document resume ea 007 357 - eric · document resume. ed 109 769 ea 007 357 title quality education...
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DOCUMENT RESUME
. ED 109 769 EA 007 357
TITLE Quality Education for the High Schools inMassachusetts. A Study of the Comprehensive HighSchool in. Massachusetts.
INSTITUTION 'Massachusetts Advisory Council on Education,Boston.
PUB DATE Apr 71NOTE 326p.
EDRS PRICE MF-$0.76 HC-$17.13 PLUS POSTAGEDESCRIPTORS Administrator Attitudes; Change Strategies;
*Educational Change; Parent Attitudes;Questionnaires; *School Improvement; SchcolStatistics; *School Surveys; *Secondary Education;Student Attitudes; *Tables (Data); TeacherAttitudes
IDENTIFIERS *Massachusetts
ABSTFPiCTThis publication is the complete report of A Study of
the Comprehensive High School in Massachusetts. The study, whichbegan in 1969, had four phases. Phase 1 was a wide-ranging survey of251 Massachusetts public high schools. Phase 2 was a more intensivestudy of 33 representative schools, in which consultants gatheredinformation on the attitudes and perceptions of school personnel,students, and parents. Phase 3 consisted of a series of regionalconferences, which were held to present and discuss 10 positionpapers on current ideas and practices for school improvements. Phase4 involved the preparation of tentative recommendations and thedissemination of the recommendations to professional groups andindividuals concerned with secondary education in Massachusetts. Thisreport presents the study recommendations, as well as the significantfindings of the study, and the opinions expressed by staff members,students, and parents about their high schools. In addition, thereport also contains the various questionnaires used in the study,the 10 position papers presented at the regional conferences, andother pertinent information about the study and its methodology.(Author/JG)
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QUALITY EDUCATION FOR THE HIGH SCHOOLS IN MASSACHUSETTS
A Study of the Comprehensive High School in Massachusetts
4 Lloyd S. Michael, DirectorNorthwestern University
in cooperation with
The Massachusetts Secondary School Principals Association
;Report Prepared for the Massachusetts Advisory Council on Education
William C. Gaige, Director of Research
April 1971
.
ERRATA
lit ,t patattraph tut 1),10( 3
the complete tepolt of Shin) of the Coniptchtiql,c lIty411 School
achtimIt %N,t authortzed in J111, 1969 b the Massa-
thw,eth .,or Council on Education The purpose of the Stitd was to
help the yxthhc bit411 s( hook 1)1 the (.011)11)0))Vlealtil achtee excellence tui
thur %%1(1(21% dterAtted qudent pointiatulir,
1tt paragiaph on page 3
leport iontani the rt.t.onattendation., In the 'Ittnimar) lici)ort, the .,ty.4-
111twatit hlidnij.4, of the Stlid, the opinion., that adttlint4rators, teachcrs.
and parent., had about their high .,thool, aild the needed direc-
tions for diatige and implocmctit "I he rcpott alv) contain.. the 10 poItton
pap(Is of the s(Actal titit.sholinatre, ited in the Sttid. and other
pettitiont ititotinattoo
1 aNt ,ente/1(;' rtt the thud pilatziaph (at palze
()thut izae imahiabh, holy) ate 11.,tcd nt tin, repoit
()I) ri 1971 11('Id 1)% the ('onlittom%calth nt Ma,acilmett111 light, re,,el%rd limited in the United State,, of Ametic a
MASSACHUSETTS ADVISORY COUNCIL ON EDUCATION
Members of the Council
Mr. Philip C. Beals, Chairman, Trustee, WorcesterMrs. Mary Warner, Vice Chairman, Engineer, SunderlandMr. Morton R. Godine, Vice-President, Market Forge Company, Everett
Mrs. Shirley R. Lewis, Attorney, Lewis & Lewis, TauntonMr. Felix H. de C. Pereira, Financial Consultant, Retired Senior
Vice-President, First National Bank, BostonMr. Walter J. Ryan, Business Manager, International Union of Operating
Engineers, Local No. 4, RoslindaleDr. Nina E. Scarito, Obstetrician, MethuenDr. John L. Sprague, Senior Vice-President, Research & Development,
Sprague Electric Company, WorcesterMr. Verne W. Vance, Jr., Attorney, Foley, Hoag & Elliot, Boston
Ex Officio Members
Dr. Neil V. Sullivan, Commissioner of EducationDr. Edward C. Moore, Chancellor of Higher Education
Legislative Consulting Committee
Mary L. Fonseca, State Senator, Fall RiverKevin B. Harrington, State Senator, SalemJohn M. Quinlan, State Senator, DoverWilliam L. Saltonstall, State Senator, ManchesterRobert A. I3elmonte, State Representative, FraminghamMichael J. Daly, State Representative, BostonPaul J. Sheehy, State Representative, LowellThomas C. Wojtkowski, State Representative, Pittsfield
Council Staff
Dr. William C. aaige, Director of Research
r Dr. Allan S. Hartman, Assbciate DirectorDr. Ronald B. Jackson, Associate DirectorMrs. Linda A. Klein, Administrative Assistant
(- i -
-4
STUDY COMMITTEE
Dr. W. Dwight Allen, Dean, School of Education, University ofMassachusetts, Amherst
Representative Robert A. Belmonte, Minority Whip, House ofRepresentatives, Framingham
Dr,. Max Bogart, Associate Commissioner, Curriculum and Instruction,State Department of Education
Mr. Hugh R. Boyd, President Elect, Massachusetts Association ofSchool Committees, Stoneham
Dr. Richard H. Bradley, Director of Evaluation, New England Associ-ation of Colleges and Secondary Schools
Mr. Julian Demeo, Jr., Assistant Superintendent of Schools, BraintreeMr. Lincoln A. Dexter, Principal, Minnechaug Regional High School,
WilbrahamMr. Charles Foltz, Director, New England Resource Center for Occupa-
tional EducationDr. William C. Gaige, Director of Research, Massachusetts Advisory
Council on EducationMr. Donald Graves, Superintendent-Director, Southeastern Regional
Vocational-Technical School, South EastonMrs. W. Max Griffin, Committee on Education, Massachusetts League
of Women Voters, WaylandDr. Robert R. Hind, President, Education Development Center, NewtonDr. Bertram H. Holland, Executive Secretary, Massachusetts Secondary
School Principals AssociationMr. James M. Horton, Senior Supervisor, Bureau of Elementary and
Secondary Education, State Department of EducationDr. Herold C. Hunt, Charles W. Eliot Professor of Education, Emeritus,
Harvard Graduate School of EducationMr. Joseph E. Joyce, Principal, Canton High School, CantonDr. Richard J. Lavin, Director, Merrimack Valley Regional Educational
Planning Center, ChelmsfordMr. Lincoln D. Lynch, Superintendent of Schools, MiddleboroMr. William F. McGuiness, Guidance Counselor, Lynn Classical High
School, LynnDr. Stuart A. Marshall, Associate Professor of Education, Boston
UniversityDr. George E. Membrino, Superintendent of Schools, ChicopeeMiss Helen O'Brien, Teacher, Somerville High School, SomervilleDr. Wilfred L. O'Leary, Headmaster, Boston Latin School, BostonMr. George Rogers, Mayor, New BedfordMr. Ralph L. Shindler, Principal, East Longmeadow High School, LongmeadowDr. James R. Squire, Senior Vice-President, Ginn and Company, BostonThe Reverend John D. Thomas, Superintendent of Schools, Diocese of
Worcester, WorcesterMr. William H. Vellante, Principal, Millis JAlor-Senior High School,
MillisMrs. Mary Warner, Vice Chairman, Massachusetts Advisory Council on
Education, SunderlandDr. Eugene S. Wilson, Director of Admissions, Amherst College, Amherst
TEACHERS ADVISORY COMMITTEE
Mr. Richard Alpert, New Bedford High School, New BedfordMr. Pierre Barrettee, South Hadley High School, South HadleyMr. John Bennett, High School of Commerce, SpringfieldMrs. Dorothy Bell, Harwich High School, HarwichMr. James Dadoly, Acton-Boxborough Regional High School, ActonMr. C. R. Davenport, Lexington High School, LexingtonMr. Richard Durkin, Newton High School, NewtonMr. Robert Enos, Needham High School, NeedhamMr. Roy Faria, Peabody High School, PeabodyMr. Anthony Fedele, Somerville High School, SomervilleMr. Louis Flanders, Dover-Sherborn Regional High School, DoverMiss Nancy Haley, Lexington High School, LexingtonMiss Virginia Hall, Woburn High School, WoburnMrs. Janet Julian, Grafton High School, GraftonMiss Joyce Kent, Grafton Memorial Junior High School, GlaftonMr. Bernard Kiernan, Lawrence High School, LawrenceMr. Robert Kozacka, Amesbury High School, AmesburyMr. John Laird, New Bedford High School, New BedfordMr. Stephen Lowe, Wayland High School, WaylandMiss Esther McDonald, Cambridge High and Latin, CambridgeMr. W. Barry McNiff, Ayer Jr.-Sr. High School, AyerMr. Frank Martin, Billerica High School, BillericaMr. Frank G. Nolan, Salem High School, SalemMr. Francis Pratt, Acton-Boxborough Regional High School, ActonMr. John Reilly, Boston Technical High School, BostonMr. Arthur Russell, Marblehead High School, MarbleheadMr. Robert St. Pierre, Westport High School, WestportMr. H. Neil Soule, Lexington High School, LexingtonMr. Luciano S. Visco, Newton Technical High School, NewtonMr. Edwin Weinstein, Chelsea High School, ChelseaMr. Joseph Zarba, East Junior High School, Watertown
STUDY STAFF
Dr. Lloyd S. Michael, Director, Professor of Education, North-
western UniversityDr. Charles W. Sanford, Chief Consultant, Professor of Education
and University Dean of Admissions and Records, Emeritus,University of Illinois
Dr. John R. Sullivan, Jr., Assistant Director, Director of Field
Studies, New England School Development CouncilMiss Sally Hensley, SecretaryMrs. Elizabeth Neff, Secretary
CONSULTANTS
Mr. Frederick Bashour, Formerly Principal of Buckley High School,Hartford, Connecticut
Dr. Richard Clark, Assistant Professor of Education, School ofEducation, University of Massachusetts, Amherst
Dr. Stephen J. Clarke, Associate Professor of Education, SalemTeachers College, Salem
Dr. Rupert N. Evans, Professor of Vocational and Technical Educa-tion, Bureau of Educational Research, University of Illinois
Dr. William P. McLure, Professor of Educational Administration andDirector, Bureau of Educational Research, University of Illinois
Dr. John E. Marshall, Educational Consultant, Belmont'Dr. Karl R. Plato, Alfred North Whitehead Fellow, Harvard University,
on leave 1969-70, Superintendent, Highland Park-Deerfield High
Schools, Highland Park, Illinois
In addition, seven other persons presented position papers.
-- 1 V -
,/
TABLE OF CONTENTS
FOREWORD by Dr. William C. Gaige 1
PREFACE by Dr. Bertram H. Holland 2
INTRODUCTION by Dr. Lloyd S. Michael 3
CHAPTER 1 ,PROCEDURES UTILIZED IN THE STUDYAND GENERAL INFORMATION 6
CHAPTER 2 SIGNIFICANT FINDINGS 16
CHAPTER 3
CHAPTER 4
CHAPTER 5
CHAPTER 6
APENDIX A
APPENDIX B
PARENTS, ADMINISTRATORS, TEACHERSAND STUDENTS VIEW THEIR SCHOOLS 82
RECOMMENDATIONS 114
Philosophy and Objectives 114
The Comprehensive High School 116
Organization and Administration 119
Staff 123
Curriculum 125
Educational Media Program 129
Guidance Program 132
Student Involvement 134
Student Activities Program 136
School-Community Relations 138
School Facilities 141
Evaluation 143
School Finance 145
Consolidation 148
PERSPECTIVES FOR THE HIGH SCHOOL OFTHE FUTURE 150
POSITION PAPERS PRESENTED AT REGIONALCONFERENCES 155
261
INITIAL QUESTIONNAIRE COMPLETED BY 251HIGH SCHOOLS 262
DATA FORM: SUPERINTENDENTS 304
DATA FORM: PRINCIPALS 309
317
THIRTY-THREE REPRESENTATIVE SCHOOLS 318
- v -
FOREWORD
In its first years the Council is undertaking examinations of
the major systems of public education in the Commonwealth -- voca-
tional education, adult education, education of the handicapped and
deprived and others. The Council now presents an extensive and
intensive analysis of the state's system of comprehensive high
schools. Following consultations across the country, the Council
engaged the services of Dr. Lloyd S. Michael as Director of the
Study. Dr. Michael is Professor of Education at Northwestern Uni-
versity and was for twenty years Superintendent of Evanston Town-
ship High School, Evanston, Illinois, consistently rated as one of
the half dozen finest high schools in America. As the Study was
planned, the Massachusetts Association of Secondary School Princi-
pals entered into special cooperation which has resulted in the
participation of all elements in high schools, in the careful review
of the recommendations by the policies and executive committees and
in a commitment by the Association to work towards the implementation
of the recommendations.
As the Study was planned all agreed to direct the Study
towards defining programs and standards and making recommendations
which would be applicable and hopeful of response by all of the
high schools -- not just those in a few of the most progressive,
affluent communities. Dr. Michael has accomplished this aim so
well that implementation of most of the recommendations in the
spirit in which they are made will assure excellent schools in the
1980's responsive to the yet unknown needs of that time.
The Council is grateful to the hundreds of school and univer-
sity people, government servants and laymen who have contributed
their time and talent to the Study. The members express their ap-
preciation to the New England School Development Council for housing
and servicing the Study and sharing with us the Study's Assistant
Director.
The Council presents this extensive and significant report
to the people of Massachusetts and their political and educational
leaders. School systems singly and collectively, the education
boards and the Secretary for Educational Affairs have a long, hard
agenda and effort before them to assure good education to all of
our youth and the happiness and wealth which well educated youth
will assure in return.
William C. GaigeDirector of ResearchMassachusetts Advisory Council
on EducationApril 1971
PREFACE
The Massachusetts Secondary School Principals Association
was most willing to cooperate in the MACE Study of the Compre-
hensive High School in Massachusetts. At a point meeting in
April 1969 the Executive Board and the Educational Policies Com-
mittee of MSSPA voted unanimously to participate in this Study.
During the course of the Study, representative groups of MSSPA
members met with Study staff members, and individual principals
and members of their staffs cooperated in completing questionnaires
and in interviews.
The Study re-establishes the importance of the comprehensive
high school as the type of institution that can, in Dr. L. S.
Michael's words, "meet the educational, vocational, and avocational
needs of all youth in a community most effectively and economically."
Although the Massachusetts Secondary School Principals Associ-
ation supports at least ninety percent of the recommendations in-
cluded in the Report and cooperated in the Study as an Association,
MSSPA does not necessarily concur in every recommendation made by
the Study staff.
The Report should be read by everyone in Massachusqtsinterested in the progress of secondary education in the Common-
wealth. It should be studied and discussed by. all members of every
board responsible for developing policies for secondary education
as well as by all persons professionally involved in secondary
education in Massachusetts.
fir.rtram H. HollandExecutive Secretilry-TreasurerMassachusetts Secondary School
Principals Association
INTgoOfICTInN
This is the Summary Report of the recommendations made in A
Study of the Comprehensive High School in Massachusetts, which was
authorized in July 1969 by the Massachusetts Advisory Council on
Education. The purpose of the Study was to help the public high
schools of the Commonwealth achieve excellence for their widely
diversified student populations.
The Study was organized into four phases. The first was a
survey of the status of 251 of the 305 public high schools, in-
cluding regular, reoionai, vocational-technical and trade, and
reoional vocational-technical high-schools. This survey included
a questionnaire which collected data in 11 categories: general
information, institutional objectives and philosophy, subject
areas, staff and administration, guidance services, student with-
drawals and educational and vocational intentions, student acti-
vities program, educational media services, community-school re-
lations, school ohN,sical facilities, and financial resources.
The second phase was a study of 33 representative high schools
by two or more consultants, who conferred with school personnel
concerning major problems, needs and barriers to change and im-
provement; with staff members on their attitudes and perceptions
of the ways the schools might be improved; and with students on
their attitudes and aspirations and on their perceptions of school
experiences. Information was also obtained from parents concern-
ing their expectations for their children and their satisfactions
and dissatisfactions with the programs of their schools. Reports
from 33 alternate schools were studied as a part of the survey.
The third phase consisted of a series of regional conferences
to present position papers on current ideas and practices for
school improvements and to discuss these papers with school com-
mittee members, superintendents, principals, teachers and parents.
The fourth phase was the preparation of tentative recommenda-
tions and their dissemination for reactions and comments to various
professional individuals and groups concerned with secondary educa-
tion in the Commonwealth.
The complete report of A Study of the Comprehensive High
School in Massachusetts contains the recommendations in this Summary
Poport: the significant findings of the Study; the opinions that
administrators, teachers, students, and parents had about their high
school; and the needed directions for change and improvement. The
full report also contains the 10 position papers, copies of the
several questionnairec used in the Study, and other pertinent infor-
mation.
rno 'study had VIP offzeial endr,rs.7.e..tc,ec)ndary School Principals Associatio!. a7;e1 was r-h.:u-t-0-1 Incollaboration with the Association. In t,;%
was initiated, the Executive P,4ar1mittee of the Association unanimou--,ly e-ndorse! te n,ei anf the comprehensive huh v-hool and aw-r-we! ;artiri;At;,_and cooperation.
rho Association's ct,e-rat_i.,n an! 1- t t!lu-;? ,utstudy were most encouraginl ar.! yalue,le. In ad!t:-,n.Advisory Committee, consist in) of ro:.resetat 1;es yAsqa.chusettg Teachers Associat 1,1r and tY0Teacher s was 1rkow i so 1-1e1,-tu a-1 cu ve of f vatof the Study
As director of the ctudy, I was A/-:y a,:5-.5T=-! by1livan, Jr., Director of Field c-rv;ces, --;ew i,n4,1a7d :*evel--
0:1ment Council, which orjanizat inn served as tn.- center r toactivities of the Study. Dr. 'Marie-5 Pro.1f-f,sn: of=ation and Dean of Adniscions and %meritu,,
served as my valu,.! z,f , Antt.t-1, sul t an t
wno gave ini.a luab i. h.- I ; ar. 't is t , 1 rz t.letv t
I wish to acknowleol.- witt, )roat le. at 1,--n t , 1.-* a largo percentage of tre faculty tt-e h;:ho responded to the fact-tindin t 'r.a ro I al-crateful to the many ed,:catt,r,-.. naront, sjt
4;taff in the SCh. se 1,c t et; .The Stuly pr lA oit,!,
A711 lay loaders in ....lucati r, A..ivi,If4r-t.Iff and in re,ctin,) p re-, ro. N :at',ion of arc-1 ar.ci * it. t tt'u:' ,t---rat'-fl informa'if,h t.an,, tta.wiso would have !'"--OFT difficult tr, ln!c ava 1 ab le . t ha,t; ar. . I I I ;-sr.
tec tor of Pi arch for tr..-- :"ass-.arhuc../. t
inr., for I s par t :at 1; 311 ac: r1- - r_-r,unsel ar. hump: c ; T.! : r-: r
The rece,m,men,iations wilrl I i'w r .. a'
x;'l lence for tYe diver 1. t t: at c: th,h igri schools in lo Wi'a; I r ¶ !h"!t, meet t.1~..- edunat ion a I neei3.-, th. var c t
= .o I s muct ire nt with ni-w and ;mai., as al t.:,:*IT, their conventional standards an.!, pr-s( t ,_f-:,retscl-onl of tor row if - t , let.c ar,!
it,- objective', .1T **.o f tr-da'.. rt.. wt-- t I . .
N
A
furrtions, curlifulum, its orlanization for instruction, its
staff-In,/ patt.rz its facilities for teaching and learning, its
financln) must underio basic changes. There must be a recoonition
tat t.. achlvv excellence thrcuqh diveisity schools must makeirtadlnativo uso of 311 thice resAurces - time, space, program,
peop1.,, mc,n,y.
The re.:ommendatlons in this report are designed for the
rompeensive improvement of the tot:.1 educational experience
for all hiih school youth. It is our hope that tin- recommendations
will be implemented a;1 those concerned with imploying
t1,1121,, s..coniar .ducatton it '4assachuslts.
Lloyd ca'. Michaelirortor
Chapter 1
tT0CFOURES UTILIZED IN THE STUDY AND
GENERAL INFORMATION
Procedures Utilized in the Study
In carrying out the purposes of the, Study, the Director and hisstaff have, following consultation with educational leaders and groups inMassachusetts; (1) gathered, organized, and interpreted pertinent data;_(2) enlisted ideas and professional judgments relative to the directionof change and of promising practices; (3) organized regional conferencesand presented promising innovative practices and research studies concernedwith the improvement of high school education; (4) prepared tentativerecommendations aimed at the improvement.of secondary education and obtain-ed reactions to them from several major committees in Massachusetts; and(5) prepared and submitted a final report to the Advisory Council.
The Study was organized around four phases as follows:
A survey of the present status of the high schools inMassachusetts. This phase of the Study was primarilyconcerned with the gathering and interpreting of dataabout the high schools as they now function thoughattention was given to changes the schools consideredimportant.
A. A search was made for all pertinent reports, researchstudies, and other factual material available from theNew England Association of Colleges and SecondarySchools, the State Department of Education, and others.
B. An analysis was made of relevant national and regionalstudies to obtain data concerned with education in highschools, including Massachusetts.
C. A questionnaire was prepared to collect from all highschools the most recent data and information availableto determine: (1) the comprehensiveness of the programand services; (2) blocks to change and improvement; (3)readinc s to effect change; (4) the areas in whichchange was most needed; and (5) changes and innovationsalready made that seem to have effected improvement inthe school. The Study staff prepared the questionnaire,several individuals and groups, including the Study
- 7
Committee, suggested modifications, and all principals
were asked to see that it was completed. Particular
attention was given in other phases of this Study to
relations with students and parents.
1. Data were collected in these categories:
General InformationInstitutional Objectives and Philosophy
Subject AreasGuidance ServicesStudent Withdrawals and Educational and
Occupational IntentionsSchool Staff and AdministrationStudent Activities ProgramEducational Media Services - Library and
Audio-VisualSchool Physical FacilitiesSchool-Community RelationsFinancial Resources
2. The critical factors were emphasized in the types of
information requested. They were: (1) the degree of
comprehensiveness of the program and services, and
(2) the efforts aimed at change and innovation.
Included in each section of the questionnaire were
spaces where the respondents were asked to indicate
changes and innovative practices introduced within
the past five years and those planned for implemen-
tation during the next five years.
3. Local school studies and research projects that might
be valuable to the findings of the Study were
requested and analyzed.
II. A study was made of 33 representative high schools to check
the accuracy of the interpretations by the consultants of
the data obtained from the initial school questionnaire and
to add factual information and opinions that were not
obtained from the school questionnaire.
- 8 -
A. Bases for selecting the 33 schools.
1. The general provisions for selecting the schools wereas follows:
(a) The purpose was to select a sample as nearlyrepresentative of the public high schools inMassachusetts as possible.
(b) Thirty-three was chosen as a feasible numberfor field visits.
(c) One innercity high school in Boston was chosenon the basis of descriptive information. Otherswere selected by a procedure of randomizationfrom representative groups.
(d) The criteria for grouping schools were thefollowing: (1) geographic distribution; (21type of 5.chool -- regular, regional, vocational-technical and trade, and regional vocational-technical; (3) grade organization--7-12, 9-12,and 10-12; (4) size of school--three categories;and (5) expenditure per pupil for current'operating costs--three categories.
2. The' sampling procedure was as follows:
(a) Schools were classified by type; geographiclocation--city and county; grade organization;size: (1) small--under 800 pupils, (2) medium- -800 -1,399 and (3) large--over 1,400; andexpenditure per pupil: (1) low third of eachtype, (2) middle third of each type, and (3)high third of e.ch type.
(b) The schools were arranged into three size groupswithin each of the expenditure groups for eachof the four types of schools according to gradeorganization.
(c) Quotas to be chosen were assigned on the basisof proportional numbers of schools in therespective grouns.
(d) Schools were picked from the oroups by use ofa table of random numbers.
(e) Two arbitrary conditions were established: (1)one innercity high school in Boston was chotenfrom descriptive information, (2) a minimum ofone school was selected from each county.
6
9
3. The willingness of the 33 schools to cooperate in
this phase of the Study was, of course, essential.
B. Information and opinions were obtained regarding the following
items:
1. Administrator comments concerning major problems, issues,
and needs of the high school were obtained from question-
naires and interviews.
2. Teacher attitudes and perceptions of their role in the
school and how the school might be improved were obtained
from questionnaires and interviews.
3. Student attitudes and aspirations about themselves, and
perceptions about their school experiences and the need
for change and improvements which they believed would be
of help zo them were obtained from questionnaires and
interviews.
4. Parent expectations for their children and satisfac-
tion and dissatisfaction with the program of the school
in meeting these expectations were obtained from question-
naires.
The students and the parents who were asked to complete
the questionnaires, which were different and designedspecifically for the two groups, were selected on a
sampling basis and in such a way that parents and stu-
dents from the same family did not participate.
5. Significant political, social and economic factors in
the community which affected an understanding and support
of the school were obtained from interviews with admin-
istrators and teachers and, to some extent, from question-
naires from them.
C. Each of the selected high schools was visited by at least two
members of the staff and consultants. Typical schedules
followed by the staff and consultants follow:
Consultant 1
8:00 a. m. Review schedule for the day with the Principal
8:15 a. m. Conference with a Home Economics teacher (The
subject areas represented by the teachers inter-
viewed were varied so that a distribution of
teachers was obtained from all departments inapproximate proportion to the total number of
teachers in the various departments in the 33
schools.)
- 10 -
8:45 a.m. Conference with a Business Education teacher.9:15 a.m. Conference with an Art teacher.9:45 a.m. Conference with the guidance counselors.10:45 a.m. Conference with 10 students (potential dropouts,
dissidents.)11:15 a.m. Conference with 10 students (Leaders.)11:45 a.m. Lunch.12:15 p.m. Examination of physical facilities.1:15 p.m. Conference with the Head Custodian.1:45 p.m. Conference with the Head of Cafeteria.2:15 p.m. Conference with the Department Heads.
Consultant 2
8:00 a.m. Review schedule for the day with the Principal.8:15 a.m. Conference with the Superintendent of Schools.9:15 a.m. Conference with the High School Principal.10:15 a.m. Conference with a Science teacher.10:45 a.m. Conference with a Foreign Languages teacher.11:15 a.m. Conference with a Mathematics teacher.11:45 a.m. Lunch.12:15 p.m. Conference with the Head of Educational Media
Services.1:15 p.m. Observation of innovations and problem areas.2:15 p.m. Conference with Department Heads.
