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References (4)
Follow the format for the selected journal. The following
style is used by some journals:
Halpern SD, Ubel PA, Caplan AL. Solid-organ
transplantation in HIV-infected patients. N Engl J
Med. 2002 Jul 25;347(4):284-7.
Note: If the journal carries continuous pagination
throughout a volume (most do), the month, day, and
issue number can be omitted, as follows:
Halpern SD, Ubel PA, Caplan AL. Solid-organ
transplantation in HIV-infected patients. N Engl J
Med. 2002;347:284-7.