14 PLACE-NAMES OF UPPER DEESIDE DOREEN WAUGH 15

CAITHNESS PLACE -NAMES * REFERENCES

Alexander, W. M. (1952). The Place-Names of Aberdeenshire. Aberdeen.

Anonymous (1980 edn). Fisherman's Map of Salmon Pools on the Aberdeenshire Dee. Waverley Press, Aberdeen.

Diack, F. C. (1944). The Inscriptions of Pictland. Aberdeen.

Dwelly, E. (1901-11). The Illustrated Gaelic-English Dictionary. Reprinted 1971, Gairm Publications, Glasgow.

Johnston, J. B. (1934). Place-names of Scotland. London.

Joyce, P. W. (1869). Irish Names of Places. Dublin.

MacBain, A. (1922). Place Names: Highlands & Islands of Scotland. Stirling.

Macdonald, J. (1899). Place Names of West Aberdeenshire. Aberdeen.

MacKinnon, D. (1887). 'Place names and personal names in Argyll', The Scotsman. Edinburgh.

Milne, J. (1908). 'Kirkmichael (Banffshire) place names', Cairngorm Club Journal 5, 93-114.

Milne, J. (1912). Celtic Place-Names in Aberdeenshire. Aberdeen.

Nicolaisen, W. F. H. (1979). 'Field-collecting in onomastics', Names 27, 162-178.

Parker, M. (1931). Fisherman's Map of Salmon Pools on the River Dee.

Scott, I. (1959). Fishermans Map of Salmon Pools on the River Dee.

Stewart, T. F. (1974). Hill Names of Perthshire. Perth.

Watson, A. (1983a). 'Old Gaelic poems from Aberdeenshire', Scottish Gaelic Studies 14, 25-58.

Watson, A. (1983b). 'Eighteenth century deer numbers and pine regeneration near Braemar, Scotland', Biological Conservation 25, 289-305.

Watson, A. & Clement, R.D. (1983). 'Aberdeenshire Gaelic', Transactions of the Gaelic Society of Inverness 52, 373-404.

Watson, W. J. (1904). Place-Names of Ross and Cromarty. Inverness.

Watson, W. J. (1904-5). 'The study of Highland place-names', Celtic Review 1, 22-31.

Watson, W. J. (1916). 'Some place-names in the Cairngorm region', Cairngorm Club Journal 8, 133-136.

Watson, W. J. (1926). The History of the Celtic Place-Names of Scotland. Edinburgh.

In describing the sources and methods which I have used in my study of Caithness place-names, I shall only be referring to those six parishes which I have studied in detail, using the place-names on the 6" Ordnance Survey maps as a starting point. The six parishes are Reay, Thurso, Olrig, Dunnet and Canisbay, all of which border the Pentland Firth in the north, plus Wick Parish on the east coast.

The reason for selecting these parishes in particular is that the most significant feature in the place-nomenclature of Caithness is the division between the Gaelic-influenced area to the west of the county and the Norse-influenced area to the east, and any study of Caithness place-names must obviously incorporate this linguistic orientation. The dividing line between Norse east and Gaelic west is surprisingly clearly defined, although it has been blurred to a certain extent by the gradual adoption of Scots or English as the language of all the people in Caithness.

Before examining the place-names themselves, one's first source has to be the work of the historian and the archaeologist who provide the historical backdrop against which the names can be evaluated. Precise dating of the various phases of settlement is impossible from place-name evidence alone due to the regrettable scarcity of early documentary references to place-names. The earliest date which has been suggested for the Norse settlement of Orkney, Shetland and Caithness is c. 800 AD.

The Scandinavians who came to the Northern Isles were of Norwegian origin and they possibly chose the area because of its proximity to Norway and because in many respects it was similar to their home territory. The Treaty of Perth (1266) marks the end of direct Norse control in Caithness but Norse influence in all aspects of everyday life persisted for some centuries after this date and Norn may have been spoken until the beginning of the 16th century, and some would suggest an even later date towards the end of the 16th century. It has to be remembered that Orkney and Shetland were under Scandinavian control until 1468, and there would have been contact between Orkney and Caithness during this time which would encourage retention of the Norn.

The gradual encroachment of Gaelic-speaking people from the west and south probably began in either the 12th or the 13th century once the authority of the Scottish crown had been established in the north. Professor Nicolaisen suggests this dating, commenting that: 'the boundary line between Gaelic and Norse Caithness must have been established before the end of the 9th century . . . and there seems to have been very little change in that situation before the 12th or even 13th century.' (Nicolaisen 1982, p. 80).