Too much cannot be said about the high degree of cooperationafforded the consultants in their visits to these schools.
III. All high schools in the State were invited to consider inconferences new ideas, promising innovative practices andresearch studies concerned with the improvement of highschool education with particular attention to their appli-cability in Massachusetts.
A. A series of five regional conferences were held in varioussections of the State. Invited to participate in theseconferences were the high school principal, the superin-tendent or his representative, a teacher, a parent orother layman, and a school committee member.
B. At each conference consultants presented two positionpapers on essential phases of school improvement.*The program included the use of reactors and panelsfrom the high schools represented at the conference.
*The 10 papers will be found in Chapter 6.
18
IV. The Study report was prepared and the recommendationscontained therein are being disseminated and consith,red for
implementation.
A. The staff prepared tentative recommendations for the,
improvement of the high schools of Massachusetts,together with necessary supporting data from Phases I,
II and III.
B. The tentative recommendations and necessary supportingdata were presented to the Study Committee, the Education
Conference Board, the Teacher Advisory Committee andother individuals in Massachusetts and elsewhere forcomments and reactions.
C. The Director of the Study and the staff for the Studyprepared the final report.
D. The final report has been presented to the Study Committee
and to the Advisory Council on Education and plans re-viewed for its implementation.
General Information
Table 1 indicates that 251 or 82.3 percent of the 305 public high
schools returned the initial school questionnaire.
Table 1
DISTRIBUTION OF SCHOOLS RETURNING INITIAL SCHOOL QUESTIONNAIRE
Type of School Number of Schools*Number & Percent
Returning Questionnaire**No.
Regular High School 204 177 86.7
Regional High School
17
42 39 92.8
Vocational-Technical& Trade 50 26 52.0
Regional Vocational-Technical 9 9 100.0
Total 305 251 82.3
*As of October 1, 1969**As of June 15, 1970
-1 CA
1==11i1
- 12 -
Table 2 shows the number of parents, principals, superintendents,teachers, and students in the 33 representative schools who were given andwho returned the questionnaire. Five different questionnaires were given,one for each group, i.e. parents, principals, superintendents, teachers,and students. The questionnaires were given to all of the principals,superintendents, and teachers and to 10 percent samples of the parents andstudents. As Table 2 indicates, the questionnaires were returned by 1106or 37.2 percent of the parents, by 33 or 100.0 percent of the principals,by 27 or 81.8 percent of the superintendents, by 1821 or 77.1 percent of theteachers, and by 2748 or 92.4 percent of the students.
Table 2
ifNUMBER OF PARENTS, PRINCIPALS, SUPERINTENDENTS, TEACHERS AND STUDENTS
IN 33 REPRESENTATIVE SCHOOLS RETURNING QUESTIONNAIRES
Number GivenQuestionnaire
Number ReturningQuestionnaire
Percent ReturningQuestionnaire
Parents 2972 1106 37.2
Principals 33 33 100.0
Superintendents 33 27 81.8
Teachers 2362 1821 77.1
Students 2972 2748 92.4
In considering education at the high school level in Massachusettsit is important to note that most of the students are currently enrolled inregular and regional high schools and relatively few in vocational-technicaland trade and regional vocational-technical high schools. As Table 3indicates, 235,404 students, or 94.3 percent of the total of 249,724 in the251 schools were enrolled in 177 regular and 39 regional high schools. Theremainder, a total of 14,320 students, or 5.7 percent were in 26 vocational-technical and trade schools and in nine regional vocational-technical schools.
Data reported by the Division of Research and Development,Massachusetts Department of Education, indicate there were a total of 319,181students enrolled in grades 9-12 and postgraduate on October 1, 1969.* In
this Study, grade 9 was not included in enrollment and other data unless itwas a part of the high school which submitted the report.
*Facts About Education in Massachusetts, Division of Research and Development,Massachusetts Department of EdAmtion, February, 1970.
evel,
- 13 -
Table 3
ENROLLMENT IN 251 PUBLIC SCHOOLS RETURNING INITTAL QUESTIONNAIRE*
Grades 9 - 12, Special and Postgraduate
Type of School
.....
Number of Schools Enrollment
Regular 177 204,492
Regional 39 30,912
Vocational-Technical and Trade 26 9,621
Regional Vocational-Technical 9 4,699
Total 251 249,724
*As of October 1, 1969
The number of graduates in 1969 from the 251 schools is reported
in Table 4.
Table 4
NUMBFP OF GRADUATES IN 1969 FROM 251 HIGH SCHOOLSBY SEX AND TYPE OF SCHOOL
Number Boys GirlsType of School of Schools No. % No. % Total
Regular 177 23378 48.3 25009 51.7 48387
Regional 39 2970 48.6 3146 51.4 6116
Vocational-Technical andTrade 26 2084 79.6 534 20.4 2618
Regional Vocational-Technical 9 566 96.8 19 3.2 585
Total 251 28998 50.3 28708 49.7 57706
1 11
- 14 -
The grade levels included in 246 of the 251 high schools areindicated in Table 5. A total of 127 or 51.6 percent of the schoolsincluded grades 9-12 and 65 or 26.4 percent included grades 10-12.
Nearly all of the 237 high schools, a total of 222 or 93.7percent reported, as Table 6 shows, that they operated on the single sessionplan. Eight, or 3.4 percent, used double sessions
Table 5
GRADE LEVELS INCLUDED IN 246 OF THE 251 HIGH SCHOOLS BYTYPE OF SCHOOL
Grade Levels RegularNo. %
9-12 86 49.1
1f1-12 59 33.8
7-12 23 13.1
Other 7 4.0
T(ital
Reporting 175 100.0
N' Response 2
Total
--LEEE422L21201Voc.-Tech.
Regional & TradeRegional
Voc.-Tech.No. % No. % No. %
20 51.3 14 58.3 7 87.5 127 51.6
2 5.1 4 16.7 65 26.4
16 41.0 39 15.9
1 2.6 6 25.0 1 12.5 15 6.1
39 100.0 24 100.0 8 100.0 246 100.0
2 1 5
/Ifr.e If
---11111.
- 15 -
Table 6
TYPES OF SCHEDULE SESSIONS USED BY 237 OFSCHOOLS BY TYPE OF SCHOOL
THE 251 HIGH
Type ofSession
Type of School
Total2211123 RegionalVoc.-Tech.& Trade
RegionalVoc. Tech.
No. 9; No. 91 No. 9; No. % No. 96
Single
Staggered
Double
Other
TotalReporting
No Response
155
4
7
166
11
93.4
2.4
4.2
100.0
35
2
1
1
39
89.7
5.1
2.6
2.6
100.0
24
24
2
100.0
100.0
8
8
1
100.0
100.0
222
6
8
1
237
14
93.7
2.5
3.4
.4
100.0
Chapter 2
SIGNIFICANT FINDING',
Administrators and teachers believe their schools are makingexcellent contributions to the education provided the students. Theadministrators and teachers were trying promising changes designed tofurther improve the schools and they reported many additional ways toimprove them, given the needed resources. These general conclusions arebased on an analysis of data gathered from 251 schools* and from addi-tional information and opinions obtained from questionnaires," inter-views, and observations in 33 sample schools.
This chapter is concerned with reporting some of the significantfindings revealed by an analysis of the data in the instrument completedby the 251 schools, including the 33 sample schools. Chapter 3 reportsother significant findings obtained from questionnaires completed byparents, administrators, teachers, and students, from interviews withadministrators, teachers, and students, and trom observations in theschools by consultants. The various sections of the chapter are pre-sented in the order in which they appear in the initial school question-naire except that "Section A:General Information" has been incliided inthe preceding chapter.
Institutional Objectives and Philosophy
A total of 238 high schools, or 45 percent of the 251, reportedthey have a written statement of objectives and philosophy which wasformulated during the past five years. Of the 251 schools, 143 or 57percent indicated they wore presently re-studying the statement.
Teachers and administrators were primarily involved in theformulation of statements of objectives and philosophy, as Table 7 indi-cates, with much less participation by school committees, parents, andstudents.
The number and percentage of schools which assigned differentdegrees of importance to 10 educational purphses'are reported in Table8. The 10 purposes aro froquontly implied in statements of objectivesand philosophy.
*A copy of the questionnaire is in Appendix A, page 2h2.
"Copies of the questionnaires are in Chapter 3.
- 17 -
Table 7
PARTICIPANTS INVOLVED IN THE FORMULATION OF THE sCHOOL'S SIAIEMENk
OF OBJECTIVES AND PHILOSOPHY
Number and Percentage of Schools in WhichVarious Participants Were Involved
Type of School Adm. Teachers School Com. Parents StudentsNo.
NR
No. % No. % No % No. % = No.
Regular 159 89,8 165 43.2 52 29.4 13 7.3 28 15.8 S 2.8
Regional 34 87.2 36 92.3 22 56.4 i 12.8 7 17.4' 2 5.1'
Vocational-Technical &Trade 17 65.4 13 5n.c, 5 19.2 2 7.7 5 19.2
Regional Voca-tional-Tech. 6 ot.7 4 44.4 3 33,3 33.3
Total 216 86.1 218 86.8 82 32.7 18 7.2 37 14.7 15 5.0
It will be noted that 722 schools, or 88.4 percent, reported
---- that _preparation for responsible participating citizenship was considered
either very important- or important in their statement of philosophy. In
actual practice 214 schools, or 85.3 percent indicated such preparaton
was either very important or important.
Table 9 shows the comparative rank-order of importanre assioned
a "very important' rating to these 10 purposes by ctnools, parents, and
students. One important difference in this ranking was that parents
assigned the highest, importance tc the development of acceptable comoeten-
cies, skills, or appreciation in moral and ethical behavior whereas the
schools estimated this to be the lowest expectation of members of the
community. Preparation for college was given the highest ranking .n
Importance by the schii:.ls in actual Practice and in community expectations,
the second highest ranking by the students, and the fifth highest ranking
by parents and in the schools' Statement of philosophy.
et
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Table 9
COMPARATIVE. RANK-ORDER OF IMPORTANCE OF
EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES*
Purposes
Ranking by 251 Schools
Ranking by
1106 Parents
Ranking by
2748 Students
In School's
In Actual
Statement of
Practice
Philosophy
in School
In Community
E,Tectations
Preparation for college
Preparation for employment
Preparation for leisure time
5 6
In
10
1 3 y
3
In
1()
Preparation for changing world
77
65
(,/Preparation for responsible
participating citizenship
12
24
Development of an understanding
of our cultural heritage
87
79
ca
Education for international
understanding
99
8b
8
Development of acceptable
competencies, skills,
understandings and/or
appreciation in:
Moral & ethical behavior
23
10
17
Human relations
45
52
3
Physical b mental health
34
46
4
*1 - Very
important
2 - Important
3 - Less important
NR - No response
- 20 -
Subject Areas
Extensive data were collected concerning each subject area. Thedata clearly show many changes and innovations are underway in a largenumber of schools. While space does not permit the presentation of allof the data some of the most significant items follow.
The median professional staff-student ratios reported in the251 schools in the various subject areas are indicated in Table 10. Agreat range will be noted of frbm a median of one full-time professionalstaff member per 100 or fewer students in Agriculture, Distributive Edu-cation, Foreign Languages, Home Economics, In ustrial Arts, Trades andIndustry and in most schools in English to 1:2 6 or more in PhysicalEducation and in a few schools in Music.
The percentages of the schools of'fer'ing special programs insubject areas are shown in Table 11. The i idence of the special pro-grams indicates an effort to individualize instruction. This seems tobe particularly true for those who need remedial instruction and forthose who would profit from honors programs.
The most significant changes and revisiops reported by 66*representative schools in subject-matter content during the past fiveyears seemed to be related directly to improvements in comprehensiveness,quality, and relevance. For example, increased comprehensiveness wasbeing sought through changes in the subject-matter offered the non-college bound; improved quality through such "new" courses as BSCS andPSSC in Science and Data Processing in Business Education; and relevancethrough the study of pollution and drugs in Science, linguistics andcontemporary literature in English, and intensified office practice inBusiness Education.
The most significant changes and revisions reported by 66schools in the instructional materials used during the past five yearscenter on the increased use of audio-visual aids. For example, 55 ofthe 66 schools, or 83.3 percent cited the increased use of such aids inEnglish as the most significant change. Other changes in instructionalmaterials, in one or more subjects, which were mentioned frequentlyincluded the increased use of paperbacks, community resources, supple-mentary materials, laboratory equipment, and the adoption of new text-books. Since the changes in subject-matter appear to be related directlyto increased comprehensiveness, quality, and relevance it follows thatthe changes in instructional materials should have the same relationship.The emphases seemed to be, therefore, on the use of materials whfcphpermit in-depth study, which was current and up-to-date, which was gearedto varying ability levels, and which was interesting and relevant.
*The 66 included the 33 sample schools and 33 alternate schools. Theresponses to some of the items in the initial questionnaire completedby the alternate schools were checked for comparability with theresponses from the 33 sample schools.
110QN. -I
Table 10
MEDIAN PROFESSIONAL STAFF (FTE) - STUDENT RATIOS* IN
SUBJECT AREAS
Type of School
No. of
Bus.
Dr.
For.
H.
Soc. T.&
Schools Agr. Art
Ed. D.E. Ed. Eng. Lang. Health Ec.I.A.
Math.Music P.E. Sci.
St.
I.
Regular
'177
21
12
11
41
12
49
22
1
Regional
39
12
21
21
13
11
26
71
21
Vocational-Technical
and Trade
26
12
11
11
15
11
11
10
12
1
Regional Vocational-
Technical
91
12
210
72
31
*1 - the equivalent of one full-time professional
staff member per 100
computing ratios the schools which did not respond were
excluded.
or
fer
etude
ts...-
In
2101 - 125
-t7.D
3 - 126 - 150
4 - 151 - 175
5 - 176 - 200
6 - 201 - 225
7 - 226 - 250
8 - 251 - 275
9 - 276 - 300
10 - 301 or more
1
Table 11
PERCENTAGES OF SCHOOLS OFFERING
SPECIAL PROGRAMS
IN SUBJECT AREAS
Type
of School
No. of
Schools
Special
Programs
Agr.
Arc
Bus.
Ed.
D. E.
Dr. Ed.
For.
English Lang.
Health H. Bc.
I. A.
Math.
Music
P. E.
Sci.
Soc.
St.
T.&
Regular
177
Remedial
0.5
4.5
12.4
0.5
6.2
50.2
11.2
2.2
3.3
7.9
36.7
6.2
21.5
5.1
12.4
1.6
Special
9.0
9.6
1.6
6.2
19.2
3.9
6.1
16.9
14.1
7.9
6.7
14.7
2.8
6.7
1.6
Work Study
0.5
12.9
28.2
15.8
6.2
23.1
4.4
3.9
8.4
20.3
10.1
8.4
7.)
7.3
12.9
7.9
Honors
12.9
5.6
2.2
2.2
51.4
29.7
0.5
4.5
3.3
58.1
7.3
5.1
42.0
36.1
Adv. Placement
1.1
11.8
6.7
2.2
28.8
16.8
0.5
1.6
3.9
38.4
9.6
3.4
22.7
21.4
0.5
Other
0.5
24.8
18.0
5.6
8.4
46.8
28.0
7.8
19.7
20.3
30.5
21.4
17.6
35.8
24.8
4.5
NR
97.7
56.5
46.8
77.9
79.6
14.1
43.8
83.7
62.1
53.1
20.3
59.8
56.2
31.2
35.5
88.1
Regional
39
Remedial
2.5
10.2
12.8
5.1
46.1
5.1
5.2
5.2
35.9
7.6
15.3
10.2
17.9
Special
2.5
15.3
10.2
2.5
10.2
12.8
5.1
2.5
10.5
13.1
2.5
2.5
7.6
7.6
7.6
2.5
Work Study
2.5
7.6
28.2
7.6
5.1
2,.0
7.6
7.8
18.4
7.6
7.6
2.5
5.1
12.8
2.5
C.'
e="^
Honors
Adv. Placement
7.6
12.8
2.5
5.1
48.7
17.9
28.2
15.3
5.2
5.2
5.2
43.5
38.4
5.1
12.8
2.5
46.1
17.9
28.2
7.6
2.5
Other
2.5
28.2
15.3
2.5
38.4
28.2
2.5
10.5
21.0
20.5
10.2
12.8
38.4
33.3
5.1
NR
94.8
53.8
56.4
92.3'
84.6
17.9
43.5
94.8
85.7
52.o
30.7
69.2
66.6
%3.0
3L..
92.3
Vocational-
26
Remedial
30.7
3.8
23.0
3.8
3.8
3.8
7.6
26.9
?ethnical
Special
19.2
3.8
3.8
7.6
3.8
19.2
and Trade
Work Study
3.8
11.5
15.3
3.8
11.5
7.6
3.8
15.3
Honors
7.6
7.6
3.8
3.8
11.5
7.6
7.6
3.8
15.3
Adv. Placement
7.6
3.8
3.8
3.8
3.8
7.6
26.9
Other
3.8
11.5
3.8
3.8
11.5
3.8
7.6
15.3
3.8
23.0
19.2
46.1
NR
96.1
80.7
93,3
80.7
100.0
53.8
96.1
88.4
88,4
96.1
57.6
96.1
84.6
69.2
76.9
34.6
Regional
9Remedial
44.4
33.3
11.1
33.3
Vocational-
Special
11.1
33.3
Tecilpical
Work Study
11.1
11.1
22.2
22.2
Honors
11.1
11.1
Adv. Placement
Other
11.1
11.1
11.1
66.6
1,4R
100.0
100.0
100.0
88.8
88.8
55.5
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
66.6
88.8
88.8
100.0
77.7
11.1
I.
- 23 -
One of the most revealing findings is related to the changes or
innovations in instructional and organizational practices which schools
reported have been given major attention in subject areas. As Table 12
indicates, more than half of the schools reported that major attention had
been given to large group instruction in Music and in Physical Education,
to the individualization of instruction in Art, Health, Home Economics, and
Industrial_ Arts, to problem-solving in Science and to continuous progress
in Health. In addition, from one-third to one-half of the schools reported
that major attention had been given to large group instruction in Driver
Education, to small group instruction in Driver Education, Health, Home
Economics, and Industrial Arts, to the individualization of instruction in
Music, to the problem-solving approach in Art, Health, Industrial Arts, and
Mathematics, and to continuous progress in Art, Business Education, Foreign
Languages, Home Economics, Industrial Arts, Mathematics, Music, and Physical
Education.
The schools reported that team teaching, which has received so
much publicity in recent years, was not receiving major attention.
The extent of change or innovation reported in instructional and
organizational practices in English, Science, and Business Education is
presented in Tables 13, 14, and 15. Approximately three - fourths of the
schools, it will be noted from Table 13, have been giving either major or
moderate attention in English to small group instruction and to the
individualization of instruction. Also, from one-third to three-fourths
of the schools reported that such attention has been given to large groupinstruction, independent study, team teaching, the problem-solving approach,
the interdisciplinary approach, and continuous progress. Three - fifths
of the sc:tools reportvi that the use of teacher aides in English had been
rejected, dropped, given nn attention, or not considered applicable.
In Science, as Table 14 indicates, more than three-fourths of
the schools have been giving major or moderate attention to the use of the
problem-solving approach. From one-third to three-fourths have been
giving major or modetate attention to small group instruction, independent
study, the individualization of instruction, the interdisciplinary approach,
and to continuous progress.
Table 15 shows that major or moderate attention has been given
in Business Education to the individualization of instruction by about
two-thirds of the schools. Between one-third and two-thirds have given
such attention to small group instruction, independent study, the problem-
solving approach, and continuous progress.
Table 12
PERCENTAGE OF 251 HIGH SCHOOLS REPORTING CHANGES
OR INNOVATIONS IN
INSTRUCTIONAL AND ORGANIZATIONAL PRACTICES HAVE BEENGIVEN MAJOR ATTENTION
CJChange or Innovation
Agr.
Art %
DU T7------
Ed.
%D.E.
urn
Ed.
%-
For.
Eng. Lang. Health
%Ec. %
I.A.
Math.Music
%P.E.
Sci.
%St.
%%
%%
Large group instruction
22
13
733
12
15
18
17
12
13
52
57
10
16
Small group discussion
231
18
12
33
30
19
46
39
37
16
27
918
28
Independent study
226
79
99
617
14
20
530
18
10
Team teaching
61
34
23
31
817
36
Teacher aides
1I
52
57
71
15
46
11
46
Individualization of
instruction
..., '2
55
27
928
27
20
62
53
53
19
33
14
15
14
Problem-solving
apps oath
248
32
11
21
16
933
31
41
42
11
651
28
Interdisciplinary
approach
110
10
56
73
10
10
1_
67
99
14
Nongraded programs
84
13
4,
312
10
93
24
10
24
Continuous progress
238
35
10
18
30
'
41
51
43
36
34
39
44
20
25
Others
75
33
78
98
54
68
7
3
18 8 3 3
10 13 6 2
19 2
Table 13
PERCENTAGE OF 251 HIGH SCHOOLS REPORTING THE EXTENT TO WHICH ATTENTION HAS BEEN GIVEN TO
INNOVATION IN
INSTOCTIONAL AND ORGANIZATIONAL
PRACTICES
IN ENGLISH
Major
Change or Innovation
Attention
Moddrate
Attention
Being
Considered
Rejected
Dropped
No
Attention
Not
Applicable
NR
%%
%%
%%
%%
/Large group instruction
L2.3 7
22.7
12.7
3.6
4.4
25.5
8.8
-10.0
Small 'group discussion
29.9
47.8
4.4
0.4
0.8
8.3
0.8
7.6
Independent study
9.1
43.9
15.1
0.4
0.4
16.8
5.2
9.1
Team teaching
3.6
33.0
17.5
2.8
4.0
22.7
6.4
10.0
C,..) Teacher aides
e.Individualization of
6.8
8.0
9.6
2.4
2.4
46.6
11.1
13.1
1 N o
instruction
26.7
44.2
9.2
9.2
3.1
7.6
Problem-solving approach
16.0
33.9
7.1
0 .4
16.3
16.3
10.0
Interdisciplinary
approach
7.2
42.2
16.3
0.8
1.6
16.0
5.6
10.3
Nongraded programs
4.0
11.2
15.1
2.0
0.8
40.2
16.3
10.4
Continuous progress
30.3
12.0
9.6
0.4
22.7
9.1
15.9
Others
7.1
5.9
5.9
1.5
1.2
Table 14
PERCENTAGE OF 250 HIGH SCHOOLS REPORTING THE EXTENT TO WHICH ATTENTION HAS
BEEN GIVEN TO CHANGE OR INNOVATION IN INSTRUCTIONAL AND ORGANIZATIONAL PRACTICES IN SCIENCE
Major
Change or Innovation
Attention
Moderate
Attention
Being
Considered
Rejected
Dropped
No
Attention
Not
Applicable
NR
Large group instruction
9.6
18.0
11.2
4.0
4.8
32.8
9.6
10.0
Small group discussion
18.4
37.6
10.0
0.4
1.2
16.8
6.4
9.2
C..)
%-1 Independent study
7.6
45.2
11.2
0.8
1.6
19.2
5.2
9.2
Team teaching
3.2
20.0
16.8
3.6
5.2
31.6
8.8
10.8
Teacher aides
4.0
8.0
22.0
2.4
1.2
38.8
12.4
11.2
Individualization of
instruction
14.8
43.6
9.6
0.8
17.2
4.8
9.2
Problem-solving approach
51.6
28.4
2.8
0.4
6.0
1.6
9.2
Interdisciplinary
approach
8.8
28.8
12.0
0.4
0.4
33.2
4.8
11.6
Nongraded programs
2.0
7.6
6.8
0.8
52.4
19.6
10.8
Continuous progress
20.0
15.6
4.4
32.8
9.2
18.0
Others
8.0
5.2
0.4
0.4
2.0
1.2
Table 15
PERCENTAGE OF 251 HIGH SCHOOLS REPORTING THE EXTENT
TO WHICH ATTENTION HAS BEEN GIVEN
TO CHANGE OR INNOVATION IN INSTRUCTIONAL ANDORGANIZATIONAL PRACTICES IN BUSINESS
ZDLICATION
Major
Change or Innovation
Attention
Moderate
Attention
Being
Considered
Rejected
Dropped
No
Attention
Not
Applicable
NR
Large group instruction
12.8
8.4
5.6
r1.9
1.2
25.9
23.1
21.1
Small group discussion
17.5
29.9
3.6./1"
12.4
14.3
22.3
Independent study
7.2
25.9
8.0
0.4
19.5
17.5
21.5
Team teaching
0.8
10.8
15.5
1.2
1.2
34.3
-15.1
21.1
CJ Teacher aides
5.2
6.8
10.4
0.8
1.6
35.0
18.3
21.9
'Coq
Individualization of
instruction
27.5
38.2
2.4
8.0
3.2
20.7
Problem-solving approach
31.9
27.1
3.6
6.4
9.1
21.9
Interdisciplinary
approach
10.4
21.5
9.2
0.4
17.5
16.3
24.7
Nongraded programs
3.6
6.8
5.2
0.4
31.1
30.2
22.7
Continuous progress
34.7
12.4
5.2
11.9
10.3
25.5
Others
5.1
5.5
1.9
0.4
0.4
1.5
- 28 -
Taking into consideratipn the entire program A the school fromone-half to nine-tenths pf the 251 high schools assessyd the effectiveness
of various provisions for articulation as either "Very eff,ecti4e" or
"Effective." This is reported in Table 16. Whey, however, such diversesubject areas as English, Science, and Business Edflication are consideredthe picture changed somewhat. In English, as Tabl4 17 indicates, 79 ofthe 177 regular high schools, or 44.6 percent, stated that articulationwith postsecondary educational institutions was "Ineffective" or "Na--
provisions"; 67, or 37.9 percent indicated that articulationswifh tiLederschools was likewise "Ineffective" or "No provisions."
In Science, a "Very effective" or "Effective" ranking varied, as
Table 18 shows, from less than one-fifth for articulation with- occupationsfollowing school in regional high schools to more than nine-tenths forarticulation within the Science departments of the same schools.
Many of the vocational-technical and trade and regional vocationaltechnical schools did not respond to the question concerning the effective-ness of provisions fot articulation in Business Education. It is assumed
that all or most of the non-responding schools did not offer this subject.
In the regular and regional schools approximately two-thirds reported that
provisions for articulation with occupations following school was either"Very effective" or "Effective." These and other data will be found inTable 19.
29
Tahle 16
E.FFKIIVENE.55 OF PROVISIONS revR ARTIOLATTON oF ENTIRE FSZCLRAI4 Olke, THE SC11C1
Type of School ofNumberSchools Provisions
EffectiveNo.
