ByzantineCultureandSocietyOverview

• ConstantinoplewasthecenterofByzantinetradeandcultureandwasincrediblydiverse.• TheByzantineEmpirehadanimportantculturallegacy,bothontheOrthodoxChurchandon

therevivalofGreekandRomanstudies,whichinfluencedtheRenaissance.• TheEast-WestSchismin1041dividedtheChristianworldintotheOrthodoxChurch—nowthe

EasternOrthodoxChurch—theCatholicChurch—nowRomantheCatholicChurch.PeoplelivingundertheearlyByzantineEmpiresawthemselvesasRomans,butthecultureoftheempirechangedoverthecenturies.AsitincorporatedGreekandChristianculture,ittransformedintoauniqueByzantineculture.Additionally,theByzantineEmpirewasinfluencedbyLatin,Coptic,Armenian,andPersiancultures.Lateron,itwasinfluencedbyIslamicculturesaswell.Constantinoplewasanextremelydiversecity.Itsresidentsweremulti-ethnicandmulti-religious.Taxesforforeigntraderswerethesameasforresidents,whichwasprettyuniqueatthattime.ByzantinemerchantsactivelytradedwithregionsintheMediterraneanaswellasintheeastandwest,includingareasaroundtheBlackSea,theRedSea,andtheIndianOcean.ByzantinecultureTheByzantineEmpireinfluencedmanycultures,primarilyduetoitsroleinshapingChristianOrthodoxy.Themodern-dayEasternOrthodoxChurchisthesecondlargestChristianchurchintheworld.OrthodoxyiscentraltothehistoryandsocietiesofGreece,Bulgaria,Russia,Serbia,andothercountries.Byzantinearchitecture,particularlyinreligiousbuildings,canbefoundindiverseregionsfromEgypttoRussia.DuringtheByzantineRenaissance—from867to1056—artandliteratureflourished.ArtistsadoptedanaturalisticstyleandcomplextechniquesfromancientGreekandRomanartandmixedthemwithChristianthemes.ByzantineartfromthisperiodhadastronginfluenceonthelaterpaintersoftheItalianRenaissance.

Agolden-huedmosaicdepictingamanwithwings.

St.Michaelmosaic,MonasteryofHosiosLoukas.Imagecredit:WikimediaCommons.

IntheperiodfollowingthesackingofConstantinoplein1204andthefallofConstantinoplein1453,peoplemigratedoutofConstantinople.AmongtheseemigrantsweremanyByzantinescholarsandartists,includinggrammarians,poets,writers,musicians,astronomers,architects,artists,scribes,philosophers,scientists,politiciansandtheologians.TheexodusofthesepeoplefromConstantinoplecontributedtotherevivalofGreekandRomanstudies,whichledtothedevelopmentoftheRenaissanceinhumanismandscience.ByzantineemigrantsalsobroughttowesternEuropethebetterpreservedandaccumulatedknowledgeoftheirownGreekcivilization.ByzantinesocialstructuresAcentralfeatureofByzantineculturewasOrthodoxChristianity.Byzantinesocietywasveryreligious,anditheldcertainvaluesinhighesteem,includingarespectfororderandtraditionalhierarchies.Familywasatthecenterofsociety,andmarriage,chastity,andcelibacywerecelebratedandrespected.Becausefamilywassosignificant,womenandmotherswereseenasimportantmembersofthefamilyunit,thoughsomewomenjoinedmonasticorders.Althoughmoralattitudesaboutwomendictatedthattheyshouldbesecludedinsegregatedspacesandavoidbeingoutspoken,inpracticethiswasnotalwaysthecase.Womendidhavetheirownspaces,calledgynaikonitis,wheretheyengagedinactivitieslikespinningandweaving,butotherlocationswerenotsharplysegregatedbetweenmenandwomen.

Anillustrationonred-coloredpotterydepictingwomenworkingtogetherinanall-women

space.DetailfromapieceofpotteryshowingGreekwomenweavinginagynaikonitis,about500BC.Imagecredit:WikimediaCommons.