The movement of Gaelic-speaking people into Caithness increased in strength and spatial extent until the early 1700s, but by the later years of the 18th century Gaelic was slowly beginning to give way to English, even in the extreme west of the county, in Reay Parish, where Gaelic continued in use until the early 20th century. The Old Statistical Account (OSA) has the following to say regarding Reay Parish: 'The Gaelic or Erse language is chiefly spoken through this parish. Many indeed now speak both Gaelic and English' (OSA, vol. XVIII, Caithness, p. 158). This latter comment invariably indicates that Gaelic is in a threatened position, having been ousted as the language of communication with trading partners.

There is a small cluster of Gaelic names in Wick Parish but they have the appearance of being much later than the Gaelic names in Reay Parish. The Old

16 DOREEN WAUGH

Statistical Account comments of Wick Parish: 'Little or no Gaelic is spoken in this district, unless by some persons from other parishes.' (OSA, vol. XVIII, p. 269).

The comments for the other parishes indicate that Gaelic was never spoken throughout the whole of Caithness, and any Gaelic place-names which occur in the extreme north-east of the county, in Canisbay Parish, are accidentals, perhaps introduced by the occasional Gaelic incomer or perhaps named from a seaman's point of view because they tend to be coastal topographical names. For example, on the island of Stroma which lies in the Pentland Firth, and which is part of Canisbay Parish, there is one Gaelic name Sgeir Bhan 'white skerry', pronounced locally [skera 'bjan], referring to a rock which is regarded as a particular hazard to fishermen. Incidentally, this particular development, from bhan [va:n] to bhan [bja:n], tends to occur on the east side of Caithness when the initial consonant of the specific in the Gaelic name is lenited. It is probably a recent development in response to the written Gaelic form in which the < h> in the orthography, indicating lenition of the initial consonant, becomes [j] in pronunciation. An example from Wick Parish is the Gaelic name Loch Dhubh 'black loch' (loch being feminine in Caithness Gaelic and, therefore, requiring lenition of the adjective), which is anglicised in pronunciation to

'dju 13x]. (The final < -bh> of the Gaelic written form dhubh is silent in both Gaelic and English.) The anglicised form Oa 'dju lax] is elicited in response to the written Gaelic form. There is no English written form corresponding to the anglicised pronunciation.

There are, unfortunately, no Caithness Gaelic speakers still alive although my informant for Reay Parish, aged 54, showed no hesitation in pronouncing the numerous Gaelic names he knew. However, it was sometimes difficult to recognise the original Gaelic form from his pronunciation of the name, e.g. Cnoc na Gaoith 'hill of the wind' becomes [kr,Dk na 'gi]; Cnoc an Fhithich 'hill of the raven' becomes [kr3k na 'fidax]. My Reay informant could also frequently offer a translation of the name whereas infoimants on the east side of the county in Wick Parish shied away from attempting pronunciation of minor Gaelic names, although they always said, 'That's a Gaelic name'.

Wick Parish is, on the other hand, renowned throughout Caithness for having a particularly idiosyncratic and pronounced dialect of Scots, perhaps reflecting the fact that the Scots first moved into the east side of Caithness (c. 1400) and, thereafter, spread gradually northwards and westwards.

Having formed a general picture of the various strands of settlement we can now consider the documentary sources which contain references to place-names in Caithness, or which contain useful comparative material. Unfortunately, prior to the 15th century, such sources are extremely sparse. There are, however, some very useful references to Caithness names in Orkneyinga Saga and in Njal's Saga - in particular, in Orkneyinga Saga, to the name Caithness itself which was coined by the Norse in the form Katanes 'headland of the Cats', a tribal name probably given to the people who occupied the area prior to the Norse by their Celtic neighbours (Watson 1926, p. 30). This name is, in fact, one of the very few indicators of pre-Norse settlement which can be traced in the place-names. Another such indicator is the name given by the Norse to the stretch of water between Orkney and Caithness now known as the Pentland Firth. The Norse called it P6ttlandsfjbr6r or Pictland Firth - a name which shows an awareness of a population on the other side of the Firth.

It is difficult to provide a satisfactory explanation of the non-survival of place-name material from the period prior to the Norse settlement of Caithness but, if it is

4=4 CAITHNESS PLACE-NAMES 17

assumed that the settlement pattern of the early inhabitants, as well as their language, 6:2* differed from that of the Norse, it is not altogether surprising that their place-names

have been lost, because the same process of attrition can be seen happening in the 20th century; but more of that in the section relating to local informants at the end

g=0 of this paper.

Early maps of the area are also useful sources of information although Ptolemy's map has probably raised more questions than it has answered with its

O=O elusive *Tarvedu(nu)m: 'bull fort', which has been equated with Dunnet Head (Rivet and Smith 1979, p. 469). Blaeu's map (1654), on the other hand, is particularly

4=4 helpful because its author, Timothy Pont, was actually minister of Dunnet Parish in

4=6 Caithness and his local knowledge can be seen in the number and accuracy in positioning of the names recorded, although the spellings are occasionally

6=4 idiosyncratic.