VeryEffectiveNo. %
In-
effectiveNo
ProvisionsNot Ap-
2115.1161e
No.NR
% No. % No. % No. %
Regulai 177 With feeder schools 43 24.3 99 55.9 11 6.2 1 0.6 11 6.2 12 6.8
Within s dept. ofthe school 35 48.0 77 43.5 1 0.6 2 1.1 12 6.8
Within dept. ofthe high Schoolsin the district 11 6.2 33 18.6 4 2.3 9 5.1 83 46.9 37 20.9
Among depts. inthe school 43 24.3 111 62.7 6 3.4 4 2.3 2 1.1 11 6.2
With postsecondaryeducationalinstitutions 56 31.6 88 49.8 7 4.0 8 4.5 S 2.8 13 7.3
With occupationsfollowing school 21 11.9 102 57.6 21 11.9 16 9.0 2 1,1 IS 8.5
Regional 39 With feeder schools 4 10.3 18 46.2 10 25.5 1 2.6 2 3.1 4 10.3
Within a dept. ofthe school 20 51.3 14 35.8 1 2.6 4 10.3
Within a dept. ofthe high schoolsin the district 5 12.8 6 15.4 1 2.6 18 46.2 9 23.0
Among depts. inthe school 8 20.5 20 51.3 5 12.8 2 5.1 10.3
With postsecondaryeducationalinstitutions 4 10.3 25 64.0 5 12.8 1 2.6 4 10.3
With occupationsfollowing school 20 51.3 5 12.8 9 23.0 1 2.6 4 10.3
Vocational-Technical andTrade 26 With feeder schools 3 11.5 13 50.0 3 11.5 2 7.7 5 19.3
Within a dept. ofthe school 10 38.5 11 42.3 1 1.8 4 15.4
Within dept. ofthe high schoolsin the district 10 38.5 1 3.8 10 38.5 5 19.3
Among depts. inthe school 10 38.5 9 34.6 1 3.8 2 7.7 4 15.4
With postsecondaryeducationalinstitutions 1 3.8 12 46.1 6 23.1 2 7.7 5 19.3
With occupationsfollowing school IS 57.7 5 19.3 1 t.i 1 3.8 4 15.4
Regional Voca-tional-Technical 9 With feeder schools 2 22.2 5 55.6 2 22.2
Within a dept. ofthe school 5 55.6 2 22.2 2 22.2
Within a dept. ofthe high schoolsin the district 3 33.3 I 11.1 3 33.3 2 22.2
Among depts. inthe school 5 455.6 2 22.2 2 22.2
With postsecondaryeducationalinstitutions 7 77.8 2 22.2
With occupationsfollowing school 6 66.7 1 11.1 2 22.2
Table 17
EFFECTIVENESS OF PROVISIONS FOR ARTICULATION IN ENGLISH
NumberType of School of Shools
Provisionsfor Art Itt.lat Ion
Number and Percentage of SchoolsVery
RfIective EffectiveIn-
effectiveNo
ProvisionsNot Ap-
plicable NRNo. % No. X No.
--.___% No. % No. % No. %
Regular 177 With feeder schools 15 8.5 74 41.8 41 23.1 26 14.7 10 5.7 11 6.2
Within dept. ofthe school 90 50.9 68 38.4 2.3 3 1.7 2 1.0 10 5.7
Within dept. ofthe high schoolsin the distract 8 4.5 28 13.0 ad 10.2 24 13.6 82 46.3 17 9.6
Among depts. inthe school 18 10.2 91 51.4 35 19.8 20 11.3 2 1.1 11 6.2
With postsecondaryeducationalinstitutions 15 8.5 60 33.9 24 13.6 55 31.0 10 5.7 13 7.3
With occupationsfollowing school 6 3.4 45 25.4 31 17.5 SS 31.1 27 15.3 13 7.3
Regional 39 With feeder schools 3 7.7 11 28.2 12 30.8 9 23.1 2 5.1 2 5.1
Within a dept. ofthe school 19 48.7 17 43.6 1 2.6 2 5.1
Within a dept. ofthe high schoolsin the district 1 2.t 3 7.7 4 10.3 2 5.1 27 69.2 2 5
Among depts. inthe school 4 10.3 21 53.9 10 25.6 2 5.1 2 5.1
With postsecondaryeducationalinstitutions 2 5.1 9 23.1 12 30.8 12 30.8 2 5.1 2 5.1
With occupationsfollowing school 1 2.6 3 7.7 10 25.6 17 43.6 6 15.4 2 5.1
Vocational-Technicil andTrade 26 With feeder schools 8 30.8 5 19.2 8 30.8 3 11.5 2 7.7
Within a dept. ofthe school 11 42.3 9 34.6 2 7.7 2 7.7 2 7.7
Within a dept. ofthe high schoolsI. Loy district 1 3.9 6 23.0 2 7.7 4 15.4 10 38.5 11.5
Among depts. in theschool 6 23.0 12 46.2 2 7.7 1 3.9 5 19.2
With postsecondaryeducationalInstitutions 2 7.7 6 23.1 2 7.7 9 2.4.6 4 15.4 3 11.5
With occupationsfollowing school 11 42.3 8 30.8 5 19.2 2 7.7
Regional Voca-tional-Technical 9 With feeder schools 2 22.2 1 11.1 1 11.1 5 55.6
Within dept. ofthe school 2 22.2 2 22.2 1 11.1 4 44.5
With,. . dept. ofthe high schoolsin thedistract 1 11.1 1 11.1 1 11.1 1 11.1 1 11.1 4 44.5
Among depts. inthe school 1 11.1 2 22.2 1 11.1 5 55.6
With postsecondaryeducationalinstitutions 2 22.2 1 11.1 1 11.1 5 55.6
With occupation,following school 2 22.2 1 11.1 1 11.1 5 55.6
- 31 -
Table 18
liFFF'TIVEN&SS OF PROVISIONS FOR ARTICULATION
Number and
IN SCIENCE
Portents e 3? Schools
Type of SchoolNumb's
of SchoolsProvisions
for Articulation
VeryEffective Effectiv,
No. %
In-,
latesli.w,No. %
No Not ApProvisions plicable
No. % tlo, 0 No. % No.
Regular 177 With feeder schools
Within a dept. of
15 8.5 65 41 30 IF., IS 8.5 I. r- 2
the school 81 4, 4 76 42 . 5 2.8 4 2.3 3 1.7 4.5
Within a dept. ofthe high schoolsin the district 4 5.1 34 8 4 5 26 14.7 91 'Y. 4 5.1
Among depts. inthe school
With postsecondaryeducational
16 9.J 99 5e.,, 25 .4.1 23 1 a, 5 2.8 5.1
institutions 14 '.9 72 4 ' 23 13 . 51 2A.8 6 3.4 ,1
With occupationsfollowing school 4 2.3 38 21 5 35 44.7 66 1' 3 20 11.3 14
Regional 39 With feeder schools 12 30.8 14 35.8 7 18.0 1 2.6 5 12.8
With a dept. ofthe school 19 48.7 18 46.2 2 S.1
Within dept. o:the high schoolsin the district 3 7.7 3 7.7 1 2.6 1 2..,; 28 '1.7 7,7
Among depts. inthe School 2 5.1 22 8 20.5 5 5.I
With postsecondaryeducationalinstitutions 16 41.0 5 12.8 12 30.8 3 ' 7 3 7.1
With occupation;following school 7 17.9 r--21.1 15 38.5 5 12.8
Technical andTrade 26 With feeder 4,hnois .1.S 5 19.2 1 3.9 4 15.4 5 19.2 8 10.9
Within a dept. ofthe school 7 26.9 7 26.9 2 7,7 1 3.9 2 26.9
Within a dept. ofthe high schoolsin the district 1 3.9 6 23.0 2 '.7 3 11.5 6 2I.! 8 30,8
Among depts. inthe school 7 26.9 7 26.9 1 3.9 1.7 2 7.7 7 26.9
With postsecondaryeducationalinstitutions 3 11.5 4 15.4 1 3.9 6 23.1 5 19 2 7 26.9
With occupationsfollowing school 7 26.9 7 26.9 1 3.9 3 11.5 1 26.9
Regions! Voca-tional- Technical 9 With feeder schools
Within a dept. of
3 33.3 2 22.2 4 44.=,,
the school 2 22.2 3 33.3 4 44.c
Within a dept. ofthe high schoolsIn the district 2 22.2 1 11.1 2 22.2 4 44.5
Among depts. inthe school 2 22.2 3 33.3 4 44
With postsecondaryeducationalinstitutions 4 44.4 1 il.1 4 44.
With occupationsfollowing school 2 22.4 3 33.3 U. 4 44.5
:,*.;-,:tshr. fw A1.-4.*4 '4 04- ts":*.
tust t* S`t , t s . ort b.ff i 1..1.4e st, t , p, .cfst,141 ftit
of `s,.hoo: of hchorla for Art!, ,J1t u. 11 II hr. h0
Wygul sr ry:t fsseli*Ir *01,w:is :4
Roo I -snal
sysfirwtal-Techntcsi -nt!'rad*
Wog. ohs so, a -t nalTe I", n
40: thn dtptch on I 441 4 1 h
olthl.n dept. of*0* h 27.0 chew- I*-r thy, .stzt- r,,a .45 .4; 8 :' Yt%
Am nix; drill ththy 4 '4 t. 1 4; x4
*8th pore t wcorwo.wr svdt,CAt I mamot t tut tont 4 .4,Fs 40 : 84
441,1h,01 -s o 44 4 1 , o 4 lc ft,
8,4 bitr, wed** ii '80 ' 4 4 .1
IR 5 148', -sfthe *4 0 41
sf.'htn a art the it 4401 3,8
.0 rhy distf-tkss,h 1 devt*. o
rh:44-81
with p4441**4 ,4.3,.. -At on.411 8,8 !..4414
1 I . "Of 1
so vw-drt ,4
of 11 a 41; . 'n
si to., 41.;.1.tw 44?'44,14.14 the cll.'s
484.: '
1-,e -
IS' 8 , 4,1 *4, ,
etl,..4 A 44 1.t, ..
44. ,h ,.;f .1 41-11,-; t4
si ri 4,4,14,- t, .
Al. es 144,,the
Is10* 0 : 80
,0 the 1.ttAainr,4 4.8 is
004,1
4i th p4,*t *44 444..141u-yt-01
ins t 4,1
With occupst inns1,11 Inet
4
4 4 : 4
a 34 I
4 1 I
4. I
:1 4;
4 -8.
4 4i*
4. 4
- '33 -
The procedures used by the tt representative schools in evalu-
ating the various aspects of instruction in the subject areas focus, in
subject area content and student achievement on written tests; in student
attitudes and motivation on teacher observations, student reactions, and
discussion; and in instructional practices or strategies on teacher eval-
uations. In addition, but with less frequency, a wide variety of pro-
\ cedures were cited including, in subject area content, oral tests, College
Mtrance F.kamin ion Board tests, and conferences with students; in
student act;ieverent, sIocial student projects, conferences with students,
and laboratory work; in student attitudes and motivation, conferences with
students and class oarticipation; and in instructional practices or stra-
tegies, independent study.
Approximately half of the 2'1 ,chools reported they administered
group intelligence, standardized achievement, and liege entrance tests
in one or more grades. About one-third administeried multiple aptitudd
batteries and reading tests at some point in the high school program.
lesser number administered interest inventories, personality or adjust-
ment inventories, or special aptitude tests.
A-.)roximatelv half of the 251 schools indicated they "Seldom"
administered individual intelligence, projective personality, speech, or
s;)eci,a1 a-)titudo tects. "'ore tan half said they administered individual
reading tests.
The procedures used in evaluation are, of course, related to
the standards or expectations set by the teachers. Fifty percent of the
1,1oe parent respondents indicated the standards were "About right," 22
percent said they were 'Much too "difficiflt' or "somewhat difficult,"
and 21 )orcent indicat4id they were 'Somewhat easy" or "Much too easy."
Fifty-two percent of the student respondents said the standards were
'About right,' 3d percent reported they were "Much too difficult" or
"- omc'what difficult, and nine percent indicated they were "Somewhat easy,"
or 'Much too ease.
Sixty -three rccnt the teachers characterized the academic
'ItAedards of their schools as 'Very Positive' or 'Positive,'' 24 percent
wa.ie '';eutral' (nri-or good tier pocIrl, and PI percent reported 'Negative"
or 'Very Negative.
A ;uhstanti.il ruinhor reoorted they were increasingly
,nc,,ura14.; and tchin,; studentr, to eva4uite th.'r own prog,ePss.
- 34 7
e.'Table 20 includes the number of schools offering "new"
subjects. BSCS Biology was, it will be noted, orfered in 161 or nearlytwo-thirds of the schools, and PSSC Physic in 123 or about half of theschools.. l.
- .
A "Secon4ary School Survey," in l96 , by the Research andDevelopment Division of the Massachusetts Dep rtment of Education reportedthat "Most schools use a credit system to label graduation requirements,rather than units. The majority of high schools require 80 credits, with90 being the next most frequently reported number. Twenty credits are_needed for promotion to senior high school from junior high school.
"High schools using a unit system most frequently reported 16units required for graduation with 17 or 18 units mehtioned less frequent-ly. Junior high schocils operating on the unit system usually require 3or 4 units for promotion.
"Average course requirements for grae -*ion in the Business,College Preparatory, and General programs are i 24/below:
Business
Business Ed. 2
English 3
Foreign Lang.
Physical Ed. 3
Mathematics 1
Science 1
Social Studies 2
,College General
3 3
1
3 3
2 1
1 1
2 2"*
*Secondary School ;-.4rvey, Division of Research and Development, MassachusettsDepartment of Education, 1969
Table 20
NUMBER OF SCHOOLS OFFERING "NEW"
SUBJECTS
"New" Subjects
Offered
eof High School
Regular
NRegional
Voc.-Tech.
& Trade
(N = 26)
Regional
Voc.-Tech.
(N = 9)
Total
= 251)
BSCS Biology
131
29
1161
PSSC Physics
100
21
11
123
CHEM Study Chemistry
90
16
106
CBA Chemistry
28
634
SMSG Mathematics
64
15
79
UICSM Mathematics
84
12
ECSP Physical Science
30
939
SSSP Physical Science
10
212
Humanities
53
ta 1
165
Other
59
13
23
77
No Response
15
522
547
- 36 -
The obstacles to change and improvement in one or more of 15subject areas that were reported by 66 re,resentative schools are listedin Table 21. Inadequate space was cited 7-s an obstacle in 60 percent ofthe schools in Science, 50 percent in Physical Education, 45 percent inSocial Studies, 44 percent in Art, 41 pervert in English, 36 percent inHome Economics, 36 percent in Industrial Arts, 32 percent in Mathematics,and 27 percent in Music. The shortage of funds was mentioned as anobstacle by 35 percent of the schools in Social Studies, 32 percent inEnglish, 29 percent in Art, 27 percent in Foreign Languages, and 26 percentin Business Education. The rigid and inflexible schedule was cited as anobstacle in 39 percent of the schools in Music, 23 percent in Home Economics,20 percent in'Physical Education, 17 percent in Mathematics, 15 percentin Science, Z5 percent in Art, and 15 pele.ent in Driver Education.
Table 22 shows that 179, or 71 percent, of the 251 high schoolsreported 'that a student could study in any one year a combination ofseven subjects,
According to Dr. James B. Conant "...a widely comprehensivehigh school should as a minimum meet the following five criteria:
"1. Provide instruction in calculus;
"2. Provide instruction in a modern foreign language for four years;
"3. Arrange the schedule so that a'student may study in any one yearEnglish, mathematics, science, a foreign language, social studies,physical education, art or music;
"4. Provide one or more advanced placement courses;
uc Have enough English teachers so that 'the average pupil load'is 120 or less. (I stand by my recommendation in The AmericanHigh School Today that the student load should be no more than100, as I make clear later.)"*
More than one-third of the 251 high schools reported, as Table 23indicates, that the time availabl' to the p7incipa and the school stafffor effecting change and innovation in the improvement of the curriculumand instruction was "Inadequate." Nearly one-fifth reported the resourcesneeded to effect improvements were "Inadequate." However, almost nine-tenths of the schools said the degree of responsibility which the principaland school staff had for effecting change was either "Very adequate" or"Adequate" and approximately the same number reported their authority waslikewise "Very adequate" or "Adequate."
*Conant, James Bryant, The Comprehensive Hiyh School, McGraw-Hill HookCompany, 1967, pages 16-17.
Table 21
PERCENTAGE OF 66 REPRESENTATIVESCHOOLS REPORTING OBSTACLES
TO CHANGE AND IMPROVEMENT
IN ONE OR WIRE OF 15 SUBJECTAREAS
Obstacles
Art
Bus.
Ed.
D.
Dr.
E.
Ed.
Eng.
For.
Lang.
H.
Health Ec.
I.A.
Math.
Music
P.E.
Sci.
Soc.
St.
%T.&
%%
%%
%%
%%
%%
%%
%%
Space
44
,45
821
41
21
12
36
36
32
27
50
60
45
11
Funds
29
26
21
32
27
69
12
21
15
12
23
35
17
Schedule
15
52
15
910
523
14
17
39
20
15
12
No. of teachers
10
21
612
312
12
89
15
17
14
12
Class size
55
221
17
53
915
211
11
9
,*."::Time-teacher planning
52
818
33
11
515
32
11
23
Teaching materials
and equipment
56
25
610
53
12
5S
911
11
5
Curriculum
95
85
55
39
3
Articulation
32
63
22
29
52
88
Miscellaneous
14
21
10
544
30
618
17
44
20
23
12
38
11
I.
- 38 -
Table 22
NUMBER AND PERCENTAGE OF HIGH SCHOOLS REPORTING THAT A STUDENT COULD STUDYIN ANY ONE YEAR A COMBINATION OF SEVEN SUBJECTS SUCH AS ENGLISH, MATHE-MATICS, SCIENCE, A FOREIGN LANGUAGE:, SOCIAL
EDUCATION, AND ART OR MUSICSTUDIES, PHYSICAL
Type of SchoolNumber
of Schools Yes No NRNo. % No. % No. %
Regular 177 144 81.3 23 13.0 10 5.7
Regional 39 29 74.4 5 12.8 5 12.8
Vocational-Technicaland Trade 25 4 16.0 19 76.0 2 8.0
Regional Vocational-Technical 9 2 22.2 6 66.7 1 11.1
Total 250 179 71.6 53 21.2 18 7.2
'Al)
Table 23
1-)GREE OF RESPONSIBILITY, AUTHORITY, RESOURCES,
AND TIM: WHICH THE PRINCIPAL AND SCHOOL
STAFF
REPORTED THEY HAVE TO EFFECT CHANGE AND
INNOVATION IN THE IMPROVEMENT OF THE
CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION
Type of School
Number
of Schools
Percentase-of
Schools*
Responsibility
Authority
Resources
Time
1 %2 %
3 %NR%
1 %2 %
3 %NR
%1 %
2 %3 %
NR%
1 %2 %
3 %NR%
Regular
177
58
30
48
39
45
88
12
61
18
910
43
38
9
Regional
39
72
15
310
49
36
510
31
41
18
10
13
36
36
15
-
N- 41Vocational-
.4
Technical and
Trade
26
80
12
08
56
36
08
16
44
32
80
56
36
8
Regional Voca-
tional-Technical
978
11
011
78
22
00
56
33
11
022
45
33
0
*
1 - Very adequate
2 - Adequate
3 - Inadequate
NR - No response
- 40 -
Guidance Services
, Approximately two-thirds of the 251 high schools reported thata guidance director administers and coordinates the program of guidanceservices. The responsibilities are carried in one-tenth of the schoolsby the principal and in still a smaller number by individuals or groupssuch as the principal and the guidance director, a guidance committee,the assistant principal, or the principal and the assistant principal.
Table 24 shows that 15 schools had the equivalent of one full-time counselor per 199 or fewer students, 81 of the equivalent of onefull-time counselor per 200-299 students, and 155 of the equivalent ofone full-time counselor per 300 or more students.
Nearly all of the 251 schools reported that the followingguidance functions and services were performed either very effectivelyor effectively: individual counseling, provision of educational andoccupational information, teacher consultation, parent consultation,educational placement, and occupational placement. From two-thirds tofour-fifths indicated the same effectiveness for small group counseling,test administration, involvement in curriculum development, referral tospecialists, cooperation with community agencies, and follow-up studies.Less than one-fifth considered guidance classes as "Very effective" or"Effective."
Practices which would most improve the effectiveness of theguidance program are listed in Table 25. It will be noted that whenpractices which would have a "Signifidant positive effect" or a "Positiveeffect" are considered that 211 of the 251 schools cited "Decrease thenumber of students per counselor," 201 reported "Improved referral sources(e.g., smecialists, community agencies)," 199 "Provide additional clericalhelp," 197 "Strengthen the teachers' role in guidance," and 179 "Moreextensive follow-up after graduation or withdrawal."
The referral sources available to the guidance programs in the251 schools are reported in Table 26. A total of 204, or 81 percent, ofthe schools indicated that a psychologist was available, 166, or 66 per-cent, a psychiatrist, 158, or 63 percent, a speech therapist, 153, or 61percent, a reading clinic, 148, or 59 percent, a social worker, and 107,or 43 percent, an adjustment counselor.
Perhaps the most significant observation concerning Table 27 isthat more than half of the schools did not provide data related to multi-ple aptitude batteries, interest inventories, personality or adjustmentinventories, locally devised tests or inventories, special aptitude tests,tests associated with contests, or employment test batteries. This mayindicate that such tests were not used in many schools. Paper-and-pencilintelligence tests, standardized achievement tests, and tests for collegeentrance were administered in the largest number of schools.
Reading tests were administered "Very frequently" or "Frequently"to individual students in more than half of the schools, as Table 28indicates; individual intelligence tests were administered "Very frequently"or "Frequently" in more than two-fifths of the schools.
Table 24
RATIO OF COCINSELORS TO STUDENTS
......
.1
Ratio
Type of School
Voc.-fech.
Regional
Regular
Regional
& Trade
Voc.-Tech.
Total
No. of schools
No. of schools
No. of schools
No. of schools
No. of schools
The equivalent of 1 full-
time counselor per
199
or fewer students
51
7-,
15
1:200 - 299
54
16
83
81
1:300 - 399
82
18
13
104
'..0
1:400 - 499
25
43
32
1:500 - 599
55
A I-,
1:600 or more
12
3
No response
55
111
Total
177
39
26
9251
Table 25
PRACTICES
PRACTICES WHICH WOULD MOST IMPROVE EFFECTIVENESS OF THE GUIDANCE 4°ROGRAM
(N = 25r)
Neither
Significant
Practices
Positive Effect
Positive
Effect
Positive nor a
Negative Effect
Negative
Effect
NR
No
of Schools
No. of Schools
No. of SchoolS
No. of Schools
No. of Schools
Decrease the no. of students
per counselor
151
60
23
21.5
Have only full-time counselors
82
22
44
598
Strengthen the teachers' role
vin guidance
39
158
32
715
CDProvide additional clerical
help
102
97
34
315
Assign paraprofessionals for
informal work with students
40
94
67
32
18
0
Allocate increased staff time
to ev, ning hours and Saturdays
for closer home-school contacts
25
91
99
17
19
Increased use of testing
17
75
'
111
35
li
Improved records of student's
performance
26
93
110
418
...-
More extensive fu-low-up after
graduation or withdrawal
46
133
58
2
Improved referral resources
e.g., specialists, community
agencies
90
111
32
216
Other
96
22
Table 26
REFERRAL SOURCES AVAILABLE TO THEGUIDANCE PROGRAM
No. of
Psychol-
Psychia-
SoAal
Adjustment
Speech
Reading
Type of School
Schools
ogist
trist
Worker
Counselor
Therapist
Clinic
NR
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
---
Regular
177
149
121
108
80
120
112
7
Regional
39
31
25
23
921
20
3
Vocational-Technical
and Trade
26
18
14
12
14
14
17
4
Regional Vocational-
Technical
96
65
43
41
C/Total
251
204
166
148
107
158
153
15
A
'4,
(4
- 44 -
Table 27
TESTS ADMINISTERED TO GROUPS OF STUDENTS
..
TestsGrades
9 10 11 12 ir?
No. 1 No. q, No. 70 No. No. 1
Paper-and-pencilintelligence tests 23 9.2 78 31.0 123 49.0 61 24.3 49 19.5
Multiple aptitudebatteries 14 5.6 50 19.9 71 28.3 23 9.2 131 52.2
Reading tests 25 10.0 86 34.3 81 32.3 41 16.3 121 48.2
Standardized achievementtest's 55 21.9 94 37.5 110 43.8 75 29.9 100 39.9
Interest inventories 28 11.2 35 13.9 47 18.7 52 20.7 153 61.0
Personality or adjustmentinventories 7 2.8 3 1.2 5 2.0 5 2.0 242 96.4
Locally devised tests orinventories 15 6.0 12 4.8 14 5.6 13 5.2 232 92.4
Special aptitude tests 13 5.2 10 4.0 9 3.5 12 4.8 228 90.8
Tests associated withcontests 42 16.7 2 0.8 3 1.2 23 9.2 200 79.7
Employment test batteries 62 24.7 2 0.8 11 4.4 184 73.3
Tests'for scholarships 47 18.7 5 1.9 84 33.5 4 1.6
Tests for college entrance 142 56.5 2 0.8 22 8.8 138 55.0 101 40.2
Other 7 2.8 3 1.2 9 3.6 4 1.5
- 45 -
Table 28
TESTS ADMINISTERED TO INDIVIDUAL STUDENTS(N = 251)
Test
Frequency of AdministrationVery
Frequently frequently Seldom MR
No % No. % No. % No.
Individual intelligencetests 11 4.4 98 39.0 117 46.6 25 10.0
Projective personalitytests 1 0.4 10 4.0 140 55.8 100 3'4.8
Reading tests 32 12.8 102 40.6 72 28.7 45 17.9
Speech tests 5 2.0 22 8.7 137 54.6 87 34.7
Special aptitude tests,e.g., art, music, etc. 4 1.6 19 7.6 139 55.4 89 35.4
- 4r
Student Withdrawals and ;ducat iorlal and ( ona 1
The perctritao, of students who cnrolld at some ti-ic 1r
lass of 1Q69 whom the school later Llassified a- dropouts is sh,,wn
Table 2Q. A total of 1t3, or f4.Q perL nt, of th 211 schools indicateda dropout range of from 1 -S percent, 3f, or 14.3 per,:ert, a range of fromh-10 percent, 17, or h.8 percent , a rane of from 11-1S perc4nt, and 24,or Q.2 percent, a dropout rand.. of from perr-ent ,r Twelve .
or 4.8 percent, of the schools did rot ;pond.
