does cannabis use cause psychological disorders
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A review of ten articles exploring determining factors and consequences of cannabis useTRANSCRIPT
- 1. Does Cannabis Use Cause Psychological Disorders?Ray
GoodsellMarch 22, 2011Advanced General Psychology PSY492Katina
ClarkeArgosy University
2. Abstract
Marijuana use usually begins during adolescence. The portrayal of
marijuana being a harmless recreational drug by some in society is
cause for concern. It is time to share what researchers have
discovered about marijuanas effects with the general population.
The question Does cannabis use cause psychosis? is one that many
researchers have pondered for some time. Nine of ten articles
chosen for review relate specifically to cannabis use. The Multiple
Opportunities to Reach Excellence (MORE) Project study is the
exception. It was designed to better understand the impact of
childrens chronic exposure to community violence on their emotional
behavior, substance use, and academics.
3. Discussion
The first article Predictors of Treatment Contact Among Individuals
with Cannabis Dependence mentioned the fact of cannabis being the
number one illicit drug used in America ( Agosti & Levin,
2004). They used information from the National Comorbidity Survey
(NCS) database in 2004. Data showed that 4% of the population had
cannabis dependence and among those individuals they also have high
rates of comorbid substance use disorders and depression. Many
cannabis users also have alcohol addiction. Persons with cannabis
dependence were more likely to seek professional help if they
previously sought treatment having two substance dependencies
(cannabis and alcohol) and having depression. Due to the small
sample population it is difficult to conclude this is always the
case (Agosti & Levin, 2004).
4. Community Violence and Youth: Affect, Behavior, Substance Use
andAcademics, the second article reviewed, not because of cannabis
use butbecause the study involved 8- to 12-year-old students who
attended six urban public elementary schools located in Baltimore,
Maryland who were influenced by community violence
(Cooly-Strickland, et al., 2009). The Multiple Opportunities to
Reach Excellence (MORE) Project study was designed to better
understand the impact of childrens chronic exposure to community
violence on their emotional behavioral, substance use, and academic
functioning. The researchers used the Childrens Report of Exposure
to Violence (CREV; Cooley et al. 1995) a widely used self-report
questionnaire developed to assess children lifetime exposure to
community violence. Almost one-quarter (22.9%) of the 11- and
12-year olds reported having smoked tobacco and 17.1% reported
drinking alcohol at least sometimes to help them cope
(Cooly-Strickland, et al., 2009).
5. The study does not mention the use of cannabis but provides a
degree of evidence that stress plays a factor in contributing to
substance use.
The article Cannabis Use and Later Life Outcomes examined the
associations between the extent of cannabis use during adolescence
and young adulthood and later education, economic, employment,
relationship satisfaction and life satisfaction outcomes (Ferguson
& Boden, 2008). The accumulation of data over a 25-year period
made this article interesting. The conclusion the authors came up
with and I agree with is that cannabis use is associated with
depression. The problem with this study and others like it is that
questionnaires are used. We must rely on people telling the truth
when answering the questions.
6. Wayne Halls article titled Cannabis Use and the Mental Health of
Young People used data collected from leading electronic databases
such as PubMed and incorporated the information from longitudinal
studies of representative samples of adolescents and young adults
conducted in developed societies over the past 20 years. He
concluded that cannabis is a drug of dependence. Risks increase
with decreasing age of initiation. Cannabis dependence in young
people predicts increased risks of using other illicit drugs, under
performing in school and reporting psychotic symptoms. Evidence is
growing that cannabis is a contributor of psychotic symptoms. Hall
and I believe we as a society face major challenges in
communicating with young people about the most probable risks of
cannabis use: dependence, educational underachievement and
psychosis (Hall, 2006).
7. Associations Between Psychopathic Traits and Mental Disorders
Among Adolescents with Substance Use Problemswas based on a study
that examined the association between psychopathic traits and
mental disorders and to study associations between psychopathic
traits and familial problems across gender. The study used 180
adolescents seeking help at a substance abuse treatment clinic: 99
girls, 81boys and their parents, (165 mothers, 90 fathers) were
studied. It suggests that different dimensions of psychopathy
predisposed substance use for girls and for boys, and that
oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) is particularly important in
the expression of psychopathic traits among girls (Hemphala &
Tengstrom, 2010).