4=0 There are several other useful map sources, particularly General Roy's

military survey map (1750), and detailed references to all early maps of Scotland can

4=4 be found in D. G. Moir's Early Maps of Scotland (Edinburgh, 1973).

Undoubtedly the most prolific sources of early name forms are the Register of the Great Seal, the Register of the Privy Seal, and Retours. Almost equal in

4=3 importance are the various estate papers, most of which are now housed in the Scottish Record Office, Edinburgh, although some are still held locally by Lord 6=6 Thurso in his estate office on the outskirts of Thurso. These latter papers, however, proved to be mostly recent - late 18th and early 19th century — although they did 4=3 contain useful references to some of the minor place-names which are otherwise not

4=3 recorded.

There is a marked difference between the east and west sides of the county as 4=3 regards early documentation. The east is reasonably well served by Northern Scottish

0=3 standards, particularly in the Sinclair of Mey and Sinclair of Freswick estate papers, but the Gaelic speaking west is very scantily documented: this reflects the earlier adoption of English, the language of written records, on the east side of the county. Lord Reay's estate papers are available but references are mostly to places on the

4=3 Sutherland side of the county boundary and are, in general, more recent. Other estate papers which have provided early name forms are Sutherland of Forse,

4=3 Mackay of Bighouse, Sinclair of Murkle and Sinclair of Dunbeath.

4=1 Another useful source of early place-name references is Old Lore Miscellany of Orkney, Shetland, Caithness and Sutherland.

e=3 Last, but certainly not least, come some very important sources of external

4=3 comparative material. These are Hugh Marwick's Orkney Farm Names and The Orkney Norn, J. Jakobsen's The Place-Names of Shetland and An Etymological

4=b Dictionary of the Norn Language in Shetland, and Olaf Rygh's Norske Gaardnavne.

4=4 There are very few names of Norse origin in Caithness which do not have parallels in either the Northern Isles or south-west Norway.

Similarly, for names of Gaelic origin, very useful sources of comparative material are two works by W. J. Watson, The Place-Names of Ross and Cromarty and The History of the Celtic Place-Names of Scotland, and Magne Oftedal's 'The Village Names of Lewis in the Outer Hebrides', which includes several place-names of Norse origin that have been subject to subsequent Gaelic influence, as in Reay Parish in particular.

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C13 <4-4 d iet has d im inished.

CA ITHNESS

Aylesbury, 1960.

C.)Cn

N

z Magnu sson, N4., and H. Pa lsson, tra ns.,

Marw ick, H., The Orkney Norn, Oxford,

Marwick, H., Orkney Farm Names, K i

U)

(1)

U)cdCU 0

O

C.)

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cd

cd ...)

4-3 a.)

N

CO

0

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0

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0

cd 0

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U COU

"

Norske Gaardnavne, ed. Olaf Rygh, 19 vols, Kristian ia, 1897-1936.

;-1

Cl) Cn TJ

H

Cn

0 z

"en U) -o .30

U)

0

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4-,

.-331 O

Cn a) a) O

co U)

O -37 -o

u it ies Ecclesiast ical and Territor ia l of the

a

O

0

H ines Parochia les Scotiae.

O

nna tyne Club, U) 0 H

a

0 O

Cn U) 0

London, 1978. and P. Edwards, trans., Orkne

•0

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a

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4C1.3'aOCn

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cn Scotorum, ed. M. Livingstone et a l., Edinburgh, 00 O

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CO

R ivet, A. L. F,,,rand Colin Sm ith, The Place -Names of Roman Br ita in, London, 1979. Rygh, 0., Gamle Personnavne i Norske Stedsnavne, Krist iania, 1901.

Wa tson, W. J., Ross and Cromarty, Inverness, 1904.

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U)

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UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH

Sincla ir of Thurso: esta te papers in Lord Thurso's esta te office, Thurso, Ca ithness.

Sincla ir of Ulbster: estate papers in Lord Thurso's esta te office, Thurso, Ca ithness.

Sutherland of Forse: 0 CC/ 00

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72$

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REFERENCES

Manuscript sources

a U) s_t U)

0 cd 00

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cf) Q.) Q

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pa U) $.4 O

(i) a 0.)

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4-1 4-1 O

-a

5.4 O C.) U)

4-,

48

C.) C/B a

U)

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U)

CnU) Edinburgh, catalogue reference GD280.

b0

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cl)

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CID "CS

cd Cn U) U)

co.

cc) cd

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.14 cf)

cr)

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N

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Old Stat ist ical Account of Scotland,

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C/D

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