The educational and occupational intentions et seniors in the251 high schools are reported in Table 30. The median percentage rangesshow that between 36-40 percent of those in regular high schools plannedto attend a four-year college or university. Practically the same number,from 31-35 percent of the seniors in regional high schools, had the sameintentions whereas only 6-10 p ,cent of those in vocational-technical andtrade hint -. schools and 1-5 perc,nt in regirnal vocational- technical highschools had such plans.
While Op median percentage ranges indicated that 11-15 per-cent of the seniors in regular and regional high schools planned to workfollowing graduation from high school, 41-45 percent of those in vocational-technical and trade and 56-6° percent of those in r41)na1 vocational-technical high schools said they had similar plans.
The Division of Research and Devlopmen'., Massachusetts !),p4rt-ment of Fducation, reported follow-up data as lasted
''FOLLOW-UP OF 1,467-4-8
"4-Year College 121.
"2-Year College 154
"Nurses Training"Other Post - Secondary"Military 71?
"Work 2474,
'Other 114 '(
'Facts About Education in Massachusetts Division R*,arch andment, Massachusetts Department of rduciition, Fetruarv, 14-
1
4)t
,44(,"T
1T
,"^
"
,.H
.)14
".''.e%
Ik
IT)44'
1ptlie
1- 1
V1.14,1 1S
"I
111
Table 30
EDUCATIONAL,
ANL) (CC1)PATI0NAL, INTFNTION
(W
Type or Schcol
'o. of Schools
Intentions* and Median
Percentage
56
Ranges7
89
12
34
Reoular
177
36-40
11-15
11-15
1-5
6-10
1-5
6-10
11-15
1-5
-Peaional
VocAtional-Technical
and
34
31-35
11-15
11-15
6-10
6-10
1-5
1-5
11-15
1-5
Trade
egional Vocational-
2o
6-10
6-10
6-10
6-10
21-25
6-10
11-15
41-45
1-5
'Technical
1-5
6-10
11-15
6-10
36-40
6-10
6-10
5b -60
*I
- Attend
-year college or university
2- Attend junior or community college
3- Attend other postsecondary school, e.g.,
business
college or
technical institute
4- Continue education but undecided on type
of school
5- Stop formal education upon graduation
6- Undecided about further education
7- Military service
8- Work
9- Undecided
School Staff and Administration.....-
- -49 -
Twenty-two of the 66 representative schools with enrollments of
500 or fewer had, as Table 31 indicates, an average full-time equivalency
of 1.1 guidance counselors, 0.6 librarians, 0.1 audio-visual specialists,
and so on.
Very few teachers, the 251 schools reported, were assigned to
teach outside their major or minor field of specialization. Eighteen
schools had one teacher in this classification, nine had two, two had three,
two had four, and five had five.
The priorities in importance which principals assigned to various
responsibilities are recorded in Table 32. While leadership in staff
improvement was assigned the highest priority by 95 principals, the
managerial responsibility was given this ranking by 92, and curriculum
development by 84. These same responsibilities consumed most of the time
of principals, as table 33 indicates. Specifically. more than half of
the 202 responding schools said that 31 percent or more of the principals'
time was spent on managerial duties and 21 percent or more on leadership
in staff improvement.Approximately half of the 201 schools responding
to the item concerning percentage of time spent on curriculum development
reported 21 percent or more.
The data in Table 34 show that the 185 schools which responded
to the question concerning the percentage of time spent by the principals'
administrative staff on various responsibilities that more than half
reported 26 percent or more was given to managerial duties and 21 percent
or more to student relations.
Table 35 shows that two-thirds of the schools reported the role
of the principals and their administrative staffs in the preparation of
the budgets for their schools was to "Plan, recommend and defend specific
requests before final decisions are made."
The role of the principal and hs administrative staff in the
selection of certified professional personnel is presented in Table 36.
Three - fourths of the schools reported the principal and his staff "Request
staff allocation, review personnel records, interview applicants, and
recommend for assignment the applicants considered qualified."
Enrollment
Table 31
AVERAGE FULL-TIME EQUIVALENCY OF STAFF IN SELECTED AREAS
(N = 66)
No. of
Guidance
A-V
Health
Special
Schools
Counselors
Librarians
Specialists
Service
Education
Aides &
Paraprof.
Full- Part-
time
time
Secry. &
Clerks
Full- Part-
time
time
500 or fewer
501 - 1000
1001 - 1500
Ci
1501 - 2000
2001 - 2500
2500 or more
22
1.1
0.6
0.1
0.5
0.2
0.4
0.3
2.1
0.4
20
2.4
0.7
0.4
0.9
0.7
0.2
0.2
3.3
0.8
15
4.3
1.3
0.2
1.5
0.9
0.7
1.5
4.3
1.1
22.5
1.0
0.3
1.0
0.5
1.0
5.5
57.5
2.8
0.7
1.2
1.6
0.4
0.8
8.6
1.4
27.5
2.8
2.0
1.5
5.5
7.0
Table 32
PRIORITIES IN IMPORTANCE WHICH
PRINCIPALS ASAGNED TO VARIOUS
RESPONSIBILITIES
(N
= 248)
Responsibility
Priorities in
Importance*
%1
23
45
No.
6NR
No.
%No.
%No.
%No.
%No.
%%
No.
__--
Managerial
92
37.0
29
11.7
37
15.0
23
9.3
23
9.3
18
7.2
26
10.5
Curriculum Development
84
33.9
75
30.2
38
15.3
22
8.9
31.2
26
10.5
Leadership in Staff
Improvement
95
38.3
62
25.0
38
15.3
15
6.1
72.8
41.6
27
10.9
Community Relations
16
6.5
25
10.1
25
10.1
35
14.1
55
22.1
66
26.6
26
10.5
,..,
"Student Relations
45
18.1
54
21.8
61
24.6
47
19.0
12
4.8
31.2
26
10.5
Student Activities
Program
10
4.0
25
10.1
25
10.1
37
15.0
62
25.0
60
24.1
29
11.7
*1 = Most important
6 = Least important
Table 33
PERLENTAGE OF
TIME
SPENT
BY
PRINCIPALS
(N = 248)
ON VARIOUS
RESPONSIBILITIES
Responsibility
Percentage of
Time Spent
by Principal
1- 5%
6- 10%
11 - 15%
16 - 20%
21 - 25%
26 - 30%
31 - 35%
36 - 40%
41 - 45%
46
- 5O%+
NR
No.
%No.
%No.
%No.
%No.
%No.
%No.
%No.
%No.
%No.
%No.
Managerial
31.2
93.6
22
8.9
13
5.2
21
8.5
17
6.9
33
13.3
83.2
19
7.7
57
23.0
46
lb.5
Curriculum Development
41.6
15
6.0
51
20.6
30
12.0
45
18.1
22
8.9
16
6.5
52.0
3.6
41.6
47
19.0
Leadership in Staff
Improvement
Community Relations
6
19
2.4
7.7
16
89
6.5
35.9
42
68
16.9
27.4
32
15
12.9
6.0
54 8
21.8
3.2
16 2
6.5
0.8
23
9.3
31.2
te,
1.6
b2.4
46
47
18.5
19.0
Student Relations
72.9
33
13.3
72
29.0
31
12.5
33
13.3
13
5.3
52.0
10.4
62.4
10.4
46
18.5
Student Activities
Program
21
8.5
75
30.2
80
32.3
16
6.5
20.8
31.2
10.4
50
20.1
Table 34
PERCENTAGE OF TIME SPENT BY PRINCIPALS' ADMIUSTRAlIVE
STAFF ON
VARIOUS RESPONSIBILITIES
(N = 248)
Responsibility
Percentage
of
26TisLietbPrir__.2.2:Adm.Staff
- 30%
31 - 35%
36 - 40%
41 - 45%
46 - 509164.
NR
1 - 5%
6 - 10%
11
- 15%
16
- 20%
21
1_25%
No,
%No.
%No.
%No.
%No.
%No.
%No.
%No.
%No.
%No.
%No.
Managerial
52.0
19
7.7
18
7,3
lb
6.5
26
10.4
14
5.6
22
8.9
52.0
23
9.3
37
14.9
63
25.4
Curriculum Development
83.2
44
17.7
49
19.8
16
6.5
2b
10.5
62.4
83.2
31.2
41.6
52.0
79
31.9
Leadership in Staff
Improvement
83.2
50
20.1
54
21.8
19
7.7
30
12.1
41.6
72.9
31.2
20.8
71
28.6
Community Relations
21
8.5
77
31.0
58
23.4
93.6
62.4
10.4
10.4
75
30.3
Student Relations
52.0
13
5.2
37
14.9
22
8.9
32
12.9
10
4.0
16
6.5
20.8
17
6.9
31
12.5
63
25.4
Student Activities
Program
11
4.4
52
21.0
51
20.6
14
5.6
22
8.9
72.9
14
5.6
20.8
31.2
41.6
68
27.4
- 54 -
Table 35
ROLE OF THE PRINCIPAL AND HIS ADMINISTRATIVE STAFF IN THE PREPARATIONOF THE BUDGET
Type of SchoolNumber ofSchools
Prepared byCentralOffice
No.
Make Recom.:Budget Pre-pared by Cen-tral OfficeNo.
41 2 3
Regular 177 15 8.4 58
Regional 39 10
Vocational-Technical,and Trade 26 2 7.7 6
Regional .,Vocational -Technical 9 2 22.2 2
Total* 251 19 7.6 76
*Since some respondents checked more than one
Plan, Recom. &Defend SpecificRequests beforeFinal DecisionsNo.
5
32.8 113 63.8
25.6 31 79.5
23.1 18 69.2
22.2 5 55.6
30.2 ]67 66.5
NRNo.
6
3 1.7
4 15;4
2 22.2
9 3.6
item the number of schools incolumns 3 - 5 sometimes exceeds the number in column 2 and the percentagesare likewise over 100.
G?;
- 55 -
Table 36
ROLE OF THE PRINCIPAL AND HIS ADMINISTRATIVE STAFF IN THE SELECTIONOF CERTIFIED PROFESSIONAL PERSONNEL
No. ofType of School Schools
egular
Regional
Vocational-Technicaland Trade
Regional Vocational-Technical
Total**
2 3* 4* 5* 6* 7*
No. % No. % No. % No. % No. %
177 23 13.0 24 13.6 133 75.1 5 2.8 3 1.7
39 2 5.1 34 87.2 3 7.7
26 3 11.5 2 7.7 20 76.9 1 3.8 4 15.4
9 2 22.2 2 22.2 4 44.4 2 22.2 2 22.2
251 28 11.1 30 12.0 191 76.1 11 4.4 9 3.6
- Assignments are made by central office
Request staff allocation and accept-reject among the candidates recommended
by central office- Request staff allocation, review personnel records, interview applicants,
and recommend for assignment the applicants considered qualified
- Employ certified personnel without the direct assistance of the central
office- No response
Since some of the respondents checked more than one item the number of schools
in columns 3-6 sometimes exceeds the number in column 2 and the percentages
are likewise over 100.
`P I
- 56 -
More than one-third of the 251 schools reported that from oneto ten members of the professional staff participated during the past yearin "Summer employment related to teaching," "Curriculum workshop,""Individual research related to teaching," or "Writing for publication."Approximately one-fifth indicated that from 11-20 members participated in"University courses - evening or summer," "Summer employment related toteaching," "Curriculum workshop," and "Meetings of professional organiza-tions." In addition, about two-fifths reported that from 21-30 membersor more participated in "University courses--evenings or summer."
Of the 251 schools, 68 percent reported the employment of someteaching personnel during the summer months for professional work. Morethan one-third of the employed personnel were teaching in summer school.Smaller numbers were engaged in curriculum work, summer recreation work,and Federally-assisted programs.
The following standing committees were reported as presentlyoperating: Curriculum Committees in 163 or 65 percent of the 251 schools;Principal's Advisory Committees in 172 or 69 percent of the schools;.Faculty-Student Committees in 145 or 58 percent of the schools; HumanRelations Committees in 19 or 8 percent of the schools; and CommunityAdvisory Committees in 56 or 22 percent of the schools.
The median degree status of classroom teachers in Massachusetts'secondary schools was the Bachelor's plus 30 hours; for elementary andsecondary non-classroom personnel, including administrators, supervisors,and guidance counselors, the median was the Master's degree.*
The median experience of classroom and non-classroom personnelin elementary and secondary schools was 3.3 years in the current schoolsystem and 5.4 years in public education.**
*Facts About Education in Massachusetts, Division of Research and
Development, Massachusetts Department of Education, February, 1970, page 2.
**Ibid., page 2.
C I
- 57 -
Student Activities Program
Approximately 60 percent of the 251 schools reported that theprincipal or the principal and some other person or group administeredand coordinated the activities program; nearly 50 percent said thesefunctions were handled by an assistant principal and some other personor group. Only 15 percent assigned the same role to an activitiesdirector and less than 10 percent to an advisory council.
Table 37 shows that only two of the 251 -chools indicated theydid not have a faculty sponsor for each activity.
A considerable number of schools have persons with activityassignments who are not members of the professional staff of the schoolor the school system. The largest numbers follow: 94 schools have oneor more persons in boys' interscholastics who are "professional staffmembers'in system but'not inthis school," 43 schools have one or morein girls' interscholastics, and 40 schools reported one or more in music.
.Thirty-one schools indicated they have one or more persons who are tibtprofestional staff members in the system, in boys' interscholaitics,12 in girls' interscholastics, and eight in music.
The data in Table 38 indicate that three-fourths of the schoolsreported "Very extensive" or "Extensive" participation of students,faculty, and the administration in cooperatively developing policies andin effecting satisfactory practices in school government. Exceptionswere in the "Protection and care of school property," "Community serviceactivities," and "Interschool relations" in which, as is shown on thetable, about half reported "Very extensive" or "Extensive" participation.
A total of 134, or 53.4 percent of the 251 schools reported, asTable 39 indicates, that from 61-100 percent of the student body participa-ted in at least one activity. Seven schools, or 2.7 percent, indicatedthat 20 percent or less of the students participated in at least oneactivity and 85 schools, or 33.9 percent, said that from 21-60 percentparticipated.
From half to more than three-fourths of the schools stated thatactivities were funded in an "adequate" manner. Boys' interscholasticactivities were funded adequately in the largest number of schools, 204,204 or 81.3 percent, as Table 41 shows.
C5
- 58 -
Table 37
FACULTY SPONSORSHIP OF EACH ACTIVITY
Type of School
Number ofSchools
At Least One Faculty Sponsorfor Each Activity
Yes No NR
No. % No. % No.
Regular
Regional
Vocational-Technicaland Trade
Regional Vocational-Technical
Total
177
39
26
9
251
172
36
13
8
229
97.2
92.3
50.0
88.9
91.2
2
2
1.1
0.8
3
3
13
1
20
1.7
7.7
50.0
11.1
8.0
Table
38
PARTICIPATION OF STUDENTS, FACULTY, AND
ADMINISTRATION IN COOPERATIVELY DEVELOPING POLICIES
AND IN EFFECTING SATISFACTORY PRACTICES
IN SCHOOL GOVERNMENT
(N = 251)
Phases of
School Government
Extent
of Participation
Not
Extensive
Extensive
-Policies
Extent of
Participation - Prilctices
Very
Extensive
NR
Very
Extensive
Not
Extensive
Extensive
NR
No.
oNo.
%No.
YNo.
1No.
%No.
1No.
%No.
Functioning of student
council
91
36.3
108
43.)
34
13.5
18
7.2
77
30.7
112
44.6
38
15.1
24
9.6
Student behavior and
dress
97
38.6
106
42.2
31
12.4
17
6.6
76
30.3
111
44.2
43
17.1
21
8.4
Protection and care of
school property
'33
21.1
115
45.8
63
25.1
20
H.0
35
13.9
111
44.2
81
32.3
24
9.6
Student morale and
school spirit
k.,eneral welfare of
student body
67
26.7
35.8
137
110
54.6
43.8
30
31
11.9
12.4
17
20
6.8
8.0
54
75
21.5
29.9
146
123
58.2
49.0
28
28
11.1
11.1
23 25
9.2
10.0
School social acti-
vities
77
30.7
114
45.4
41
16.3
19
7.8
72
28.7
110
43.8
45
17.9
24
).6
Community services
activities
14
13.5
84
33.5
107
42.6
26
10.4
29
11.5
91
36.3
103
41.0
28
11.1
Interschool relations
39
1').5
95
37.9
62
32.7
35
13.9
29
11.5
100
39.8
84
33.5
38
15.1
1
Table
3')
A1rAt4,1) IN A: TFA-1 )INH ACTIVITY
Percentaoo of Student Body
1 v
I^J
umbo
r2'
'4;
21-
4(rokt,
41 - 60/
61 - 80%
81 -
100-4,
NR
of klchools
N.
44E
No .
No
%No.
%No.
/No.
qt
r,
9.0
44
24.9
66
37.3
39
22.0
11
6.2
12'
) ,r
l12
3.t.i
1128.2
12.t,
L1
f a
111
.T
ra:1
.,,1.
1.0
i;.,
)"i
11.5
1142
.4
,,ft
0
Toi
11
11.1
311.1
11.1
222
.2
. ; t I - r too: t bov
r t-st n,ar Iv two-thirds hadr st 111.f flit t)r,
( Aliso c tted related to
t tic 1,,a?, ex ten,ivelv
at_t' a'w. i ,t* c pr iv11.-.nes
7.* . 11:.t.Ar: .
, t .ct oi systrrs inoicated
t ;,,101 Ir., f :n j 1.0 itn stuuent.. i .,crcent !,a the
4./ -;; nonls did
.0-at s 1 1, 4 . fro r jor
t t. -rf t "-; ,r:ont of the
1 -s wd, ;Lc hv 132 or '12.h
r r . snitn; 44 .2 ;Iercont , and '!ius
of the schools, a number ofde I.*/ rL fit t .$ were indicated which t' t t no 1,,ILdj vumber of schools
: A I r.1-. rt:Pnt aoes 1 kew se
« r
Table 40
DETERRENTS DO STUDENT PARTICIPATION IN ACTIVITIES
Deterrent
Reg
ular
Regional
No.
41,,
No.
1
Cost to student
b3.4
37.7
Lack of student anterest
84
47.5
20
51.3
Limited physical facilities
101
57.0
25
64.1
Lack of sufficient qualified and
Interested sponsors
45
25.4
11
28.2
Financial support
42
23,.7
410.3
Eligibility requirements
15
8.5
25.1
Bus schedules
72
Th.7
19
4d.7
Work
128
72.3
26
66.7
Early dismissal ,lue to overcrowding
22
12.4
410.3
Type of School
77:ch.
& Trade
No.
Reg. Voc.-
Tech.
(N = 9)
No.
4;
Total
(N = 251)
No.
-7,
93.6
415.4
333.3
111
44.2
623.1
132
52.6
311.5
222.2
61
24.3
311.5
111.1
50
19.9
13.9
18
7.2
934.6
555.6
105
41.8
13
50.0
777.8
174
69.3
13.8
27
10.8
- 63 -
Table 41
ADEQUACY OF FUNDING FOR ACTIVITIES
Activity AdequateIn-adequate NR
No. % No. % No.
Publications 158 62.9 70 27.9 23 9.2
Music 186 74.0 33 13.0 32 13.0
Dramatics and Speech 153 61.0 59 23.5 39 15.5
Boys' Interscholastic 204 81.3 22 8.8 25 9.9
Girls' Interscholastic 186 74.1 24 9.6 41 16.3
Boys' Intramural 143 57.0 49 19.5 59 23.5
Girls' Intramural 140 55.8 50 19.9 61 24.3
Clubs 153 61.0 63 25.0 35 14.0
Service Organizations 125 49.8 48 19.1 78 31.1
Other 24 9.6 7 2.8 220 87.6
- 64 -
Educational Media Services - Library, and Audio-Visual
Expenditures per pupil for educational media materials andequipment were reviewed for 66 representative schools. These are re-ported in Table 42. Sixteen of the 22 schools with enrollments of 500or fewer indicated the average expenditure per pupil for materials was$9.87; 15 of the 22 schools sair.: the average for equipment was $9.76.Twelve of the 15 schools with enrollments of 1001-1500 reported the av-erage expenditure per pupil for materials was $4.49; 13 of the 15 indicatedthe average for equipment was $2.49.
The data in Table 43 indicate serious shortages in educationalmedia personnel. An "Inadequate" or "Not available" assessment was re-ported by nearly half of the 251 schools for an educational media super-visor or director, by about one-third of the schools for the librarian(s),by more than half of the schools for library clerk(s), audio-visualclerk(s), and audio-visual technician(s).
Table 44 indicates that more than three-fourths of the 251schools reported the degree to which teachers were involved in theselection of library and audio-visual materials and equipment was "Veryadequate" or "Adequate."
Enrollment
Table 42
EXPENDITURES PER PUPIL FOR EDUCATIONAL
MEDIA MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT, 1968-69
No. of Schools
Reporting Expend-
No.
itures for
of Schools
Materials
Average Ex-
penditure Per
Pupil in Re-
porting Schools
for Materials
No. of Schools
Reporting Expend-
itures for
Equipment
Average Ex-
penditure Per
Pupil in Re-
porting Schools
for Equipment
500 or fewer
22
16
$9.87
15
$9.76
503
1000
20
17
7.46
17
2.87
1001
- 1500
15
12
4.49
13
2.49
1501 or more
99
7.03
75.57
U'
Table 43
ADEQUACY OF EDUCATIONAL MEDIA STAFF
(N =TO SERVE
251)
THE
NEEDS OF STUDENTS AND
TEACHERS
Staff
Very
Adequate
Adequate
In-
adequate
Not
Available
NR
No.
%No.
%No.
%No.
%No.
41.)
;
Educational media (supervisor
or
director)
30
12.0
64
25.5
41
16.3
79
31.5
37
14.7
Librarian(s)
48
19.1
101
40.2
75
29.9
72.8
20
8.0
Library clerks)
19
7.6
50
19.9
52
20.7
95
37.0
35
13.9
Audio-visual clerk(s)
41.6
21
8.4
28
11.1
152
60.6
46
18.3
aAudio-visual technician(s)
41.6
31
12.4
38
15.1
130
51.8
48
19.1
a
Student aides
44
17.5
101
40.2
59
23.5
24
9.6
23
9.2
Table 44
DEGREE
rniI1iICh TEAC:HERS WERE INVOLVED
IN THE SELECTION OF LIS:.?ARY
AND AUDIO-
VISUAL MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT
Type of Scho,)1
No. of
Schools
Very
Adequate
Adequate
In-
adequate
NR
No.
,,,,T,
No.
..;
No.
4No.
Regular
177
39
22.0
107
60.5
24
13.6
73.9
Regional
39
id
47.4
17
44.7
12.6
35.3
Vocational Technical & Trade
26
Library
415.4
934.6
27.7
11
42.3
Regional Vocational-Technical
95
55.6
222.2
222.2
Total
251
66
26.3
135
53.3
27
10.7
23
9.2
Regular
177
3t3
21.5
105
59.3
21
11.9
13
7.3
Regional
.
39
Audio-
19
48.7
16
41.0
25.1
25.2
'Vocational Technical & Trade
26
Visual
311.5
934.6
415.4
10
38.5
1
...,1
Regional Vocational-Technical
Total
9
251
5
65
55.6
25.Q
2
132
22.2
52.6
27
10.8
2
27
22.2
10.7
a'
-.4
- 68 -
The educational media materials available in the 251 schoolsare reported in Table 45. A "Very adequate" or "Adequate" assessmentwas given to the availability of books, magazines, newspapers, andfilmstrips by approximately two-thirds of the schools. An "Inadequate"or "Not available" ranking was indicated by about half or more of theschools for the availability of pamphlets, slides, tape and disc record-ings, graphic materials, microfilm, and programed instructional materials.
The extent to which books, magazines, newspapers, and filmstripsserved student and faculty needs was reported as "Very adequate" or "Ade-quate" by about two-thirds of the schools. These data are shown on Table46. From one-half to nearly two-thirds of the schools responded "Inade-quate" or "Not available" to the extent to which slides, tape and discrecordings, graphic materials, microfilm, and programed instructionalmaterials served student and faculty needs.
1..41y )
Table 45
AVAILABILITY OF
VARIOUS EDUCATIONAL MEDIAMATERIALS
(N = 251)
Materials
Very
Adequate
Adequate
In-
adequate
Not
Available
NR
No.
11:c1-
1No.
%No.
1No.
4
Books
43
17.1
106
42.2
75
29.9
41.6
23
9.2
Magazines
54
21.5
127
50.6
45
17.9
41.6
21
8.4
Newspapers
46
18.3
110
43.3
54
21.5
19
7.6
22
8.8
Pamphlets
19
7.6
85
33.9'
112
44.6
12
4.8
23
9.1
Films
Filmstrips
16
30
6.4
11.9
96
120
38.2
47.8
71 63
28.3
25.1
39 12
15.5
4.8
29
26
11.6
10.4
1
o.,
s
Slides
10
4.0
65
25.9
95
37.8
53
21.1
28
11.2
Tape and disc recordings
93.6
88
35.0
103
41.0
24
9.6
27
10.8
graphic materials
62.4
61
24.3
85
33.9
59
23.5
40
15.9
Globes
22
8.8
97
38.7
46
18.3
45
17.9
41
16.3
Maps
36
14.3
102
40.7
49
19.5
23
9.2
41
16.3
Microfilm
72.8
23
9.2
37
14.7
129
51.4
55
21.9
Transparencies
20
8.0
87
34.7
78
31.1
33
13.1
33
13.1
Programed instructional
materials
41.6
31
12.4
55
21.9
115
45.8
46
18.3
a
Table 46
EXTENT EDUCATIONAL MEDIA MATERIALS SERVE STUDENT AND FACULTYNEEDS
(N = 251)
Materials
Very
Adequate
Adequate
In-
adequate
Not
Available
NR
No.
%No.
%No.
%No.
%No.