Despitesomerestrictions,manywomenhadaroleinpubliclifeandengagedincommercialactivities.Womenalsohadtherighttoinheritandoftenhadindependentwealth,whichwasfrequentlyintheformofadowry.Womenwereseenbythechurchasspirituallyequaltotheirmalecounterparts,andtheyplayedrolesinconvents.Noblewomenalsopatronizedmonasteries.However,womencouldnotbecomepriestsinthechurchorhavesimilarhighroles.Amongroyalty,theempressesTheodora—wholivedfrom500to548CE—andIrenewholivedfrom752to803CE—werenotablefortheirpowerandinfluence.Theodorainparticularisknownforhavinginfluencedaseriesofreformsthatwerebeneficialtowomen.Sheinstitutedpoliciesprohibitingprostitution,creatingconvents,andinstitutingharshpunishmentsforrapeandotherformsofviolenceagainstwomen.Thereformsalsoexpandeddivorce,childguardianship,andpropertyownershiprightsforwomen.Eunuchs,menwhohadbeencastrated,werealsoanimportantpartofByzantinesociety.TheywereabletoattainhighpositionsintheByzantinecourt,inpartbecausetheywereregardedastrustworthyduetotheirinabilitytoclaimthethroneandhavedescendents.Inadditiontotheeliteclassesatthetopofsociety,Byzantinesocietyhadnumeroussocialhierarchiesamongpeasants,whowerenotahomogenousgroup.Thelivesofpeasantsdifferedgreatlydependingonwhethertheyownedtheirownpropertyorweredependantonprivateorstatelandowners.Overtime,duringthefourthtosixthcenturies,thenumberofpeasantswhoheldsmallparcelsoflanddeclined,andpeasantswereincreasinglytiedtoparticularlandparcels.TheEast-WestSchismBytheturnofthemillennium,theEasternChurchoftheByzantineEmpireandtheWesternChurchofRomehadbeengraduallyseparatingalongreligiousfaultlinesforcenturies.TheByzantineIconoclasm—thedestructionorprohibitionofreligiousiconsandotherimagesormonumentsforreligiousorpoliticalmotives—ignitedamajorcontroversythatlastedforacenturyandwidenedthegrowingdivergencebetweeneastandwest.TheWesternChurchremainedfirmlyinsupportoftheuseofreligiousimages,thoughthechurchwasstillunifiedatthistime.Inaddition,therewereotherdisputes,includingdisagreementoverthethesourceoftheHolySpirit,whetherleavenedorunleavenedbreadshouldbeusedintheEucharist,andtheBishopofRome'sclaimtouniversaljurisdiction.

Inresponse,thepopeinthewestdeclaredanewemperorinCharlemagne,solidifyingtheriftandcausingoutrageintheeast.TheempireinthewestbecameknownastheHolyRomanEmpire.Finally,1054CEsawtheEast-WestSchism,theformaldeclarationofinstitutionalseparationbetweeneast,intotheOrthodoxChurch—nowtheEasternOrthodoxChurch—andwest,intotheCatholicChurch—nowtheRomanCatholicChurch.

Mapofeastern-westernallegiancesin1054withformercountryborders.Mapofeastern-westernallegiancesin1054withformercountryborders.Imagecredit:WikimediaCommons.

DeclineDuringtheEarlyMiddleAges,despitesignificantterritoriallosses,theByzantineEmpireflourished.However,duringtheHighMiddleAges,theEmpirebegantodecline.ItlostAnatolia,whichismostofmodern-dayTurkey,duringtheBattleofManzikertin1071.ItalsosufferedadefeatagainsttheNormansinthesameyear.ItscapitalcitywasdevastatedduringtheSackingofConstantinoplein1204.

MapofthechangesinthebordersoftheByzantineEmpirefrom476to1400CE.

MapofthechangesinthebordersoftheByzantineEmpire.Imagecredit:WikimediaCommons.EvenafterConstantinoplewasreconqueredbytheByzantinesin1261,theempirewasdrasticallyweakened.Bythefifteenthcentury,ByzantineterritorybarelyexceededConstantinople.In1453—whentheOttomansconqueredConstantinople,renamingitIstanbul—theByzantineEmpirecametoanend.