8. A Longitudinal Study of Cannabis Use and Mental Health from
Adolescence to Early Adulthoodstudied the longitudinal association
between cannabis use and mental health. It used data concerning
cannabis use and mental health from 15 to 21 years of available
information. Data was acquired from large sample of individuals as
part of a longitudinal study from childhood to adulthood.
Participants were enrolled in the Dunedin Multidisciplinary Health
and Development Study, a research program on the health,
development and behavior of a large group of New Zealanders born
between April 1972 and March 1973.
9. Cannabis use and identification of mental disorder was based
upon self-reporting in a standard diagnostic interview. The
findings suggested that the primary causal direction leads from
mental disorder to cannabis use among adolescents and the reverse
in early adulthood. Both alcohol use and cigarette smoking had
independent associations with later mental health disorder (McGee,
Williams, Poulton & Moffitt, 2000).
10. Trajectories of Adolescent Alcohol and Cannabis Use into Young
Adulthoodbased on a study conducted in New Zealand, studied
trajectories of adolescent cannabis or alcohol use and compared the
respective consequences in young adulthood. The design was a
10-year eight-wave cohort study of a state- wide community sample
of 1943 Victoria, New Zealand adolescents initially aged 1415
years. Moderate- and high-risk alcohol use was dened according to
total weekly alcohol consumption. Moderate- and high-risk cannabis
use were dened as weekly and daily use, respectively.
11. The article mentions how both alcohol and cannabis carry health
risks and that both are commonly initiated in adolescence. The
study found that around 90% of young adults used either alcohol or
cannabis. There was a tendency for heavy users to use one substance
predominantly at any one time. Selective heavy cannabis use in both
adolescence and young adulthood was associated with greater illicit
substance use and poorer social outcomes in young adulthood than
selective alcohol use. One in ve young adults used either alcohol
or cannabis at a high- risk level. Heavier teenage cannabis users
tend to continue selectively with cannabis use. Considering their
poor young adult outcomes, regular adolescent cannabis users appear
to be on a problematic trajectory (Patton et al., 2007).
12. The article Does Cannabis Use Lead to Depression and Suicidal
Behaviors? examined relationships between cannabis use and later
depression, suicidal ideation and suicide attempts in a cohort of
young Norwegians. Data were gathered through the Young in Norway
longitudinal study, in which a population-based sample of 2,033
Norwegians were followed up over a 13-year period, from their early
teens to their late twenties.The study asked what if any
relationship existed between exposure to cannabis use; and
depression, suicide ideation and suicide attempts. In addition,
information about possible confounding factors was included. In
early adolescence, no associations with later depression or
suicidal behaviors were observed. In samples of subjects in their
twenties, highly signicant associations with suicide ideation and
suicide attempts were observed. The ndings suggest that exposure to
cannabis by itself does not lead to depression but that it may be
associated with later suicidal thoughts and attempts (Pederson,
2008).
13. Exposure to Terrorism and Israeli Youths Cigarette, Alcohol,
and Cannabis Use was an interesting article. It used anonymous
self-administered questionnaires given to a random sample of 960
10th and 11th grade students (51.6% boys, 48.4% girls). Close
physical exposure to acts of terrorism predicted higher levels of
alcohol consumption (including binge drinking among drinkers) and
cannabis use. Negative consequences of terrorism exposure among
adolescents included substance abuse (Schiff, Zweig, Benbenishty
& Hasin, 2007).
14. Anxiety and Mood Disorders and Cannabis Usestudied the
relationship between cannabis use and Anxiety Mood Disorder (AMD).
The study used data from14,531 telephone interviews between 2001
and 2006. The information came from cross-section population of
adults throughout Ontario, Canada. AMD was assessed with the
12-item version of the General Health Questionnaire (GHQ12).
Researchers observed that the heaviest cannabis users, dened as
users who reported using cannabis almost every day or more often,
were twice as likely to report an AMD as abstainers.
15. The study found a strong relationship between AMD and light and
heavy cannabis use, but not moderate use. There were signicant
differences in AMD by gender, age group, education, and income.