Books
38
15.1
112
44.6
75
29.9
31.2
23
9.2
Magazines
45
17.9
130
51.8
50
19.9
31.2
23
9.2
-
Newspapers
45
17.9
108
43.0
54
21.5
18
7.2
26
10.4
Pamphlets
20
8.0
83
33.1
111
44.2
10
4.0
27
10.7
Films
16
6.4
98
39.0
74
29.5
32
12.7
31
12.4
Filmstrips
33
13.1
115
45.8
63
25.1
12
4.8
28
11.2
Slides
93.6
71
28.3
96
38.2
45
17.9
30
12.0
-Cape and disc recordings
10
4.0
88
35.1
105
41.8
19
7.6
29
11.5
Graphic materials
62.4
62
24.7
84
33.5
58
23.1
41
16.3
Globes
25
10.0
94
37.5
46
18.3
42
16.7
44
17.5
flaps
37
14.8
100
39.8
48
19.1
24
9.6
42
16.7
Microfilm
72.8
24
9.6
41
16.3
120
47.8
59
23.5
Transparencies
21
8.4
84
33.5
78
31.1
32
12.7
36
14.3
Programed instructional
materials
62.4
34
13.6
55
21.9
108
43.0
48
19.1
- 71 -
School Physical Facilities
The data in Table 47 indicate that more than half of the 251
schools reported that facilities to provide for present programs for
large group instruction, seminar rooms, learning resource centers, con-
ference rooms, teacher offices, teacher work spaces, and storage were
"Inadequate" or "Severely inadequate." Between one-third and one-half
of the schools indicated that facilities for present programs for shops,
laboratories, Music, Art, Health, Physical Education, auditorium, and
administrative offices were likewise "Inadequate" or "Severely inadequate."
One-third or more of the 251 schools stated, as Table 48
indicates, that all specialized facilities were "Inadequate" or "Severely
inadequate" to provide for new programs and services. One-half or more
of the schools rated the facilities for shops, laboratories, Art, Physical
Education, large group instruction, seminar rooms, learning resource
centers, conference rooms, administrative offices, teacher offices,
teacher work spaces, guidance services, and storage to provide for new
programs and services as "Inadequate" or "Severely inadequate."
Eighty, or 31.9 percent, of the schools reported, as Table 49
indicates, that they had been "Constrained to a great degree" ...during
the past five years in designing innovative educational programs due to
the inflexibility and/or inadequacy of physical facilities." A total of
170, or 67.8 percent said they had been "Constrained to a great degree"
or "Constrained to a moderate degree."
- 72 -
Table 47
ADEQUACv c;w:CT1LI7E0 r,'ACTLITIEs Tr) PWWIDE F(J) PR(,GRA":AND SERVICES(N = 251)
More thanAdequate Adequate
SpecializedFacilities
In-adequate
severelyinadequate NR
No. % No. 1 No. 4 No. '-'4. No. i.
Shops 2-) 11.5 48 33.0 77 33.7 24 9.6 23 9.2
Laboratories 29 11.5 101 40.2 77 30.7 20 8.0 24 9.6
Music 32 12.8 25 37.9 51 2u,3 33 13.1 40 15.9
Art 16 6.4 96 38.3 63 25.1 35 13.2 41 16.3
Health 2d 11.2 45 37.8 53 21.1 32 12.8 43 17.1
Physical Education 29 11.5 02 36.7 56 26.3 44 17.5 20 8.0
Auditorium 29 11.5 102 40.7 52 20.7 43 17.1 25 10.0
Cafeteria 2o 10.3 124 44.4 53 21.1 25 10.0 23 9.2
Large group instruction 17 6.8 71 28.3 73 29.1 63 25.1 27 10.7
Seminar rooms 11 4.4 37 14.7 83 33.1 90 35.9 30 11.9
Learning resourcecenters 13 5.2 co 14.9 85 33.) 70 27.4 33 13.1
Conference rooms 11 4.4 49 14.5 d2 32.7 88 35.0 21 8.4
Administrative offices 24 9.5 107 42.t d2 32.7 21 8.4 I7 6.8
Teacher offices 7 2.d 45 17.2 75 30.0 101 41.0 21 8.3
Teacher work spaces 10 4.o r,L) 27.5 81 32.2 73 2,.s 17 u.8
Medical services 33 11.1 138 55. 4, U!.3 13 5.2 21 8.4
Guidance services 2(- 13.3 12o 51.0 t,1 25.1 19 7.t 15 t,.0
Storage U 3.o o 23.4 ti, :1-3.4 5 30.0 22 8.7
- 73 -
Table 48
ADEQUACY OF SPECIALIZEDNFW
MoreAdequate
FACILITIESPROGRA!:S AND SERVICES
(N = 251)
D.
In-
adequate
VIOrl
SpecializedFacilities
tanAdequate
SeverelyInadequate NR
-No. ,
_No. ; No. ;',1. No. -; No. `l,
Shops 12 4.8 40 15.9 tAi 27.1 74 29.5 57 22.7
Laboratories lb ',.4 48 19.1 74 31.5 So 14.9 58 23.1
Music 21 8.4 54 23.5 54 23.5 45 17.9 07 2b.7
Art 10 4.0 19.1 nt 2h.3 59 23.5 o8 27.1
Health 1'4 7.4: f' 2t,.3 clt 18.3 47 18.7 73 24.1
Physical 1:ducation 20 8.0 36 15.1 73 24.1 #,#-, 2b.1 54 21.5
Auditorium -') 8.0 t3 23.1 )4 21.5 5t, 22.3 56 23.1
Cafeteria 21 8.4 -,77 25.7 51 25.5 43 17.1 5r) 22.3
Large grou,)instruction 15 t7,.0 47 18.7 48 1r).1 o2 32.7 54 23.5
Seminar rooms 11 4.4 14 #4 25.5 47 3o.o f-0 23.9
Learning resourcecenters 14 21 6.4 2? .5 93 37. 54 23.5
Conference roo-, 11 4.4 32 12.H i.3 41. 53 21.1
Admintstrativeoffices 11-, r.4 35 .C1.4 -f-.
r-32 2.c).7 'A 2u.3
Teacher officic
reacher Work. s aces 8 6.6
24
45
') f
1-7.) t 22.11
,),-, 17,0
53
22.7
21.1
Medical servILes l'.6 3 . 7 2.1 2) 11.', 5 21.9
Guidance serviL,-: 1) t4,1 14.1 'z3 21.1
Storaqe 1' 22.3 .7 0 23.1
1.1
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rd4
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411,
No.
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11.2
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1",
1
t. on -4-ommun t P. la! 4.
Tat, I 4. 5' ir:ct t 4's 1)0i). 0 I rom t be r ,12almunrty we. r e
n veri roquet.nt '4; or t t IV or '-c.rtr4 t in oduc at ion a
and occupat ona Int or mat cont orern_ in moro than throe'- fourth r.,f the'
*4.14 \. or or aimC,st ; nvo vod in f rom ono -t h; rd
t -hair of 1,(1t I5 .n ovp r -all Pr.i1.1c at Iona' planning ass advi 4-4( r s
I or spoci al 4./.12,tr +-Act 1kA,a1 pro }rams In plan:1in,-; and/or supervi srre_<; supplo-
montar, oduc at Iona I oxpor k'S t (+2 S'.uc_wr.ts In th ovor -all ovaluat ion
ot the school ' s pr o.g r Nit , c>I 4, n plan'. ard/or supor sin') a st,oc t s of
t studnt act iv; ty pr e ,jr
-,chu,"1 usA t..; CIVIC and c.om-
rmr114. v ian 2 at r 04 t In rat, 4.4' 51 s,1-ows.
such z at Ions
Lesoct tt. f eirt= t rr (-4 a ion t vcr al t ;mos a ro,rrith ;n
tw.t' r els cc tr: schools,
44r,rF tb,ar tr r tr se- nc. s re , ," r t hat Inc- ra I and
)7 'it-r.,4,7 al r11 t ilk;kr-," anel/or annum, f
re..4<in ap-po at anr t. t : :rout neer). p4 r f ormanr-os , sc noo I
hou star t ar f rIL at -r c,v1, arrri cur rtunity or riani zat. on',
WE I Ts.,! v.-. -.I S. ;n Ca- t ;_rr),. I; N.. ef "'si-! WI t DOV-tit rat 4. pc -
iV4 4 Ft 7.. 714' 11 . Iota .):: ; r sont d
TAti
r ,a- _. < , 1 1 1 ' ' . . , --+ :r.irt,'-
+-..12. " 1 k I .I._ . I 5 ,-1: 2' 4 Cr it ' I ii-'1'.
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N Par
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t-71
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t'11
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- 79 -
Tat,le
,TA_,AN I cA rIt 4 ,Lc. -;
Ofl'NI ry r=- 251 )
',--'ere4,_?nt of
1 2. 1 t1. , 4'1 s (,CiA.),Is (le hoc) I s_ _"a re-) t - rea,7 he r A% sor 1 at 1 e-,ri 2"-i .'
A' "Int Tear r ' t tarien,-
al, Ad') i , ,r ', _,,L,r),-, I 21
1 a -.1, ,.. 1 c,-- r v c r-,--,- 1 t t PO
1 LI ',2
- ) -
F na nr. sour c-,
nanc :al conStIair,t cr iously" fo'ctcd t h4. provi s ion 01bui Id Inc fac t los 10 mpr t bah one -third 01 t hk, schools. As Tab I54 Inc1)cat, such constraints `,4 r (1u <, I y " or klecit rat. ly" af f-Pctod
than one -half ot (-.1-1(mis in lb. pr,,V1 ',ion of hui f ar I-] t in non-prof tsc100.11 f rl,i, an: in t 1' of now1,1 0')/" amc. an S rvp,s.
Chaptor 3
PAR1-NT' ), ADMIN I STRATuR's I? Ar AND 2,1-PDI NT'z, VI !-'0; ME I R SCFkx )1,_c,
Parents, administratnrs, teachers, and students Ilke theirschools. They would, however, make numerous changes in them If addi-tional resources wprc avai1atile. Incroas,d reSourcc9 focus, for themost part, upon funds, space, and personnel. The provision of theseand other resources would, in turn, support the implementation of In-creased comprehensiveness, quality, and rclevanre.
Data which support these conclu5lons were gathered throuOhquestionlaires from 110t parents, 27 superintondents, 33 principals,1821 teachers, and 2748 students in 33 representative schools. In ad-dition, Intoryte.v., %got... held with all or trio administrators and withsoloctoci students and toachers. Moreover, teams of consultants observedthe class and extra -class aLtivities iri kach of Ow 33 schools.
INS
o: narents-) 3, O.
tr.
'37their
rt t tcnildrentro_s
The viewsAt t4'n0, AT 4'S4.
-)1 ar lows t I low.
Fit 'Or
is p:thert A
t
Fr. tr.'. c h,,1 r 1 ,ik -I t r.,x4'_- l nt Cie t,00 -d.
r fit char torrit p .V1 I
r r-.- t
I tty1. t rrIc
r,',I1A I it'.I' '£'t AS
r
r.lrac
AS 'AV, r'Po(I."
1ft,at,
".-or
t
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r,d, 7, nr,,i r- I '-, 1
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7 t t i t
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u* :,1I" a .
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is r a 7 ;,r t rti t
our
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w 11. "''Cl t<, It I ) t r r
st.
- 83 -
uri t . ; ; t r 1 with r-tr o ngs
t s ,n n.; t hoo I ';-y_ h day. ?()r t -n no 1.3**I
nt .)t lhc parcnt SA1,1 that tn thcir )wra,nt thw t chi ldr. n
"Usually tnrward It with Cnt.hu,=.1a.,71' whi r a )nlyc c 4 , - 1 t n t h r 1,ir.'11 Cone u
A'r )x mat 1,y 't,.4",-t 11 rd s t 1,. t 1 t . ha':
r )'" t 9. 1,'e I b.. n r 171 .:()!Idu, 1, 4,
to; fl . r t a ,>r). -In, rd .n I ; 1.4eit
L ; , t . .11 , t
)n. : t natkf ; ,t:
,1 ,," -e1- ,e'
,t I 1 t !, T t
.klr)r.A :(4, 71,
I r1-, ' v r
r. a-;,r -
t ,..!1,t r 1
: ; 2: r ".. -aid 41 I -
,;; t _7 .. - 1,11 4.-- 1 1. I
el I " I
k
e
e
t
1' ,e7 ;
t'
-
r 3/4.: ; , (7)C-',1 '1,;r 1)3r ,r1 '")?'ri '"Nlucn n(1 : 1t.1 11 zo:1 t t rs: tv curr.rho ; ocu;,,.1 ()Y, ,r s r or n-,n
71,-k ,)" Ci '0' C 't .)n mar.'R1(1 curric_-.1 LIM, "I TTIptla', ;C; ,-)V. and b. idw, w: t rs' 1+ r It ts ,W.T.
l 3t , . st ,t,; St _
st rat iJ, 7'11 IhIS at -,;)un ; 1 , 1 t %IA t t s ; it Is tr thr oudt out th4. cdunt r v'' )I t ,, c 1,, t,,(1it rat Iv,' 1 - anti r,,n.11,t° a A 4t r. nSC'hrlf31 S a [Is! t 's 1 I -run , 64, 1 1 ) I 1,i
t . . r, v , (1r, 44.. I k,", ).; t in I,c,;!-,0(): 7t. At th t , MOT,' t tian on -t h
,rld I 'at, d ' : .t. t r, ; L., it ion ;K ' 3 Vis'Akro r,!,,(i t.) 3rK 0.7, (IA s,- :1)11;1,, ' t" "::;t 1t i )", . ;1.1'1 ha. t Il 5 t
h. t. r. A-71, mu 7 , , t 1.1. In"`.t t:' ! A'. V, 1111 a! Cs s r.11 t +V
t ma I CI W. ;,:
N = 1106
8%
Table
A Study of the Comprehensive High School in Massachusetts
PARENT QUESTIONNAIRE
School.Circle one in each category
r
Instruction If you have more than one Grade of child in school: 9 10 11 12
child in high school, please Sex: F M
answer for the oldest one. A.iera.le mark: A 8 C D
1. Various communication media Are aN.alla',1e t sch,,ols. From which rtredia do you
obtain information% Please use the appropriate numl,or rest on'es in the spaces
provided below.
1 - Very frequent iy or freiowntl;
2 - Sometimes3 Never or almost never
TelevisionLoral and/o: cleneralPublications prepared by schnnlStudent newspaper anA/or annualStaff and 'or stadent appearance.,
groupsSchool performan.-ecc.-hool open
Still affiIi.ttionN
Per;9nAI cuntArti 4:'h Snit ,
NR
_b s3 31
4
43 =-
4f- 11
4
ir 11
N
.M 4m
4
- Mt, -
If -yes," please check the items below which would he of particular interestto you.
3.
Courses offered 4q
of
NP
51
52
603259
78
54
5067()1
the
NP
Course content 48R.xtraclassrooa activities available 40Counselling and guidance program 88Testing program 41Library-audio visual aids pro,,,Iram 24Recent changes and innovations in instructional andorganizational practices 4t-
Major problems (overcrowding, staffIn.;, etc.) 5nSchool costs and financial status
33Others: specify
Which one of the followln,) statements best describes your _iud(;menfeeling of your son or dauJjhter about goin,) to school each day?
it
Always looks forwArd to it with yrith,.s.asmUsually looks forward it with enthuslAsmFrequently is indifferent ahoJt it
Very often dreads the prospect of schpolAlways dislikes havin7 tc sch,-(
28
4. The ten educ.it.-1:al _;! 'iv, . 1 2v. 4544 f I t. , .5'1! - . 1t'Ci -.! e,.r.,,isedIn statements of 0.h ,ectives Ant: ;4-111,--, t'lese ..r1,:.c.1*v !,1. clvi-1. -*
importance v--,u .)ive t., each ; tp.-e. s.- ti.e #;it-w1f11 roeiv vc1r riitne-,.
1 - Cer,-
Important- Less imp ,1 ;
EthICA111;11 '55441t51
rrepa r t X 'XI f,r em;,1 r-1
'repatation % e 'h.'P'rearaticAn for A ch. n;:r1;
Preparation f'): respnsible par.citizenship
1-_-,evelopment a I. 1
appreci at ir,n )f cult Gra I her :t
Education 1,11. ._n!e!:, _, 4r,A;
Developtsent of aceeptu!+1,11111, undvi%tAlldinln and ','r ALec.;
moral ,na etfilcAl !,ens,.;
Haman relation-.Pbysi-al Atiti oM.k,':r 5.4
. To what extent have you (or your spouse) been involved in the program conducted
by the school' If you have not been involved very frequently, frequently, orsometimes, to what exter would you he willing to become involved in the programconducted by the school' Please use the appropriate nuriber responses in thespaces provided below.
1 - Very frequently or frvqu4ntiv2 - Sometises3 - *lever or almost never
Have teen involved 1 Willinj to Farticipate4' % S % .4 4 S %1 2 3 NP 1 2 3 NR
Over eoucut:rnAlpla.nnIng
Adviser for siecl,1ro-r3rass
P anninw and/or s up-e r vis ;
suprlementar educationalexperiece,, for studen*,
Ovez.ill evaluation cf theschool's program
Planninci and, or
aspects cI the studentactivity prcx;tam I .
Educational Andormat r ( t nf es ler,
Ot h c z s
1
To at:A*.r
utric rr;,!-A-1,4
the ',At.r4.
!I. 1 A t **,
4 1 4
t-3 r. 14
r.
3-m: 3 3 3,
3% 27
35 .-",3 2
4
;-i NR
t rsc
Eire
f 000
,
a. F +- Poo C.0 .f :
.
h
r41
4
o
Mt?
12. Do you feel ,u7ch2id needs more attenfirn from the school in the development
of self-understar'":, self-res;onsibIlity, decision-making, and values'OE 46
R NR
Yes 53
No 42
13. My child's la-t reprrt card indicated that he was%.
R NR
An above average student 31
An average student SQ
A below average studen- 7
3
14. To what extent do you cooperate with your son or daughter and one or more
teachers, counselors, and/or administrators of your school in attempting to
solve problems related to her (or his) education? Such problems might be
related to the selection of courses, the selection of extraclassroomactivities, the improvement of study habits, and so on.
% 91,
R NR
Four times a year 16
Twice a year 32
Once a year 26
Not at all IQ
IS. In your )udgment, and taking into consideration the interests and needs of your
child, what emphasis should the high school place upon the following extraclass-
room activities' Please use the appropriate number responses in-the spaces
provided below.1 - More emphasis
- About the same, em:Thas:s as now
- Less emphasis91)
1
%2
%NR
Publication- 1 2 3 29 56 5 10
Music 1 2 3 16 65 8 11
Dramatics and speech 1 2 3 29 56 5 10
Boys' interscholastic athletics 1 2 3 14 65 9 12
Girls' interscholastic athletics 1 2 3 16 58 8 18
Boys' intramural athletics 1 2 3 25 56 6 13
Girls' intramural athletics 1 2 3 22 52 7 IQ
Clubs 1 2 3 24 57 6 13
Service oroanitions 1 2 3 29 50 5 16
Others: specifl, 1 2 1 _____ g 11 2 78
le-. There s mtich disck.s.10:1 toddy At,CAI' student h(havior, student attitudes,And Would vru charar'erizo the disciplirc in vr.ur school as
Too strictAbout riohtNot strict onnu.,)h
17. List the things ;ou, like elect the iloh schr,_1.you feel are its strengths.
% %R NR
Include those things
. List the things yr,u like least atout the high sch,,ol. Incl'ide those thingsyou feel are its weaknesses.
'41
fable Sr
511i1-_N,-,1-1{5 CF c(1itit,)1_,, A4 VI(WFI) IIY 1 1CXN f',V4f NT". Of- ,,ruoiIN 11 Ri.PRY._Sr.NrTATI VI- 5(110015
4tronithc
No. of Percent ofParents Parents
Courses and/or Curriculum(Good preparation for colleoe, goodpreparation for omploymont, muchindividualized help, diversity n?curriculum) So5 51.08
Professional Staff(Good teachers and administrators) 11S 28.48
Administrative Rules and Regulations(Well-run, well-organized, freedomwith re,,,onsibility, progressive butnot free-wheeling, good school spirit) 2H3 25.59
Physical Facilities(Excellent facilities) 1'4 15.73
Extraclass Activities(Good "all-around- activities,superior athletic program andStudent Council) 139 12.5;
Pupil-Teacher Relationship(Good teacher-pupil relationships,sincerity of teachers for students'welfare and education) 12i 11.12
Guidance(Real help with pupils' problems,ad)ustment seminars) 7.14
Communication with Parents 44 1.98
Miscellaneous(No dr;,ss code, good opportun;ties forwork in community, good lunches) 112 10.13
No Response 271 24.50
-
ti
WI AKNI -`,I II ", As, VI 1-W1-0 BY 1 i t PAW N (It 11*Di
Ni 1 '4I N ?IV! `,C14(1. 4-
WAkfloSsoS
Courses and/or Curriculum(Poor courses for non-colleg bound,lack of depth in courses, over-emphasis on mark% rigid cuiri:.ulum,emphasis is on above and below av-erage students with the average lettto -sink or swim")
No. ofParonts
Pt.1 ,4'nt ofParofitc
4t. 1
Administrative Rules and Regulations(Lack of discipline, poor schoolspirit, excessive regimentation) 2g. ig
Physical Fac,ilities(Too crowded, poor athletic facili-ties, no student lounge)
Professional Staff(Too few outstanding teachers, largeturnover, e..cossive emphasis bystaff on above-average student)
Guidance(Lack of vocational guidance,inconsistencies in outdone,' over 4years)
232 21 .Ht;
"I 1 20.07
11c, 12.2o
Communication with Parents(Lack of teacher-parent communication,need additional activities involvingthe community) (40 B.14
Pupil-Teacher Relationships
Extrac lass Activities(Too much emphasis on interscholasticactivities) 75 (,.78
Miscellaneous(Poor lunches, lack of emphasis ondoing things well) 140 12.66
No Response1( )
261-3 24.23
Adm.!: k. 7 .1
ft" pc1.1 tcclum f? I, kip %to NI', was designed to wiru, t Ur t* a
t lat t t ho wool, t ho 'Alpo! t t ctict.'14 trI70,.1" '! th.
VI.,1111.0 '-+;4. of the most Important views whIch wile stased on
t t it ms 01 in ttt. c 071f :I vs at o enumerated ho I ow
MAhlr change, in educational obtectives and phtlo,ophy which
should be made during the next five %teals include an incrcased
emphasts upon vocational preparation including vocational
training for the non-colleg bound, the establishment of is
Closer relationship h.- wren the community and the school , an
increased amount of flexibility in the program including
spoelfjc provisions for individual study, and the introduction
of an increasino numher of class and extra-class experiences
which ha,,e relevance in tortitc of the interests of students.
Ma101 changes in the piograms and services of the schools
which should be at during the next five years
include an integration of the vocational-technical and aca-
demic programs, the development of additional exploratory
courses in vo,:ational education, an increase in the number
of vocational courses offered, the provision of additional
adult proocams, and an extension of the school day.
.Increased cooperation between the school and community agencies,
vxpand.d and updated work-study pToqraMS, and the organization
01 pt0OraM% tot the handicapped wero cited as urgent needs.
1. Many of the superintendents reported an increase in the popu-
Irttion of their communities of the culturally disadvantaged
And of non-English speaking people. It has been difficult to
make adequate provisions for them because of shortages of
funds and facilities.
Among the most critical needs, issues, and problems mentioned
by the superintendents were the need for additional funds,
facilities, and staff. Improved and expanded vocational pro-
rams and an extended school day and school year were also
cited.
In additton to the needs and problems cited by the superinten-
dents the principals, on the "DATA FORM: PRINCIPALS,"** and in conferences
hetween each of the principals and a member of the visiting team stressed
the items listed below.
*A copy of this Form is in Appendix A, page 304.
*A copy of this Form is in Appendix A, page 1c)u
lo
(t4
1 Among the most urgent problems are rhanges in the subject-matter ,gtereg in spvcific courses with particular atfocused on increased relevance, an expaniion of elective andmini-Bourses, strengthened provisions for articulation, thedevelopment of courses for potential dropouts and dissenter',the addition of programs in Health Education, the improvementof instructional media facilities, And tt-- expansion ofOutdAtiro neEVICeq.
the solation to the problems cited in the preceding paragraphwill necessitate increased lotal, state, and/or federal fundsin nearly all of the schools. Moreover, increased space andother physical facilities were mentioned as urgent needs bymany principals, as well as additional teachers. Additionaladministrative assistance and secretarial and clerical per-sonnel were refetrco to, but less frequently, as types of helpneeded.
1. The principals were practical) unanimous in defining their rolein the improvement of the curr,culum and instruction as that ofaffording leadership, and of riooperating with the staff bymeeting with individuals and tOnmittees and by providing timeand materials for meetings.
4. sixteen of the II principals said the major deterrent to theirparticipation in the improvement of the curriculum and in-struct ion was the lack of time. Other deterrents which werementioned less frequently included the shortage of funds andthe lack of staff time for such work. One-third of the groupindicated there were no deterrents.
Approximately half of the principals estimated that between20-25 percent of the students in their schools did not findeither the colletie-preparatory or the highly skilled voca-tional curricula "...relevant to their aspirations, needs,and interests."
n. More than half of the principals stated that the Careers Devel-opment Curriculum recommended in the Schaefer-KaufmaNireport onOccupational Education for Massachusetts seemed to be the bestway to meet the needs of students in their schools "...who donot find either the college preparatory or the highly skilledvocational curricula relevant.'
One third of the principals who were not in vocational-technicalhigh schools did not believe their programs were articulatedeffectively with the programs in vocational-technical high schoolsNearly all of the principals of vocational-technical high schoolsstated they believed their programs were articulated effectivelywith non-vocational high schools.
lhe prim Ipals reported tial t major s in tn-ircommunities whirn had a si'4nifirant influence on the educa-tional programs of the schools were business and industry,colleges and universities, labor unions, public libraries,school-related advisory committees, and churches.
9. 'tudent unrest OY militancy wac not cited as a criticalproblem in most schools but the _repot ted use of dr.P.is bycome students WAS a source of concern in a crnsiderahle numboiof schools.
10. Very few principals considered "teacher power to be a criticalproblem. Most of the principals thought the teachers and ad-ministrators were working together as an effective team.
Teachers' Views
The views of teachers concerning various questions relatedto their responsibilities are presented in Table 58. From one-fourtnto one-third of the teacherS responded "Neutral" to many of the questions.Neutral was defined as "Neither good nor poor, neither positive nor neg-ative, or neither favorable nor unfavorable." Among the major points,disregarding the "neutral" assessment, are the following, categorizedaccording to teaching, professional climate, the community, facilities,professional personnel, and comments on ways and means of improving theschool.
I. Teaching
(1) Nearly half of the teachers evaluated as "Very Positive"or "Positive" the "...placement of students in the coursesand curricula which correspond to their abilities andinterests"; one-fourth evaluated such placement as "New,-tive" or "Very Negative."
(b) One-third of the teachers characterized the time availableto work with individual pupils as "Negative" or "VeryNegative."
(c) Three-fifths evaluated their opportunities to increase con-tinuously the effectiveness of their teaching as either"Very Positive" or "Positive."
(d) More than one-fourth evaluated "...the adequacy of theprogram and services ...in providing the various types ofofferings needed by all of the students" as "Negative" or"Very Negative."
tr
Noar iv *win -**:rds . tar s u =n, r
Positivo' or l'nsitliro' their suc,oss it im!,r*1.'4h 2 tr-
ofroctivonoss of thoir 1"-hlr:h2tions !n 'no 2.2-'-r;ram
s.ervices (2! t"oir
Pi- of 6. scloria I Climate
(a1 'Ievont y -so-von pro rron t tarhr, hAr ac !,r zod thtItoppor tl.tn it s to par t. lc :pato of (cc t Iv 1r doo 51 on -makino concorninr) tho instruction offrd in thlr CIASS05AS "V0Iy PnsItIVi.' or "POS1t/V4'. pOrC9t assignodtho sam ''valuation to iarticinat:on n dcis:on-makInnconcernin tto currir'ulum and instru, !inn in lroir doparZ-monts.
fl Moro than ono-third ovaluatod it olloorti.nit.os tO par-ticiPato off' e!tln Iv concorninq ocrierAlschool policioikand pract:cos as "Nodativo" or 'VPryNPgative" whillrioss than rulo-thIrd jr,!Icat"ti cu.: :;.v1r-tunItlos trot . 'Very Positiv' or "Pns,_tivo.'
Appr :)x I ma! 11, roo--four t 0 !t t.4ar hor S s,,,ssd studonthohavior in tho srnool tr mot1vA=100 iif studnts tolearn as "Nolativo' or "Vory Npoativo", howovor, noarlvhalf assossd studont h4havior as "Vor'i Positv' or"Posit:v. and or., -tb2rd accssd mo'iva'inn In No sa71-
way.
(it Moro than half o! tho toachors asso55-d 'noir prntsslonalwort load as "Vory Positiv" or 'Positive" whil* nearlyono-fourth assossod It as "Negalivo" or "Vory Nedativo".Narly on-third characrorized their I2ad o' rlriral andnthor routino non-profossional dutios as 'N.' :;ativo- or
"Vr,ry Nooatisro."
ro) 'roar Iv ono-third assossd "...th offoe-tivon05, of commun-
ication amonn mot bors of tro, staff cw,c,inlwi importantmatters rolatl t'o continuous im;,rovmnt o' tho school"AS 'N0QAtiVo" or Vt ry NpqAt,Vf."
3. Th Community
(a) Thirty prcnt ni the tac.hors charatrizd ...thooxtont to which tho community as a wnol is 'oducationortontodi ' as 'Nooativo" or -Vory N(dativo' whi,lo 43percent charactorizod thoir "...succoss in obta:nini thocooporatinn of parnts in tho solution of indi..idualstudont prohloms" as "'Vary Positiyo" or "Pos.tivo."
AI:out on-th.rd rated --the o: paterlts with
tho tw.a; prry,:ram of t-0 srhool" a% vory Prrilttvu." r%
'Positive' and approximately two-fifths a,,sessd the of-
foctivnss cif fteir '...contributions 10 ;Alf, school's
o-qr o7 i-r--^evan t -ticktV1-0 r: !at Ions- 1ri t marn4 r.
al Nearly two-third% of fhe tyarhrs characterized "...Thc
ivtvquAcy of Instructional matoriall ln the clalsroom
'/cry Positive' or "Positive."
More than half evaluated the adequacy of ft library for
use by students in their classes, the adequacy of the
library for their own professional use, and the adequacy
of th audio-visual aids available for their use in the
classroom as "Vi'ry POSIZIVP" or "POSIt/Ve."
About one - fourth of tho teachers characterized the ado-
quacy of the classrooms they use, the adquacv of the
classrooms and/or lab throu9hout the school,
and the adequacy of facilities other than classrooms and
laboratories, e.g., cafeteria, oymnasium, library as
'Negative- or 'Very NeriatIvo.'
Professional Personnel
t a t ',lightly more than half of the toachrs characterized
the ovaluatic.n placed upon their work and the opportuni-
ties they have for increass in salary as "Very
or ''Po s t ve .
in; Twenty-five p.-rcent rated the opportunItles they have
for in-sorvicv growth or improvement as "Neoativo" or
'Very Nooativ..
(l Nfarly three-fourths of the teacher', characterized tte
level of proffccinr.al Tralniri exp-ctd of teachers in
schr,ols as "'Very Positive" or "Positive.
r- (:orrtnen t on way.; at,ct Mear.k, Itatr ovIno t he `Achool
!a. Nen., v f Ivo portent the I act,. r Irciir at 6,ci that moth -fications in administrative rules and reoulations would
inlprove tho school. Thry cited, for oxamplo, stricter
discipline, a reduct:on in class size, rd improved
cresmunicatie,n i,arer.ts, nther fc, and the
admiristrafi,.n.
4- To r.* .1 4 7-.A r1.4 -t f,v4rIty f at; 1 .1 t, 4..1."4,n .t d tr,f nr I 4*}C I 1..#)=- lu; ; ti .
f- 14 v, ! n.- t,1-1 t
chanit's in cout xmlirlr cut r uiutb, ;
1...;ton f or no -co i 1.4,1.c:,ssh4- add;tior work-ciudy
T.T.g r C 4-11: I' r 1/4! f ; ct:an m,"r sImf'r')v fl ç
114 t Y. par t xcu iar at r4,ntrir, th4. adj''n of ttaff mvmbvfl, in(lud111., tv3rt:vr Ald.
par apT tf s s s , Al s' y.4 nc.r.c1 1 fir .1
s t MAO'. " . - t y r att n 1 v t*-AC: cluct ; t !. I
v
- 44
A W. 0 '1 In 4.2knAe
"" FW -wE:.TIUWNATwE
Ng vf-
Yfr.jk S %C ". C
In this s r ; ;r:` r re,elther
N
The 11w it- :iues t r e.; t A re S17,-.`1", i on A r-.,,-c-;-;431nt
nne end whIch Is very posIttve, very 000d, or very rAv,!,ratile. and theother very ne,i!:ve, very poor, nr wer.ynuMvstcAl vAlues rep(44n vailowk loc31!lon% !hi.% 5c4,,
- y 1.11-":42r y e)od-,41 v' r, v At :e,2 - Pos,2t:ve (loon, favnrable)
- Ntr1 (nelther t--;ad nor pnf-r, r
, or nez avor ne r .3.--_-- r
- =)At ve (poor ,- Very neqativt. frr,
lr-;d:c --, Ar; r- r't.t ":140.' t*-
7-1r-1,1c'r ti' ;: 1 A t t,11-74' r e' 4 ; - AC(' A C ?;4, 4"- '4. 1 -
OrA,"! r:"1,e tif *VI VA C1' t I Of= . I ht, ,f-t1=- r ft
d,ves noe ;ertA rt,tr e I 1'4 nit A: ;
t r t t .3, .; I n r 4 n r Pr.% --r
-.2n-- Ara r 3 t C `, Wt# ". Oar; rZe 1 I n Art-
INrAct. , :1.11:; 3_rtur- 1,%f:s tc in4' !C=i1 ,
C OrirIt'r,* -f 1,1i4 And r: t
:E.AtrH2411.
4 , 4_4 -.It- reCc ;""=4
4th 4 -A : 4 ."147
44(14. 11.: 4, 1: r. h 4. C f*,1 .
zt
J. 1-, cr1c'. -: "14- 4`,. 4' ".4-t-- N 4
7
4tri A * A ; .:* .14V :;Are---"t- *41-A't
-rs''t
47
"l'17 ,4 .e /IV' ; " 4.
.:444.4/441. .4. : -14 V *44,! 4-.
f t
WA* df,112;4 -"
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41 A- 44 44 '44
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it**; 11-- y 4 0'1:tr PAT Att. er rye
In
14 llor At 4.. iv t , =,!: I
f-qtrtIeli,A offec .4§:-4 c .
r. yr-.:r C.V.; & -
" _44 _
4
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; ..)er.,4;, ' C!`,4 1,0.1 t t 7--c:
:-:..tr
isthA t .7 . 7 ,!In the
;In; rt 54. t r 7.! : t
et* . t 1 Jr T. 113 " n4- .4, (7-
1.4 ;Vitt 04, vv.-411_ 4t *.;74t 4,
te.scho -14,1 th trio c7;7kur t tc,r-1 t
;: , 1 5- k S... 445 .7
work 1 CNA (1.
tyrr.4 : r : ":`
3 . ioth . T -* 'r *1 # ` Tt* * ` t *
rf CntraTt"."- .s L.. , T.;.:p 4, If I
C T-T-Tt; t, t` , I Sq. ...I. A n L. 4' A thE
C.:)r)Z Ctur.t. r ; c 4.
%-,_ria t t
1.1
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--,. ..* .--, :-' ,r,
' 45 -+,.
... ..: , ...,.., : 4- , t.. --
t; C C . ,,.. t. c cl.z :
it qt 4 41 2 1 4 , f NR
-"; 41 '
I
4; 1 1
4 i...-.1"...- ...,......... 4-..........
I i 1
4 4
1 Z. : 41 ; 2 4. 1 6 ' 1 i 1
4. 4,- 4.--i-- ,
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1
p 4' n tn..; e,f ,, 4. of!oc; it -it: ,,r. t ho : :
. -t.T.T.TT, ! - ' tl '
1
1('2 -
IV. FACILITIES
1. How do you characterize the adequacy ofins rw.tional materials in the classroom?
2. . you evaluate the adequacy of thelibrary *for use by students in your classes'
3. How wdo you evaluate the adequacy of thelibrary for your own professional use'
4. How do you evaluate the adequacy of theaudio-visual aids available for your usein the classroom'
5. What do you think of the adequacy of theclassrooms you use'
6. What do you think of the adequacy of thelaboratories you use'
What do you think of the adequacy rfthe classrooms and /or laboratoriesthroughout the school'
8. How would you characterize the adequacyof facilities other than classrooms andlaboratories, e.g., cafeteria, gymnasium,library?
v. PRCFESSIONAL PERSONNEL
1. How do you characterize the evaluat:-,rplaced upon your work'
2. What is your evaluation of theopportunities y- have for increase!. insalary'
3. How do you rate the opportunities you havefor in-service growth or improvement?
4. What do you think of the procedures whichyou must flow to obtain consideration ofany grievances you may have?
5. How would you characterize the level ofprofessional training expected of teachersin your school'
"
WP4a d C. W 4> > - > > 0 .r4 ,... s ,.., .44 U .
41, -. 1. - 4., .o4> .-4.4 *-. et Dr, lc .4:. lit V C l C 4,-+ a.at a a at a, a, 0, 0 Ci.> a- 0- z z > z Z C
91 % 94 96
1 2 3 4 5 6 NR
16 45 19 11
T
13 41 11 6
13 38 15 6 III
15 41 21 12
14 33 21 17 9 5
16 10 8 6 48
9 32 27 17 7 1 6
12 33 24 18 10 2T
k12 144 2u
9 45 26 12
6 32 33 19
38 36 13
14 57 21 5 1 1
1
1
1
1
1
3
2
1
2
1
2
2
1
,
.
VI. COMMENTS ON WAYS AND MEANS OF IMPROVIMS THE SC HOO L
.......................
1 1
....--,,-----
-,0""--
1
Students' Views
The views of 2748 students concerning their sci-ools areindicated in Tablcs ';'), 60, and 61. Some of the most significantviews follow:
1. Sixty-nine percent reported that they believed tre emphasison sports was "About right "; 23 percent indicated there was"Too little emphasis."
2. Fifty-eight percent stated that "Too little emphasis" wasplaced on "...cultural events (concerts, drama, art displays,prominent speakers)."
3. Thirty-five percent of the students considered their parti-cipation in student activities to be "Very valuable and use-ful" or "Valuable and useful"; 41 percent said "Perhaps ofsome value."
4. Thirty-eight percent reported that they did not spend anytime on extrai.urricular activities; 33 percent indicatedan average of 1-4 hours per week.
5. Forty-one percent of the students reported that they spentan average of 1-4 hours per week in out-of-school study;30 percent said 5-L) hours; and 13 percent indicated 11 ormore hours.
h. Thirty percent said that "Someone is always available whenI need to discuss such matters" as selecting courses, goingto collego, or getting a job; 38 percent reported that"Someone is usually available..."
7. One-fourth of the students reported that the counseling andguidance they had received in school was "Not helpful atall" or "Haven't rer.eived any in this school"; 55 percentindicated "Extremely helpful" or "Some help."
8. Five percent stated that teachers required them to use theschool library "Practically every day" for supplementaryreading, 11 percent indicated "Once a week," 23 percent re-ported "2 or 3 time--; a month," and 59 percent said "Lessof
9. More than three fourths of the student4 indicated thatteachers are available and willing to give outside help ontheir studies "Whenover it is needed," or "Usually whenneeded."
- 1(5
10. Fifty-two percent described the standards (expectations)
set by their teachers as "About right"; 38 percent reported
they were "Much too difficult" or "Somewhat difficult."
11, Twency-five percent of the students described their feelingsabout going to school each day as "Always look forward to it
with enthusiasm" or "Usually look forward to it with enthusi-
asm"; 44 percent said "Frequently am indifferent about it";
and 30 percent reported "Very often dread the prospect of
school" or "Always dislike having to go to school."
12. Nearly half indicated they "Rarely" hay r. opportunities tostudy, as a part of their course work, the things they wanted
to learn, the things that puzzled them.
13. The students were asked the question, "If you could be most
remembered here at school for any one of four things below,
which one would you want it to be"? Seventy-six percent
responded "To be accepted for what 1 am," 12 percent indi-cated "Most popular with others," seven percent said "Leader
in activities," and four percent reported "Most brilliant-
best'student."
14. Fifty-seven percent indicated that "There is little freedom,
much regimentation" to "...exercise initiative to work in-dependently by pursuing a variety of learning opportunities(using the library, labs, seeing t# hers, etc.)"
I "3
- 106 -
Table 59N = 2748
A Study of the Comprehensive High School in Massachusetts
STUDENT QUESTIONNAIRE*
Directions: You are asked to furnish information Circle one in each categoryabout your experiences in andreactions to this school. Please Grade: 9 10 11 12
place an "X" in the blank opposite Sex: F Myour response. Make only one mark Av. Mark: A B C Dunless otherwise directed.
1. To what extent do you believe there is an emphasis on sports in this school?
Too much emphasis 8
About right 69
Too little emphasis 23
2. Which of the following best describes the situation with regard to theopportunity students have to participate in extraclassroom activities?
R
All or nearly all students can participate 36
A large number can participate 41
Only a few students have the opportunity 23
3. To what extent do yeti believe there is an emphasis on cultural events (concertsdrama, art displays, prominent speakers) in this school?
R
Too muLL emphasis 3
About right 39
Too little emphasis 58
4. Do you feel students in your school have ample opportunity to participate inmaking changes in school government, activities, and student body procedures?
% %
R NR
Most students have ample opportunity 26
Students have little freedom to makechanges because of faculty control 32
Student council and activities are run bya few of the most popular students 41
1
At
*Adapted with permission from "Student Questionnaire" in High School EvaluationGuide, prepared by Gordon Cawelti, North Central Association of Colleges andSecondary Schools, March, 1969.
1A 1A
- 107 -
. How valuable and useful do you consider your participation in student
activities to be?% %R NR
Very valuable and useful 11
Valuable and useful 441
Perhaps of some value 41
Of little or no particular useor value 23
1
. What is the average number of hours per week you spend on extracurricular
activities?% %R NR
None 38
1 to 4 33
5 to 10 16
11 to 20 8
More than 20 3
2
.What is the average number of hours per week you spend in out-of-school study?
% %R NR
None 15
1 to 4 41
5 to 10 30
11 to 20 10
More than 20 3
1
. To what extent do you feel the need for more personal attention on such
matters as selecting courses, going to college, getting a job?
% %R NR
Someone is always available when I needto discuss such matters
Someone is usually available when I needto discuss such matters
I would like to be able to talk tosomeone more often than I can now
30
38
311
. To what extent has the counseling and guidance you received in this high
school been helpful to you?
R NR
Extremely helpful 15
Some help 40
Very little help 19
Not helpful at all 12
Haven't received any in this school 13
I" 1
- 108 -
10. About how often do teachers require you to use the school library forsupplementary reading?
% %R NR
Practically every day 5Once a week 112 or 3 times a month 23Less often 59
2
11. To what extent are teachers available and willing to give you outside helpon your studies?
% %R NR
Whenever it is needed 37Usually when needed 42Occasionally 15Seldom or never 6
12. How would you describe the standards (expectations) set by your teachers?
% %R NR
Much too difficult 4Somewhat difficult 34About right 52Somewhat easy 7
Much too easy 2
1
13. How adequate is the supply of supplementary reading materials (other thantextbooks) in the library and classrooms for serving your special interestsand needs?
% %R NR
All materials are available 12Usually materials needed can be located 58Frequently materials are not available 21Library sources are very inadequate 8
1
14. Which of these statements best describes your feeling about going to schooleach day?
Always look forward to it withenthusiasm
Usually look forward to it withenthusiasm
Frequently am indifferent about itVery often dread the prospect of
schoolAlways dislike having to go to school
% %R NR
3
2244
19
11
1
- 109 -
. In general, to what extent do the subjects you are now taking seem
meaningful for your future interests and needs?% %R NR
Considerably 31
Somewhat45
Most seem unrelated 231
. Do you have opportunities to study, as a part of your course work, the things
you want to learn, the things that puzzle you?% %R NR
Very frequently8
Frequently44
Rarely47
1
. If you could be most remembered here at school for any one of four things
below, which one would you want it to be?% %R NR
Leader in activities 7
Most brilliant-best student 4
Most popular with others 12
To be accepted for what I am 76
18. How long do you expect to stay in school?
1
% %R NR_...
Leave school as soon as possible 3
Stop formal education upon graduation from
high school18
Graduate from a junior or community college 11
Graduate from a 4-year college or university 24
Continue college after graduation to become
a doctor, lawyer or some similar professional
person11
Continue education but undecided on length of
schooling or type of school 31
2
19. How would you rate the educational opportunities offered by your high school
in regard to preparation for college (or for a job if you are non-college bound)?
Preparation Preparation
for college for a job
%R
% % %
NR R NR
Very good 17 17
Good 28 22
Average 27 22
Inferior 8 9
Very inferior 3 5
17 25
- 110 -
20. The ten educational purposes listed below are frequently implied or expressedin statements of objectives and philosophy. Please indicate the degree ofimportance y -Jive to each purp se. r,.c, the f,Illowing code for your responses
1 - Very important2 - Important3 - Less important
Educational purposes
Preparation for collegePreparation for employmentPreparation for leisure timePreparation for a changing worldPreparation for responsible participating
%1 2 3 NR
1 2 3 5) 31 161 2 3 5' 36 1
1 2 3 11 29 581 2 3 46 37 13
3
3
4
citizenship 1 2 3 36 45 15 4Development of an understanding and appreci-
ation of our cultural heritageEducation for international understanding 1 2 3 31 46 18 5Development of acceptable compstencies, skill,understandings and/or apprec_ation in:
Moral and ethical behaviorHuman relationsPhysical and mental h,alth
1 2 3 18 47 31 4
1 2 3 35 45 16
1 2 3 4-4 38 10
1 2 3 47 37 13
21. Rank the five items bet -).v in term-, 0: their importance to yoi on a job inthe future (rank from 1 to 5).
Security of stead.; workOpportunity for rapid advancementChance to help othersFriendly people to work withHigh income
4
3
3
4 51 2 3 4 5 NR
28 19 18 11 7 17
9 14 21 21 18 17
20 12 11 18 22 1711 23 lh 19 14 17
15 16 16 14 21 18
22. What is your reaction to the criticism sometimes made of high schools thattoo much emphasis is placed on grades (marks)'
%
R NR-Strongly agree 35Tend to agree 38Tend to disagree 11Strongly disagree 6
2
23. To what extent are students given freedom and unscheduled time in which theyare able to exercise initiative to work independently by pur-;,:iog a varietyof learning opportunities (using the library, labs, seeing teachers, etc.)?
9i,
R NR_ --There is too much freedom and laxity 2About right amount is provided 31There is little freedom, much regimen-
tation1 57
24. How satisfied are you thus far with your academic achievement in high school?
SR NR
Thoroughly satisfied 6
Satisfied 46
Somewhat dissatisfied 39----
71oroughly dissatisfied 7 2
25. Does your school offer all the subjects you would like to take in high mehool7
96 96
R NR4-4
Yes 51
No 472
If your answer is no, list those courses you would like to take.
26. Most or all of the subject areas listed below are offered in high schools in
Massachusetts. Please pick out the five which interest you the most and rank
then frog 1 to 5. Place a "1" beside the subject of greatest interest, a
"2" beside the subject of second greatest interest, etc. to 5. Place an "X"
beside those of little or no interest to you.
% % % % % 5 %1 2 3 4 5 X NR
Agriculture1 1 1 2 2 63 30
Art6 4 4 4 6 43 33
Business Education9 5 4 3 4 40 35
41Distributive Education1 1 1 2 1 51 43
Driver and Traffic Safety Education 3 5 6 7 8 31 40
English11 11 10 9 7 21 31
Foreign Languages3 4 7 7 6 38 35
Health Education1 3 3 4 4 43 42
Home Economics2 3 3 3 3 47 39
Industrial Arts2 3 3 3 3 46 40
Mathematics8 11 8 8 6 28 31
Music3 3 3 4 4 44 39
Physical Education6 7 7 7 8 30 35
Science8 8 8 7 6 31 32
Social Studies6 6 7 6 6 33 36
Special Education2 3 3 2 4 44 42
Trade, Technical and Industrial Education 12 4 3 3 3 45 30
27. List the things you like most about your school. Include those things you
feel are its strengths.
28. List the things you like least about your school. Include those things ra
feel are its weaknesses.
. V: ;`;'
.4 A f 1
t r --;!!
Cour ss and / c,r Cur r 1cu I 1..,t-( Imictiincint st ud qua:cour cos, hilt -: anfiArds , .tof cour
Pul,s ar:0;'
(H.alarihr h,etwoen f 0,dr:iv; an !,r sponsItil lit f crhrdulst udcnt Iadyr h1:0
'.xtra,.1acc ActivLtir(cxtoncivo stuciont .)n-mod snorts 00,r)1rounc
Pro! onl I ',TA:(Compftent t t,act rr adrriini cr .,rwi 11 li.r.trn and c,,r il. r c.ts,
411'
i-n
.t.
Pl~.1,4s,.....cal Fa,- , 1 ,
t sc r (r-) I sur,I, . ), f
y 4 0' 0
Pupil-; h. .r lat le)ns1-.(Fac..ulty 11+ stu s, mu' tindiv :dual 1%01! i,z .14
cianc.f
sce l l anrouslunchos, Invoiv,m0nr
school , bring f r r whit v-stand f or 1
No Pc-coons('
!
"Le
'1+0- A : -1%f n
4 :-/1- Nr AT Vf'
-77
ifulos and Pot)eilzst
(Too much rd1Montation, no smokin9rulos, poor a; sr int ino , studonts.
tako advant of froodomss
=7ourses and/or Curriculum(Overemphasis or preparation fi-r
coil 'a 2imited vncatIonal oduca-
tion, not enouqh uno-somv,,tore 1r t yes
Ph ys aca1 Far ala t 1 t.
( Very crowded, poor s
poor heat ine_a system')
Pr cfsaon. t,t af I(Lack of qua 1 f d !'ah. 1r- cott,r our Se S inadequ.-,t n nu& o !
i-xtraclass Activitio4.
( Too few extrarlAss v.-r-emphasi4, nn spnits
Pupti-Toactor P*00 01 and miqhty attitude ol Nom.-
teacters, toacho:s' 2, t,wallco'Tain stuuorts, ! acuity suns t:tschool and studonts
uuidancePoor rau1,1an- -
Mascella)eousI Poor 1unrn I udp n t no*to hand ii' f r 0, dom.., (Ivor( ;h .v,popular t v toe, much 4,toa 1 ;
No P000nse
-1
2: .2
12..2
, r-1'111 4.---1 *!- !,,tett
t -3 et,-,t=t;-"' t z '. -4'1Y ' ! -t,f '.' t,t, tt,r .4 Aft*. isr,..! 1' 4,1 t.:
-1- ? t t, L,
4 t r .3,4 P.
r..
.f f.,0.,t^t4 3tt=:..;'.! 431.`.!-3'1.' Ar_ti r ;
*, ,1 ,k;-)rt.! 1 Nkst-vt-S t't itr. s(-7:
r r:" .1` _4'q v
: --t1 t--.-!`. #.:' tft"-it!' 1:,.L
"nt,1 " - r-,;r z-rr Art-.1
f t--r% At4.* .
-It = ; *t T" . **- * :_ . , A? 1
; .-- 7 1. A7 At
-; A A k"
tr4 ,
. !
a 6.!
-_ - "1.*, *t" I * 11.-4
vr.bi : 47, ;
A.-:t A r.-c ; . ;;- " -)!;
At AT 1
.7.ssarusetts r'aid of T:ducati-;n broad
educational goals whirr can serve as a standard ter its pub.
schon14. These :)nals stould he ;,_;hlicizel as a statement c
Public police.
A distinction should he made htween tt'e hrnad educational 1;
for all the public schools in the Commonweallt and the more
sPecific ,;oals for a school s.,stem and t,,r an individual scl
witr in that cyst m.
-ach school should d4velo., a clear, mearin,iful statement of
educational philosophy.
bath school should develop a definitive statement of the edt- 1-
ttonal objectives and pri'rity goals most appropriate for tr
unique characteristics and needs of its student body and it-
community's exrectat ions.
There shoulu be invol,.ement of the staff, students, school C,M-
Mlttee members and laymen in the preparation of the statemer -
of philosophy and objectives, andpproval of the school cor
mittee. The statements should be published and wirlely dis
semirattd in the community.
tact tac-Ity must formulate its specific objectives. The o,
all objectives and priority goals of the school must be tra-
lated into meaningful, opt__ tion-objectives in each subject
area. Tr identification of measurable learning objectives s
necessar;' to fix responsibility for teafihing and learning a' . to
provide essential dimensions for meaningful evaluation not ly
of stuoot.t uchievement but of the instiuctional program.
Each sct-,n1 should develop a long-range raster otr-, to ensu-
_the attainment of its '-)Gals and ob2ectives.
There stould ho A :,eriodic review o- school's philosoph
and w2*.ctiv.-; ii,74ht of the ^-'n tin; needs of society an
tr learner.
The Poari Js prc.-ess of develi-dng educational ---,teals.
- 116 -
1-,1" Cf!:'`d"-}11"4- 11
N1
t
Tho high schools in the Commonwealth have the responsibilityto provide an appropriate and a challenging education tor all youth.It is the conviction of the Study staff, that acomprehensive highschool of adequate enrollment and resources can most effectively andeconomically meet the educational needs of the youth of the communi-ty. A high school that is widely comprehensive has the breadth ofprogram to meet the diverse needs of all students and the depth ofprogram to assist in the fullest development of each individualstudent. Comprehensive high schools of adequate size and resourceshave the flexibility to permit the organization of students, per-sonnel, and facilities in various groupings to realize the greatesteducational effectiveness and economy. These schools are much morelikely to have adequate supportive services, such as guidance andcou,seling, auministrative and supervisory services, and researchand development services.