Women reported higher prevalence rates of AMD than men. The
prevalence of AMD was highest for the age group 3039, and lowest
for the oldest group. Respondents who had not completed high school
reported the highest prevalence of AMD in comparison to those with
higher levels of education. Levels of AMD were highest in those in
the lowest income and declined as income increased. Alcohol
problems were found to be signicantly associated with AMD. Levels
of AMD were highest in heavy cannabis users who used cannabis
almost every day or more compared to those who reported never
having used cannabis (Cheung, Mann, Ialomiteanu, Stoduto,
Ala-Leppilampi & Rehm, 2010).
16. Conclusion
There is strong evidence of cannabis use being a gateway drug and
that it also has a relationship to psychotic disorders and
depression. More questions arise than answered though. Evidence
indicates a link between cannabis use and other substances. It is
not certain whether cannabis is the cause of psychosis or if the
disorder is a determining factor for using cannabis or other
substances. More research is necessary. Isolating studies on
individuals in specific demographic populations could provide
information based on the relationship of cannabis and psychosis.
Alcoholism and other addictions combined with depression are common
with cannabis use. People experiencing comorbidity are more willing
to seek treatment but not for cannabis addiction alone.
17. Is cannabis more addicting, is it a more psychotic drug to one
gender than the other? These are questions for future research to
discover.
We as a society face major challenges in communicating with young
people about the most probable risks of cannabis use: dependence,
educational underachievement and psychosis. If we can prove
cannabis is a factor in developing psychosis then it may be
possible to sway public opinion against its use.
18. References
Agosti, V., & Levin, F. R. (2004). Predictors of Treatment
Contact Among Individuals with Cannabis Dependence. American
Journal of Drug & Alcohol Abuse, 30(1), 121-127.
doi:10.1081/ADA-120029869
Cheung, J. W., Mann, R. E., Ialomiteanu, A., Stoduto, G., Chan, V.,
Ala-Leppilampi, K., & Rehm, J. (2010). Anxiety and Mood
Disorders and Cannabis Use. American Journal of Drug & Alcohol
Abuse, 36(2), 118-122. doi:10.3109/00952991003713784
Cooley-Strickland, M., Quille, T. J., Griffin, R. S., Stuart, E.
A., Bradshaw, C. P., & Furr-Holden, D. (2009). Community
Violence and Youth: Affect, Behavior, Substance Use, and Academics.
Clinical Child & Family Psychology Review, 12(2), 127-156.
doi:10.1007/s10567-009-0051-6
19. Fergusson, D. M., & Boden, J. M. (2008). Cannabis use and
later life outcomes. Addiction, 103(6), 969-976.
doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2008.02221.x
Hall, W. D. (2006). Cannabis use and the mental health of young
people. Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 40(2),
105-113. doi:10.1111/j.1440-1614.2006.01756.x
Hemphl, M., & Tengstrm, A. (2010). Associations between
psychopathic traits and mental disorders among adolescents with
substance use problems. British Journal of Clinical Psychology,
49(1), 109-122. Retrieved March 1, 2011 from EBSCOhost.
20. McGee, R., Williams, S., Poulton, R., & Moffitt, T. (2000).
A longitudinal study of cannabis use and mental health from
adolescence to early adulthood. Addiction, 95(4), 491-503.
doi:10.1080/09652140031450
Patton, G. C., Coffey, C., Lynskey, M. T., Reid, S., Hemphill, S.,
Carlin, J. B., & Hall, W. (2007). Trajectories of adolescent
alcohol and cannabis use into young adulthood. Addiction, 102(4),
607-615. doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2006.01728.x
21. Pedersen, W. W. (2008). Does cannabis use lead to depression
and suicidal behaviours? A population-based longitudinal study.
ActaPsychiatricaScandinavica, 118(5), 395-403.
doi:10.1111/j.1600-0447.2008.01259.x
Schiff, M., Zweig, H. H., Benbenishty, R., & Hasin, D. S.
(2007). Exposure to terrorism and israeli youths' cigarette,
alcohol, and cannabis use. American Journal of Public Health,
97(10), 1852. Retrieved March 1, 2011 from
http://search.proquest.com/docview/215089336?accountid=34899