The low enrollments in many of the high schools in Massachusettsmake it impossible for them to provide a comprehensive program onan economical basis. Ninety-two, or 30 percent, of the 305 highschools had, on October 1, 1969, enrollments of 500 or fewer stu-dents; 89, or 29 percent, between 501-1000; a total of 181, or 59percent with 1,000 or less. The median enrollment of the 204 regu-lar high schools was 1,041; of the 42 regional high schools, it was704: of the 50 vocational-technical and trade high schools it was24f ; and of the nine regional vocational-technical high schools itwas 436.
More than one-fourth of the 1,821 teacher respondents evalu-ated '...the adequacy of the program and services in your scnool inprovidIVN the various types of offerings needed by all of thestudents" as "Negative" or "Very Negative:P Approximately the samepercentage of the 2,748 student respondents said that most of thesubjects they were taking seemed unrelated totheir -...futureinterests and needs." More than half of the students indicatedthey "Very frequently" or "Frequently" had opportunities to study,as a part of their course work, the things they wanted to learn,the things that puzzled them; nearly half reported they "Rarely" hadsuch opportunities.
A serious weakness in attaining comprehensiveneos in mosthigh schools was in the lack of adequate provisions for vocationaland special education.
- 117 -
1. The high school that is widely comprehensive and provides
quality education for all of its students should meet these
criteria: (1) a broad program of general education for all
students; (2) an excellent program for students who plan to
further their formal education in college or other post -
second ?ry institutions; (3) a quality program of occupational
education for those students who plan to terminate their
formal education with graduation from high school; (4) an
appropriate program of special education for handicapped
students and remedial programs for students with academic
deficiencies; (5) an effective program of pupil personnel
services; (6) an extensive program of school activities; and
(7) a high degree of flexibility and adaptability in its
offerings and administrative practices so that students may
have many options depending upon their individual needs and
changing educational and vocational plans.
2. High schools, with enrollments or 1,200 students or more and
having 100 or more students electii vocational courses, should
provide for a comprehensive-type program including specific
vocational offerings.
3. Other regular and regional high schools should extend their
programs and services to become more widely comprehensive.
When limitations of enrollment and/or resources are operative,
they should have cooperative affiliation witn another school
to effect greater comprehensiveness in program and services.
4. Municipal and regional vocational schools should function as
program centers providing vocational education. They should
enroll vocationally able students from constituent schools
during the upper two years of high school. These students
should have made 0 decision to pursue a particular occupa-
tional area.
5. Half of the school time of a vocational student, in grades 11
and 12, should be spent in the area of his vocational specialty.
6. Constituent schools should offer the academic program and some
of the related work during the other half of the student's time
in school. Vocational students should be scheduled in academic
classes with other students to minimize socio-economic segre-
gation. Students should retain their membership in the home
school and should be graduated there.
7. Admission and transfer policies and practices between municipal
and regional vocational schools and their constituent schools
must recognize the need for students to have multiple choices
and permit them to move in and out of vocational and academic
programs if their educational and vocational plans change.
n r-
- 118 -
8. School committees and administrators of regular schooldistricts and those of regional vocational districts shouldperiodically review the feasibility of organizing a single,consolidated school system under one school committee and asuperintendent.
9. Large, comprehensive high schools should consider the advisa-bility of a sub-structure of smaller schools or houses so thatstudents, teachers, :Ind counselors might be grouped in smallerorganizations to increase personal awareness and extend thecontacts between students and faculty.
44
- 119 -
ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION
To achieve maximally the goals of the school, increasingconsideration must be given the question of how the school is
organized and administered. Both structure and administration arefacilitating agencies, means rather than ends, through which the
purpos=0 of the school can be effectively realized. The individual
student and his needs should be the focus of concern as schools seek
improved organizational patterns and procedures. The unique role of
school administration, as compared with the executive function inother organizations, is its primary emphasis upon teaching and learn-
ing. The underlying rationale for all administrative tasks is the
improvement of instruction. All school administrative decisions have
as their highest aim the facilitation of learning by young people.
Most of the high schools in Massachusetts ?re well-organized
and administered to have students scheduled uniformly and to have
those in the same courses follow similar patterns of study. The
evidence from the Study indicates, however, that administrators,teach-*Js, and students would welcome less uniformity and increased
diversity in patterns of study. More than half of the 2,748 studentrespondents reported "There is little freedom, much regimentation"for them "...to exercise initiative to work independently by Pursuing
a variety of learning opportunities (using the library, labs, seeing
teachers, etc.)." One-third of the 1,821 teacher respondents char-acterized the.time available to work with individual pupils as "Neg-
ative" or "Very Negative."
The rigidity of the schedule also makes it impossible, in
many schools, for teachers to plan adequately, either individually
or in groups.
The data obtained from the schools indicate that many of them
are reviewing and some are modifying their policies and practices
in placing students in classes.
The role of the principal and his administrative staff isreceiving much attention in Massachusetts and throughout the United
SLA-i.es. It was encouraging to note that, in the preparation of the
budget for his school, two-thirds of the schools reported that the
role was to "plan, recommend and defend specific requests before
final decisions are made." It was discouraging, however, to note
that the major responsibility for this important function was car-
ried by the central office in about one-third of the schools.
- 120 -
1. Organizational and administrative decisions must have as theirpurpose the facilitation of effective teaching and learnipg.
2. Superintendents should recommend and school committees shouldadopt policies which clarify the role of the principal anddefine clearly him authority and responsibilities as the execu-tive head of the school.
3. The principal should be responsible for the formulation of policyat the school level and should participate in policy-making atthe district level when such policies affect the school's opera-tion.
4. Lines of administrative and supervisory authority between thecentral office and the administration of the school should beclearly delineated.
5. There must be greater involvement of the faculty of the schoolin the development and implementation of school policies andprocedures. More decisions must be made at the source ofeffective action.
6. School committees and teachers' associations in collectivebargaining must recognize the need in the high school for sub-stantial autonomy, particularly in curriculum and instruction.The entire faculty must work as a professional team in individu-al and cooperative effort to improve the educational program.
7. The principal and his staff should share decision-making withstudents, parents, and other citizens when their involvement isappropriate and can contribute to better understanding and schoolimprovement.
The principal must assume the role of educational leadership.As an educational leader, he must in collaboration with hisstaff: (1) play a responsible role in policy development andimplementation; (2) clarify and interpret the aims and objectivesof the school; (3) foster the full professional growth Andinvolvement of all staff members; (4) facilitate change andinnovation, especially in the instructional program; and (5)enlist community understanding of and support for those resourcesthat will provide teaching and learning effectiveness.
Q. The principal should have primary responsibility for decision-making in the selection, orientation, development, and coordina-tion of personnel under his supervision. Persons assigned tothe school should be responsible to the principal in the perform-ance of their duties.
1'
- 121 -
10. The principal should assume the responsibility of achievingeffective interaction and coordination between the teachingstaff and the supportive personnel of the school and theschool system.
11. The organizational structure of the school must be releasedfrom the lockstep of time and space. Many more opportunitiesmust be afforded students for self-direction and responsibilityin their 'inrational endeavors. Organizational alternativesinclude: flexible schedule, independent study, work-experienceprograms, community-service programs, extended school day andschool year, classrooms without walls, and open campus.
12 The Study staff supports the Open Campus Plan endorsed by theState Board of Education as a viable alternative to the tra-ditional five-and-a-half hour school day. Schools are urgedto develop organizational structures and programs designedto implement the proposed Plan or another plan more appropriatefor the individual school.
13. The State Board of Education should initiate a study of thediploma requirements for graduation from high school. Emphasisupon performance criteria as measures of competence and learn-ing rather than time spent in formal classes should be thefocus of the study.
14. Organizational changes should be made that will provide teacherswith adequate time during the school week to prepare for theirprofessional tasks, to keep-up-to-date in their subject field,to work with colleagues on instructional improvement, to conferwith students and parents, and to improve evaluation techniquesand reporting.
15. The enrollment, character of the student body, and the organiza-tional model of the school are among the variables that shoulddetermine the number and assignments of the administrative staff.
16 Until regionalization of small districts is achieved, high schoolsof 250 students should have a full-time principal. Schools withan enrollment of 500 students' should employ a full-time adminis-trative assistant in addition to the principal.
17. As an organizational model in a high school of 1,000 students,the principalship team might comprise the principal, an assistantprincipal, and two specially trained administrative assistants.These assistants would be assigned many of the technical-mana-gerial duties related to the daily operation of the school,including discipline, attendance, scheduling, business manage-ment, and school activities. The principal and the assistantprincipal working with the teaching staff would develop and co-ordinate a program of school improvement, particularly incurriculum and instruction.
i'")
- 122 -
18. In larger high schools of 2,000 or more students, the organi-zational model might have a higher proportion of professionalson the principalship team and supportive staff to providepersonnel for smaller administrative units within the largeschool.
19. Many schools are concerned about the operational effectivenessof the departmental organization. Policies and job descrip-tions should be established which define clearly the authority,functions and responsibilities of department chairmen. They
should be given the time and resources essential to the success-ful performance of their assigned duties.
20. Alternative models to the departmental organization, such asinstructional coordinators, division heads, subject and inter-disciplinary team leaders, merit increased study and experi-mentation.
21. Schools should employ at least one-third of their teachers ona twelve- months' contract becalm? of the increasinq need tohave staff members operate extended year programs, to supervisespecial educational programs, to engage in Curriculum develop-ment and research, material production, and in-service activities.
22. Schools should extend the length of the school day to increasethe number and variety of educational programs and servicesavailable to students. In a number of schools, an extendedday would relieve overcrowded facilities.
23. Summer school, on a tuition-free basis, should be available toall students in their local school or on a regional arrangement.The State should share the cost of summer schools.
24. The State should encourage the development of year-round programsand should finance a large part of the cost of pilot programsto determine the dimensions of the year-round school.
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STAFF
The preparation and performance of educators must be givenprimary emphasis, since our hopes for progress ultimately dependupon the competence and dedication of those who serve education.There are many unanswered questions about school personnel policiesand procedures and how each staff member can contribute most effec-tively to the successful functioning of the school. Viable meansmust be developed through which all members of the educational enter-prise can participate in collaborative discussions, analyses, andsolutions of the various personnel problems that a school and schoolsystem face. It is essential that schools continue their searchfor the highest possible dividend from their investment in people,both professional and non-professional.
Inadequate space for teaching and for essential planning byindividual teachers and groups of teachers, inadequate funds for\teaching materials and equipment, a very rigid and inflexibleibbedule, and a limited number of teachers in some subject areaswhich led to excessive class size were among the major obstacles tochange and improvement in one or more subject areas which were citedby the schools.
More than one-third of the 251 schools reported that the timeavailable to the principal and the school staff for effecting changeand innovation in the improvement of the curriculum and instructionwas "Inadequate." Nearly one-fifth said the resources needed toeffect improvements were "Inadequate." However, almost nine-tenthsof the schools reported the degree of responsibility which theprincipal and school staff had for effecting change was either"Very adequate" or "Adequate" and approximately the same number indi-cated their authority was likewise "Very adequate'? or "Adequate."
1. School committees, administrators, and teacher organizations incooperative effort should develop personnel policies and proced-ures that stimulate and reward increased levels of professionalcompetence and performance.
2. Improved means of deploying staff, more differential systems ofcompensation, and clearer recognition of professional performanceare needed areas of change. Innovative personnel programs shouldhave the encouragement and support of professional organizations.
"S. The school committee and the superintendent should encourage andsupport changes in the school that are aimed at increased teachereffectiveness and improved professionalization of teaching.
121
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4. The principal and his staff should determine the professional,quasi-professional, and non-professional tasks which are to beperformed, who can best do them, and make recommendations con-cerning improved practices in staff utilization to the centraladministration.
5. Differentiation in the roles of staff members is a trend thatshould continue. The school should study and evaluate variousmodels of differentiated staffing in terms of their potentialto improve the quality of instruction and provide more indi-vidualized learning programs for students.
6. Teachers must be actively involved in the development, imple-mentation, and evaluation of any plan of differentiated staffing.
7. Every teacher should have regular access to clerical help forthose routine tasks that should be assigned to clerks.
8. Deterrents to the effective perfoimance of professional dutiesby individuals and groups, such as lack of time, schedule con-flicts, inadequate resources, and limited work spaces, shouldbe carefully.examined by the faculty. Appropriate steps toalleviate the problems should be taken at the school and/orthe district level.
9. Improved communication and more effective articulation proceduresamong staff members in the school and with colleagues in other
schools should be instituted.
10. The recommendations in the MACE Study, Teacher certification andPreparation in Massachusetts, should be implemented. Otherrecommendations follow which are pertinent to the improvement ofin-service education in high schools.
11. Participation in professional growth activities should be theresponsibility of all staff members.
12. Each school should have an effective program of in-service educa-tion. It should be designed for the self-improvement of thefaculty and the general improvement of the school. The staffshould be involved in the development, functioning and evaluationof the program.
13. In-service education should also be designed to help staff membersperform more effectively their roles in the process of educationalchange.
14. The Department of Education must improve significantly its leader-
ship and service functions in professional development programsin the schools. Schools should request and receive more assistancefrom the regional offices of the Department.
I 'o
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CURRICULUM
The ovel,Lall purpose of the educational program in our highschools is the development of a curriculum which is relevant to thestudent's needs, his aspirations, and to the adult roles that he
may play. An adequate program affords each student a number of op-tions for his future - a job, college entry, further vocationaltraining, or a combined work-study program. In addition, it helpshim develop his greatest potential as a person, and prepares him toassume the duties and responSibilities of an effective citizen.Recognizing the breadth of the educational needs and interests whichthe unselected student body in the typical school possesses, themulti-purpose curriculum in the comprehensive high school can bestmeet the common, integrating needs of all students, anti the specialized
needs of the individual student.
Many promising curricular changes and innovations are underwayin a large number of schools.
Special programs designed to individualize instruction werereported, particularly in remedial and honors work. In English,for example, approximalely half of the regular and regional highschools reported remedial and honors programs and about one-thirdof the vocational-technical and trade and regional vocational-technical schools indicated they were offering remedial programs.
The most significant changes in subject-matter content duringthe past five years seemed to be related directly to improvementsin comprehensiveness, quality, and relevance. The most significantchanges in the instructional materials used centered on the increaseduse of audio-visual aids.
Numerous changes were reported in instructional and organiza-tional practices. More than half of the schools reported, for example,that major attention had been given to large group instruction inMusic and in Physical Education, to the individualization of instructionin Art, Health, Home Economics, and Industrial Arts, and to problem-solving in Science.
Taking into consideration the entire program of the school,fromone-half to nine-tenths of the 251 schools assessed the effectivenessof various provisions for articulation as either "Very effective" or"Effective." When, however, the various subject areas were considered,the picture changed somewhat. In English, to cite one illustration,45 percent of the regular high schools reported that articulation withpostsecondary educational institutions was "Ineffective" or "Noprovisions"; 38 percent indicated that articulation with feeder schoolswas likewise "Ineffective" or "No provisions."
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1. The priority goal and the specific oblectives the schoolshould give direction and purpose to curriculum planning andimprovement.
2. All high schools should provide a curriculum that has thesecomponents: (1) a program of general education* for allstudents; (2) a program of college preparation; and (3) aprogram of occupational education, including cooperative work-study education. In addition, all students in the last twoyeari of high .school should have access to a variety of voca-tional offerings in their school or at a regional center forvocational education.
3. The general education program for all students should beimproved to meet more effectively the common needs of youthfor competence as a person and as a citizen. Schools shoulddefine and require those areas of ',Common. competence whichthey determine ar' essential and should be attainable, atleast at a minimum level, by all students.
4. A formal course in health and safety education, taught oy aqualified person in the subject, should be included in thegeneral education program of all schools. Other suggestedsubject areas for inclusion in general education are socialand civic education, family living education, and economiceducation.
5. Segments of the general education should be integral parts ofthe college preparatory and occupational education curricula.The extent to which an individual student takes work in gen-eral education beyond that required of all students shoulddepend upon his abilities and interests.
6. The "general" curriculum, not general education but an alterna-tive program to the college preparatory and the occupationaleducation curricula, is included in the program of most highschools and enrolls many students. This curriculum must bephased out. Mounting evidence indicates that students inthis curriculum would be better served by enrollment in afunctional program of occupational education or in a curricu-lum preparatory to further educatioh. Students should havethe option of electing courses in both programs.
*Not, to be confused with the "general" curriculum.
.4 '5 1' r
-- 12 -
.TI-o most pressini and critical cuirlculur ;roblem confronting
most high scnools is the development of an effective, functio,:ai
curriculum in occupational education. `,chools must offer pro-
irams which provide students with career information, marketableoccupational skills, and preparation for further vocational-
technical education.
The Careers Development Curriculum is recommended by the Schaefer-
v.aufman study - Occupational Education in Massachusetts, Bind the
MACE Advisory Committee on the Study, as the educational program
that can best realize the unmet vocational needs of many students.
the Massachusetts Secondary School Principals Association should
organize a Task Force charged with the responsibility to further
define the objectives, structure, and scope of fTle Careers De-
velopment Curriculum, and to establish guidelines for
programs in a selected number of high schools. Membership on
the task Force should include representatives from the Massa-
chusetts Secondary School Principals Association, the Massachu-
setts Association of Vocational Administrators, the MassaChusctts
Association of school Committees, the Massachusetts Association
of School superintendents and the State Department of Education.
the Division of Curriculum and Instruction should have the
authority and responsibility at the state level for the develop-
ment and Implementation of the careers Development Curriculum.
l'). A considerable degree of autonomy should be afforded schools inthe develop 4 ent of the curriculum in occupational education.
:xperimental programs should be encouraged emphasizing innova-
tions in the structure and content of the offerings, instruc-
tional methods, and staffing patterns. Information about -
omplary programs should he widely disseminated by the Department
of Education and its regional centers.
11. Cooperative work-education programs should be developed in ail
high schools. These programs should be designed, through part-nership with business apd irOustry, to clive students work ex-
perience and related educatqon in ;ohs closely all,od to theireducational and career goals.
12 The major thrust in curriculum improvement and innovation in
most high schools has been in 1.1-k, college preparatory program.
Continued efforts aimed at the development of new offerings
including mini-courses, multi-disciplinary programs, and re-
visions in the structure and content of existing courses are
recommended. The focus should be increasingly on the quality
and authenticity of instructional content organizes aroundbasic concepts or themes in the various curriculum areas and
on its relevance tc t'.4, needs and concerns of students.
I 4APy h14f1 %rno,o'.,% .01!.4:,1 extvn-t tfw ,f:vr:n1;. ,1,. Art.,
and humAnItLes. In any schonl the ner.hv43.1 in the:-.erforming Aft% 10 nn T!-W OVVelOPeCn, tj, ?A:tont%
ltmlted number or students.
14. Prowama :n Indenendvnt sti:dy .- rh Afford 1p:t1..4n!*left forstudents to work trldavIduAlty or on spea1 shc-uldc=ffered ante extenaive1y. Such v-rn.lramo to be effct;ve re-quzre careful planntn9 and Act' ve 1-Art.:Izt-,A!:-n of thv
IS. Prowlramx should :!..proved and extendedIn many schools. per this Is not econoetcAllv reas;ble,state-supported senuscls muNt t ostahl:shed taili a ro,,ion,41 bAsls,
.41w-
there should te 1,1ft:cent electto offer:m)a, tl Aiistudents to nurr,ue :n dertr their A-.Adem:r,
In'ereAts,
i-Arh (-4ff -.culus area Nh,,uld te pneicf And evAl-uat:on ryt only to detem!f-ie 10-.4! !. *hAv
leArned.
Im. The req1cmal centers, adequAtoy stkIfed d r tveHjepartment EducAtton, And vAlf.'.n.% wl:ver;t:v% #0141C1:n pArtnersh:;, wtth the qchnoIN t; 7n;¶ nn Andconduct exper:menTistlon anti rysearh :16V.!(1Ven.t.t,t
of thy Instrurtlona ;-:0,1rAm :.ft the
14, rh. s,nool sh,),)10. eAlar-lisn A V.fg--JAM y-,*th
ActvItie, at a ;_NAft th0 !tic, :iMMIAP:tY
AI A icAn% o: :1;rt.t.vt;t:I thy TOievAntv o! ttn
The summer mir1c.4-0 rott:vdal,Ated. And enr:hment offertn,ls, 344!,:cvn, mAnvshould he open to sTunentN infludn) A AT'etv n:develop spec;t.if k Al c ne; expit.,t ;o.'ere*t Ark-As, 110r ;,
!': pr r asks Nnd ee r - 4".
ArtaculAtion ftuqf f.,p0er
department r,f the ...she-ol, u:*htn A tic_AitMO-nt 'heIn the dIstrIct, &mow; departments n thtsecondAry edurAt:=4,A1 :ostItuticns, And vt,t, *,-14 nc41 4n,1isOuctry. Wert::e Art:culaton ,*!IN] !,h4pvt,
TelevAnce ft,e ) rel "'e
' 66.,6",'A
t
Jurr:colu7; chart ;vs, improved teaching methods, extensive ule
a wile variety of 1-1...structional mater.als, new patterns of orga--
zzation f r intruction, and technological developments all emphaf_ze
the leed for lm;-)rovements in the educational media program. Niece'-
s -v improvements include the entire range of educational media
cervices, not ylly Those associatc-d with the library, but also mar
audio-visual ani electronic services. An effective program requir
appro :)date facilities, a wide variety of instructional materials
and equi:Imont, and a professionally and technically trained media
staff. The pronram is funcamonal to the extent that it is fully
integrated with the instructional program.
T!. findinf:s of the study disclosed a number of serious weak
posies and srqrtcr,rirgs in the educational media program of many
t d scowl's. 'no Illustration will highlight this point. The le
v2 of ad(:ua,-v educatinnal media staff to serve the needs (3'
students and t,eacher W;ri, re:Aorted hv the 251 schools as "inadequa-
-r 'not ava,lat le ?or educational media (supervisor or director)
in :)revrt of the srhrrols, fnr librarians in 33 percent, for
ifbrar% ri :)ercort, for audio-visual clerks in 72 percent
te.chnIcia'n in ," percent. and for student aides IT
er-vr*.
s,. 4,-ortcr,min-;s which were cited by numerous
rta:n.d t- the inadv,;uacv of physical facilities, defici-
on,20- tY6 qu3ntlt; arcs qullatv of media materials 2nd equipment;
rvices t,5 teachers and students, and lack of
to or(;anizati 7L. and coordination of the proirarr.
An en,-oura;ini str,)rJ; i,olnt in the media programs was the ex-
te't t=; teach. r'- were In,'6_,1,4d in the selection of library and
7,atvriak, ar.61 the 251 schools, dl per-
rrt su=- ir-6.,vnent was oither ',:pry adequate' or 'Ado-
s,!e, ti,n library materials and equipment, and 7')
I!0 sane r;lnp,:r.; t*he selection of audio- visual
nAtoz.A1- .
t, wr.1,4 t.acners re.,u;re students to 4...74, the
.,!r=sr% .k v-r- than half of the 2,74d student
"ts Le ,s often' than " 2 or
-6tar.
Ltanuards for school
1 tne j,,mmonwealth meet these high
lro:rans, Ameri_afl LihraryAss-L.at
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A
standards in staff and services, materials, equipment, andfacilities. The implementation of these standards will requirea high levellof state funding. The Department of Educationmust determine the' priority to be given school media programsin relation to many other pressing demands for improvements ineducational programs and services.
2. An extended and coordinated media program should be developedin the Department of Education. Regional centers can then pro-vide numerous resources and services to the schools.
3. Each high school should have the facilities, resources, andservices essential to an effective media center. This centershould have a full complement of print material and audio-visual media, necessary equipment, and services from,mediaspecialists.
4. Larger schools should have one or more instructional resourcesfacilities in conjunction with the media center or housed
--,separately.
5. The media center should be a service agency in which teachcrsand students secure instructional materials, equipment, andreceive effective guidance in their use.
6. Budgetary allotments for staffing, for the purchase of printed andaudio-visual materials, and for the purchase and repair ofequipment must be increased considerably in most high schoolsto insure quality educational media services.
7. A full-time professional specialist for every high school of250 students up to 500 is recommended. There should be addedone media specialist for every additional 500 students ormajor fraction thereof.* The staff of specialists should beadequately prepared in library science, audio-visual education,and curriculum and instruction.
8. There should' be at least cne media technician and one mediaaide employed for each media specialist. The services of themedia technician would include production of materials, repairand maintenance of equipment, and assistance in media presenta-tions and information processing. The media aide would do:lexical and secretarial work.
Q. Student aides should be used to enhan\e the quality of the pro-gram and provide valuable learning and work experience for thestudents.
Standards for School Media Programs recommend that the mediacenter nave one full-time media specialist for every 250 studentsor major fraction thereof.4.)c_
.1 )
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10 Specifications and recormendations concerning print and audio-
visual materials and types and quantities of equipment needed for
a satisfactory, functioning school media program are available
from various sources. These data should prove:useful guide-
lines to schools in bringing these resources in'line with the
needs and requirements of their instructional programs.
11. Adequate space for the media program should be provided. New
building construction and plant additions should make pro-
vision for these facilities. Reallocation of spaces in present
buildings and more effective utilization of present facilities
are recommended for numerous schools.
12. The media specialists to be effective must participate in pro-
grams 'aimed at curriculum and instructional improvement.
13. The regular and planned use of the library and audio-visual
services by students should be an integral part of the instruc-
tional program in the various learning areas.
14. A faculty-student committee should work with the media staff
in efforts to extend the use and services of the center and
to evaluate its effectiveness to the staff and students.
15. Each school should provide adequate professional materials in
suitable space for its staff.
16. A periodic study of facilities, resources, and services of the
educational media program should be instituted and subsequent
reports made to the superintendent concerning services performed
and needed areas of improvement.
17. There is a pressing need for extensive research, experimentation,
development, and evaluation in many areas of educational technol-
ogy. This requires an effective working relationship among the
Department of Education, school systems, teacher education insti-
tutions, and producers of educational technology to the end that
the effectiveness of educational equipment and materials and the
economics of their use can be determined.
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GU1OANCE PROGRAM
Guidance services constitute an integral part of the educa-tional program of the sch(-1. These services seek to focus theeducational processes on the individual student. The guidanceprogram in the comprehensive high school is designed to assisteach student with his particular problems and needs and aid himin recognizing and achieving his potential. The near unanimityon the value of guidance must challenge all schools to effectgreater clarification of the role of the guidance program and toensure continuous improve lent in its services to each student.
Improved organizatio:, and coordination of the guidance pro-gram are needed in many high schools and school systems. Approxi-mately 60 percent of the schools reported a student-counselor ratioof one,counselor per 300 students or more. Many counselors areinvolved in numerous quasi-administrative and clerical tasks withthe result that they do not have sufficient time to perform theirprofessional responsibilities. The number and quality of consulta-tive and referral, resources in the school system and in the communityare often inadequate, and services which are available are frequentlynot used effectively. Sixty-eight percent of the parent respondentsstated that additional information-about the guidance program intheir school would be of particular interest to them. Fifty-fivepercent of the students indicated the counseling and guidance theyhad received was "Extremely helpful" or "Some help,"and 44 percentreported "Very little help," "Not helpful at all," gr "Haven't re-ceived any in this school." About one-third of the students saidthey would like to talk to someone more often than now concerning'...such matters as selecti'g courses, going to college, getting ajob."
i. The State Board of Education has approved the establishment ofa Bureau of Pupil Personnel Services. This Bureau should haveadequate staffing and resources to provide leadership andservices in the Implementation of many of the recommendationsproposed in the MACE study, Pupil Services for MassachusettsSchools.
2 Guidance is more than an auxiliary service. It should functionas an essential school service rather than on the periphery ofthe school's educational program. The guidance staff shouldcooperate with teachers in the development of an instructionalprogram that is responsive to the needs and interests of allstudents. Similarly, teachers should be involved in the improve-ment of the functions and services of the guidance program.
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3. There should be a clarification of the roles and functions
of the guidance staff, including differentiated assignments
to counseling, group work, consulting, and research responsi-
bilities.
4. The counselor is a staff specialist and should only perform
those services expected of a professional worker.
Guidance programs purport to serve all students. Each school
should continually assess the adequacy and effectiveness of
individual and small group counseling.
6. Improved services in vocational information, occupational coun-
seling all placement must he available.
7. Systematic follow-up studies of students after they leave,school
must be conducted. Results of these studies should be analyzed
not only to appraise the guidance program but to supply important
data relative to needed curriculum changes and 9(e degree to
which the educational goals of the school haTebeen achieved.
8. Adequate career and college information service must be avail-
able in the school.
9. The number of counselors must be increased in many schools.
10. A minimum of one full-time clerical person should be assigned
to every two guidance staff members.
11. The roles of teachers in the guidance program should be more
clearly defined and the carrying out of these responsibilities
more carefully evaluated.
12. Teachers, students, and guidance personnel should be involved
in a systematic plan of evaluation of guidance services.
13. Parents should be better informed about guidance functions and
services and how they can effectively relate to the program.
1"
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STUDENT INVOLVEMENT
The school has the responsibility to prepare young peopleto live in the society which they will build. Each school isconfronted with the challenge of what must be done to channel theenergies and drive of youth into increasingly successful programsof meaningful experience and relevant learning. Commitment andinvolvement of students in many phases of the educational enterpriseare new dimensions in our quest for improved education for everyyouth. Students must find their teachers and administrators workingwith and for them in creating a democratic environment which issensitive to theix needs and responsive to their aspirations.
With more freedom and encouragement to express their opinions,students in our high schools are increasingly articulate concerningwhat they like and dislike about their education. From the studentquestionnaires and from group conferences in the 33 representativeschools, the Study staff learned a great deal about how many stu-dents felt and what they thought. Above all else the studentswanted to be respected for what they were. They wanted to be in-volved in more meaningful ways in the school and in the community.They wanted to learn what they consider relevant and important.Their concerns about the school were identified with: (1) the breadthand relevancy of the curriculum, (2) the adequacy of the staff,(3) the scope and quality of the student activity program, (4) ad-ministrative rules and regulations, particularly those related todress codes and discipline, and (5) the machinery for participationin school government.
In other categories, a number of recommendations were madewhich urged schools to extend the active participation and respon-sible involvement of students in many facets of school life. Otherrecommendations follow:
1. The State Board of Education approved Guidelines for StudentRights and Responsibilities. These suggested guidelines shouldbe carefully studied and appropriate policies and proceduresadopted in the individual school and school system.
2. School committee policies should clarify and delineate theauthority and responsibility of the principal in sharing de-cision-making with students.
3. Administrative regulations and procedures should reflect agreater concern and sensitivity to the need to involve studentsin the development, revision, and execution of such regulationsand procedures.
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, .
4. Policies and procedures for handling student activism shouldbe established with participation by school committee mem-bers, administrators, teachers, parents, and students.
5. Students should become more active in learning, more self-directive, and more involved in planning their own education.
6. Faculty-parent-student advisory councils are functioningvery successfully in many schools. The organization of such
' groups should be extended.
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STUDENT ACTIVITIES PROGRAM
Extraclassroom activities are a significant element in thetotal educational program of a high school. The findings of theStudy indicate that there are many serious concerns and numerousproblems related to the administration and supervision of theprogram. The expansion or reduction of the program is an issuethat continues to confront most administrators and their staffs.Sixty-three percent of the schools reported that from 61-100percent of the students participated in at least one activity.The schoo.ls reported the major deterrents to student participationwere the work schedules of students, limited physical facilities,lack of student interest, and bus schedules.
Thirty-five percent of the student respondents indicatedthey considered participation in student activities to be "eeryvaluable and useful" or "Valuable and useful,"and 41 percent said"Perhaps of some value." The students freely expressed theiropinions about the deficiencies and limitations in the programsin their schools. They cited the lack of diversity and balancein the program, the need for wider student participation, and thenecessity for greater student involvement and responsibility inthe development, organization, and supervision of the program.The following recommendations are directed at the problems andconcerns of many high schools.
1. Those activities that have the potential of making significantcontributions to the needs of students should be offered.
2. The program of school activities should be designed to contrib-ute to the optimum development of students. They should beafforded the maximum opportunity to plan, direct, and evaluatethe actirities program.
3. The program should be so diversified and comprehensive thateach student has an opportunity to pursue in depth existinginterests and talents and to develop new ones.
4. Increased emphasis should be placed on activities that offeropportunities for students to develop leadership and inter-action skills.
5. The program should be extended to include more community-service activities.
6. Activities should be supervised by qualified sponsors who areemployees of the school.
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7. Commitment to and participation in the program by an increasingnumber of interested staff members are critical factors in the
development of a strengthened program in many schools.
8. An appraisal study in the school is recommended to determine
the present status of the program, its strengths and weaknesses,
and the areas of needed change and improvement. The study team
should-have representatives from the administration, staff,
students, parents, and persons from youth-serving agencies in
the community. The present program should be carefully evalu-
ated and steps initiated to develop a program that more nearly
serves the needs and interests of the student body.
9. The problems are state-wide in many respects. The leadership
role of the Massachusetts Secondary School Principals Associa-
tion in the establishment of effective guidelines and higher
standards for the development, administration, and control of
student activities programs must be accepted by member schools.
The Association should continue its efforts to gain increased
support and understanding from the public for a broadly based
and balanced program of student activities in all schools.
10. More financial support from school district funds should be
provided in many schools to ensure the achievement of a more
diversified and balanced program of student activities.
1 1 r-' ., 1. )
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SCHOOL-COMMUNITY RELATIONS
Lay participation and control are the cornerstone andfoundation of public education. Public opinion is the force thatdetermines ultimately the progress of a school system. The needfor an effective means for the public will to identify and supportthe desirable goals and program of the schools is the reason forschool-community relations. A good program of educational communi-cation provides the public an opportunity to know, understand andinfluence the development and direction of their schools. A highdegree of intercommunication and interaction between the publicand the schools gives purpose and value to the school as a demo-cratic institution.
There is a widening communication gap in many communitiesbetween what the school people seek to achieve in the education ofyouth and what the public think the schools are accomplishing.There is an increasing concern on the part of the public abouthigher educational expenditures and how these increased costs arerelated to improved programs and services. Parent respondents inthe Study stated that they are largely dependent upon local andarea newspapers for their information about education. More thantwo-thirds of the parents surveyed stated they would welcome moreinformation about the guidance program. Approximately half of theparents said they would welcome more information about coursesoffered and their content, major problems in the school and district,and recent changes and improvements.
Less than five per cent of the parent respondents indicatedthat they were "Very frequently or frequently" involved in programsconducted by the school, including planning and evaluation. Yetsignificantly approximately three-fourths of the parents statedthat the quality of their high school was either good or excellent.
Thirty-five percent of the 251 schools reported they spon-sored, in their programs of community-school-parent relations,special advisory committees, 29 percent a Parent - Teacher' Association,and 22 percent a Lay Advisory Council.
1. The school committee should have written policies on educa-tional communications. Commitment of the school committeeshould include the delegation of the authority to the adminis-tration and the allocation of necessary relurces to carry outthe purposes and policies of effective scl. '1-community rela-tions as indicated in the policy statement.
4 I('
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2. There must be a planned, 'systematic program which facilitates
a two-way process of communication between the schools and
their publics. It must provide an effective means for the
public to communicate its desires and expectations and for
the schools to make known their role, objectives, program,
accomplishments and needs.
3. The program should be so planned and administered that it
clearly delineates the roles and responsibilities of the cen-
tral administration and each school unit in the district. A
member of the superintendency team should coordinate the system-
wide program.
4. These are particular communication problems and needs that merit
special concern to the high school and necessitate a program in
the school that is designed to achieve improved communication
and better relations among the faculty, students and patrons.
5. Schools should provide the public with accurate, pertinent
information about increasing educational expenditures and how
these higher costs are related to improved programs and services.
Most parents want quality education for their children, butthis desire is related to what they must pay for it.
6. Parents should have more information and a clearer understanding
of evaluation procedures and criteria for evaluating a quality
school. Such knowledge could enhance their effectiveness in
communicating their opinions about the school to other citizens.
7. Schools should develop reliable procedures for identifying the
scope and intensity of public demands for the addition or
elimination of certain programs and services. Educators gener-
ally interact with but a small segment of the total community.
5. A variety of communication media and their effective use are
needed in the school and school system.
9. A survey instrument, perhaps similar to the Parent Questionnaire
in the Study, should be used to determine what parents think
about their school and their opinions as to what program of
communication should be planned and operated.
10. An effective program should involve not only disseminating in-
formation, but provide opportunities for feedback and reactions
from interested publics.
11. Subjects of interest and concern to parents should be included
in the school communication service.
1'
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12. The program in many schools should make provision forgrater use of lay committees to advise and counsel schoolpersonnel, more encouragement to parents and other citizensto attend school-related functions, and extended involvementof the faeculty in community organizations and activities.
13. School pUblications should he a more effective medium ofcommunication with the home and community.
14. Encouragement and instruction of school personnel in the useof effective communication techniques should be an importantphase of the program.
15. The State Department of Education, professional organizations,and many institutions of higher education should cooperate withthe high schools by extending their services in the field ofeducational public information.
I s
Cch(c1 Idings are un '371V ac a Zi-'4Ult
of progress in architecture, oloov, and chan)iro corcepts
in education. Tomorrow's school ;Aants will lae adatatio tc
`changes in enrollment, educational Irograms, and Instructional
procedures. They will Increasingly provide a hiAh degree of
versatility, adantabalitv, and flexibility to ensure functional
spaces as changing needs for teaching and learning emerge. The
school facilities, consist' 1 of tne site, nuiicings, equipment,
and services, should provide a ;.hysical environment that is
conducive to the successful functioning of the educational pro;rar.
The lack of adequate and functional schcol facilities is A
serious problem in many high schools. A numt,er c'f hilt, schools
arc overcrowded; others are near to full ,.ace utilization and
will, with mounting enrollments, soon to cvercrowded. There is a
shortage of offices and work srares for teachers in many schools.
Mo.S-t of the high school buildings and scl-.tdulo do not presently
provide the flexibility necessary for large and small group
instruction. Perhaps the most serious inadequacy in facilities is
in space, materials, and equi;)mont for tto litrary and audio-vi<aa,
program.
The development of a Careers Jevelopment Curriculum will
necessitate major additions a,nd/or alterations In facilities 1r
many schools, particularly in the Industrial Arts and Hcm rconor-
ics areas.//-
'.'ore than two-thirds of the 251 scheorted that the...Inflexihility and/or inadequacy facilities' were
deterrents to needed inprovement< in tee (xlucaticnal nrogram.
Moro than one-third of 11e schools kndicatod trat financ.al
constraints were 'Seriously' affecting .t e' ;-rovisl,,n of needed
building facilities.
f=ifty -six percent 0f tee' schools said trat C.c:C 3:-*! #
ordanizations use school facilities .c,overN1 tire< a an,)tr.1
2 percent reported 'ceveral times a ytar
1. New buildin9 construction, ad°"?:one, and alto iaticns to existirc
buildings, and maximum utilization of s:_,ac are tra, otviyus
alternative solutions to inadequate physical facilities in ::d.;
high schools. The need for more adequate, functional farilrti*,-
must receive high priority in many school districts.
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- 144 -
roc sta(fin 1, evaluative instrument s, and consult_tive servicesto ensure an effective evaluation program in the individual(.7hool and in the school district.
"I. ',lore emphasis shouli be placed on evaluating student outcomesbased on measurable oluectives rather than the resources, suchas facility's and program, that the school possesses.
There must he a continuous, comprehensive program-to evaluatestudent progress and development.
r,leie must 50 a Parallel program for eva1U-ating the curriculum,instructional processes, staff, organizational characteristics,and su:yortive services with referene to their effect onstudent progress and development.
'.el',--evaluation techniques should be used extensively by allstaff members. The*, should develop meaningful goals andcriteria for the appraisal of their work.
F,taluative instrurlonts should he 1JB-7s-I by students which helpthen assess contio,ially their own progress and examine their
2rne total evaluation mrocess should not only provide an
aceurlite assessment of studnt outcomes and school services,but also should include s:wcific recommendations of neededch,--ios and im:rro.rements.
';early all pulic high schools in the Commonwealth are mepbersof the Now Lnmland Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools.mymbershi the Association entails a self-evaluation studyand a subsounont r,:viow by a visiting committee. Schools thathave complotei the evaluation process should develop a definitive-rogra-, including long-range planning, for the implementation
the rocomendatiors. `schools yet to bf evaluated shouldtte an_', 0:fort ossntial to obtain optimum results.
and . -nt . sr.ou4M involved on various sub-committeesIf-vAluation study.
cr'7..,tt.e3 ma;,,e or )vision f,,r school personnel,arti:ularlv clas,roorl tea2hi,r,: to servo on visiting com-i- t, , )1 t Ass v: t :'fin.
f_ducati-,n h,1-, a representative on all visiting-r.. Itte anm receivos a cony of all evaluation reports fromthe w r,nmland Association. The popartment of Education shouldryv,w -aret-till all evaluation reports and should notify school-,r,m.ttees wher ,or/ous ficzoncies in program and servicesIn nijr qcm,001,, in their school systems are indicated. School_ -o-11 romuired to show cause why state funds should
leficiencios have been eliminated.
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SCHOOL FINANCE
The Study has been focused on the high schools of this State,
including their programs, services, administration, staff, and
facilities. The findings and recommendations for improvements in
the high schools reflect some of the fundamental problems of finance,
such as the great range in the average expenditure per pupil among
high schools, the wide gap between the schools with meager offerings
and the ones with the broadest array of educational experiences,
and other serious deterrents to the equality of educational oppor-
tunities for many high school students.
The Study staff examined considerable data on financial re-
sources and other economic characteristics of the Commonwealth.
They reviewed the recent studies on school finance, including The
State Dollar and the Schools by Charlotte Ryan. These studies
emphasize the various weaknesses and inadequacies in the Massa-
chusetts' finance plan, as well as possible solutions.
Basic Problems
According to these recent studies and the data anayzed by
the Study staff, some of the most crucial problems are:
1. Massachusetts ranks fourth in personal income per school-age
child in the nation and slightly below the average expenditure
per pupil among the states.
2. The Commonwealth ranks second among the fifty states in the
proportion of financial support obtained from local tax sources.
This heavy dependence on a variable local tax base is one of
the most serious weaknesses of the present plan.
3. The State's variation in expenditure per pupil among its scnoot
districts is great in comparison with most states. The problem
is not that some districts are too high but that too many are
much too low.
4. Property assessed valuations vary widely in relation to true
market values throughout the State.
5. The present general state aid formula. Is a percentage equali-
zation type. Restrictions placed on its :peration in recent
years have limited the adequacy of funding particularly in
districts of low wealth.
4 r-
- 146 -
Needed Areas of Improvement
The findings of this Study and recommendations in severalrecent studies clearly point to the crucial characteristics of thefinance program that are in need of improvement. They include:
1. The Commonwealth must effect greater equalization of assessedvaluations of property on a state-wide basis.
2. Responsibility for planning, budgeting, and operating all phasesof the educational enterprise, including school facilities andtheir maintenance, should rest with the school committee.
3. The people of the Commonwealth should decide how much financialsupport they want for their schools. Our best evidence is thatschools are undcrfinanced in many districts. With modification,the present percentage equalizing formula for distributingstate aid can accomplish any desired degree of equalization andlevel of support when used in conjunction with equalized propertyassessed valuations in the local districts. This formula canbe adjusted to accommodate variable needs among districts andamong pupils within districts with less dependence on categoVicalaids than in the past.
4. Most categorical aids (state and federal) should be restrictedto use only in the early stages of developing special programs.Thereafter, they tend to create distortions and militate againstthe development of broad comprehensive programs. After servingtheir purpose of assisting in the development of special pro-grams the categorical aids should be incorporated into thegeneral equalization formula.
5. The people of the Commonwealth must decide the equalizationlevel of support they want to ensure an adequate educationalprogram in every school system. The evidence shows that manycommunities do not have the resources necessary to support a
satisfactory program in their schools. Inequities and inade-quacies in the present finance plan result in part from diver-gent purposes, some of which are in conflict. There is theissue between the need for greater equalization to support anadequate program and a community's authority to depend uponlocal tax effort to meet the educational needs of the schools.
- 147 -
6. To achieve needed adequacy and equity in the financing of the
public schools, the issue of what is the reasonable balance
between local and state support must be resolved. The State's
share will have to be accelerated to the point of representing
at least 50 percent of State and local funds. Consideration
must be given to the federal government's participation infinancing the schools to accomplish equity and adequacy among
the states.
7. The finance pltn should be designed with sufficient flexibility
to serve future as well as present needs. All evidence points
to the conclusion that the curriculum and instructional methods,educational media, facilities, and evaluation procedures will
be modified and frequently changed in the future to meet the
needs of the individual student and the demands of an ever-
changing society. Flexibility in organizational and operationalprocedures, adaptability to new ideas and instructional prac-
tices, and incentives for planned improvements in programs and
services should be recognized in the allocation of financial
resources. Restrictions in resource allotments should be im-
posed only when minimum standards are not met and where local
policies and procedures impede needed improvements in the
schools.
8. On of the most fundamental needs facing the Commonwealth is a
rational plan of school district organization to operate com-
prehensive high schools as economically and effectively as
possible. This plan should provide financial aid to accelerate
the establishment of comprehersive high schools.
10.7.; .1
- 148 -
CONSOLIDATION
Massachusetts, like other states, has gradually developedan educational system to guarantee the educational opportunitiesof each child and youth. However, Massachusetts has moved moreslowly in this commitment than many states. It is one of fivestates where the number of school districts actually increasedduring a 23 year period from 1945 to 1968. Local responsibilityfor education still predominates, one result of which is the factthat the opportunity for a quality education that a child hasstill depends to a considerable degree on his place of residence.The State's variation in expenditures per pupil in school dis-tricts is among the highest in the nation.
On October 1, 1969, 92 or 30.2 percent of the 305 high schoolsin Massachusetts had an enrollment of 500 or fewer; 89 or 29.2percent had between 501 and 1,000. The median enrollment in tie204 regular hiyh schools was 1,041; in the 42 regional high schoolsit was 704; in the 50 vocational-technical and trade high schoolsit was 246; and in the nine regional vocational-technical highschools it was 436.
1. The problem is to retain the best aspects of local control bydeveloping strong, efficient school districts which can providecompetent lay and professional leadership and which can providequality education throughout the Commonwealth.
2. Nearly all of the MACE Studies address themselves to the needfor much further regionalization. The findings in this Studystrongly support this position for two primary reasons! first,a commitment to assure every youth an equal opportunity for aquality education; and second, the conviction that this goalcan best be realized in a widely comprehensive high school.
3. A great deficiency in school organization in Massachusetts isthe absence of comprehensive high schools with appropriate andrelevant programs for many thousand young people. Many schoolsare too small to be effective either as educational or economicunits. High schools with limited enrollments and inadequateresources do not have the capacity to provide the excellence anddiversity of educational opportunities that a truly comprehensiveschool can achieve.
- 149 -
4. Consolidation among many small school districts is necessary
to establish school systems which can provide a completeeducational program from kindergarten through the twelfth
grade, including a comprehensive secondary school.
5. The General Court should adopt legislation requiring the State
Board of Education to develop a state master plan which, when
implemented, will eliminate through consolidation all econom-
ically inefficient and educatior2lly inadequate school dis-
tricts.
6. Educators and the public must support efforts to establish a
structure of school districts which guarantees equal and
adequate educational opportunities for all Massachusetts'
pupils.
1- '4,....,
Chapter 5
PERSPECTIVES FOR THE HIGH SCHOOL OF THE FUTURE
Forecasting what the high school of the future will be likecan be a precarioe- art in a rapidly changing world, yet changewill certainly occur. The question is whether it will develop outof present practices or be as revolutionary as philosophical dream-ers or some school critics predict. What seems apparent to theStudy staff is that the high school of the future can, will, and,realistically, must evolve out of existing schools but only if in-telligent leadership and imaginative planning are dedicated to thetask of meeting the interests and needs of the many different youthwho will be in the high schools of -the Commonwealth. To achieveexcellence for a diverse student population will require the com-bined efforts of the State Department of Education, school committees,professional organizations, colleges and universities, school sys-tems, and, of course, schools themselves.
The Study staff found in its survey many significant practicesof educational change. What is necessary, it feels, is a design andan innovative spirit that will assemble these practices into theschools of the future. It is the individual high school with itsprincipal, staff, student body, and patrons that must be the actionunit for change and improvement. Yet, the development of the com-prehensive high school of the future can be greatly facilitated bya strengthened and effective State Department of Education. TheDepartment should provide competent leadership and appropriateservices, several of which are recommended in this report, in plan-ning and effecting improvements in secondary education. The Depart-ment should have professional personnel and adequate resources tohelp high schools achieve higher levels of quality, relevance, andcomprehensivenes.
Constant study, planned change, and evaluation are the pivotsof improvement which must come about if the public secondary schoolis to serve the needs and interests of its diverse student body -
those who need the academic background for college and those whodesire sound vocational training necessary for success in the jobmarket. For all, the school must continue to provide general edu-cation for responsible adulthood and prepare students to cope withchanges that will always permeate society.
The recommendations of this report :Irc essential guidelineswhich, in combination, provide a design for change and improvementfor the high schools of the future in Massachusetts. To chart thecourse for what the high school ought to do, the Study staff pre-sents a number of priorities that it sees as essential character-istics of the school of the future. What is important is that aschool have a vision of an over-all plan of what it hopes to become.This ultimate goal is essential in order to avoid change withoutbenefit of design.
kJ-
- 151 -
Philosophy and Objectives
Each school will have a definite philosophy and a set of
objectives that have been evolved cooperatively with the community
to serve the unique needs and characteristics of the particular
student body and of society as it exists and is likely to exist.
Each faculty will have developed specific objectives in each
discipline and for inter-disciplines in order to translate oper-
ationally the goals of each subject area.
The Comprehensive High School
Each school will be comprehensive in its organization and
program because it is this type of school that can meet the edu-
cational, vocational, and avocational needs of all youth in a
community most effectively and economically. Such a school will
offer a broad program of general education for all its students,
an excellent academic program for those who are college bound, a
quality vocational program for terminal students, and an appropri-
ate program of special education for those with handicaps and
special deficiencies.
Organization and Administration
Each school will be organized and administered to focus on
the needs of the individual student. With the principal as the
educational leader, each faculty will share in individual and co-
operative effort with students, parents, and other citizens to
improve educational programs and services and to develop and im-
plement school policies and procedures.
To give students more opportunities for self-direction and
responsibility, each school will be released from the lockstep of
time and space to include flexible scheduling, independent study,
work-experience programs, community-service programs, an extended
school day, a year-round program, performance-criteria curricula,
and an open campus.
Staff
Each school will enhance teacher effectiveness and strive
continuously to realize improved professionalization by differenti-
ated teaching assignments, use of instructional assistants, para-
professionals, and other non-professional personnel, team teaching,
and in-service programs. The school will have greater autonomy
and responsibility, particularly in curriculum and instruction.
The principal and his staff will share responsibility for effecting
curricular change and instructional innovations.
- 152 -
Curriculum
Each school will have a program of studies important to eachstudent's present needs and aspirations, and to his future, whetherit be a job immediately after high school, college entry, furthervocational training, or combined work-study. The school will helpstudents develop their potentials as human beings and prepare themto be effective citizens. Curricula will be much more open thanthey have been traditionally and will include mini-courses in'allacademic and non-academic areas, many more multi-disciplinary pro-grams, and courses that involve community agencies and services tothem. The high school's curriculum will be increasingly viewed asan extension of the elementary and middle school with articulationbetween the levels of paramount importance. The school will havecontinuous evaluation of its program.
Educational Media Program
Each school will have the facilities, resources, and servicesessential to an effective media program, staffed by specialists wellprepared in library science, audio-visual education, and curriculumand instruction. With each school emphasizing individual instruction,students will make increased use of both print and non-print materialsin resource centers and libraries, which will be equipped with thelater technological equipment and materials to expedite their use.
Guidance Services
Each school will have a guidance and counseling program whichfunctions as an integral part of the educational program. Theschool will provide balanced and comprehensive services includingindividual and group counseling, educational and vocational planning,placement, referral, and follow-up activities. The program will givesystematic aid to each student with his particular problems andneeds and assist him in recognizing and achieving his potential.
Student Involvement
The most far-reaching and penetrating opportunity for improve-ment in the high school of the future rests in a renewed emphasisupon the optimum development of each student's unique capabilitiesand potentialities. Schools will increasingly involve their studentsin the basic elements of education - to observe, to reflect, tothink, and to act.
- 153 -
School Activities Program
Each school will have an activities program of diversity and
balance in which the students themselves accept responsibility,
under professional leadership, for its development, organization,
and supervision, and may pursue their interests in depth. The
program will involve many community-service activities as an exten-
sion of the school into the community.
School-Community Relations
Each school will have a systematic and effective program of
communication with its various publics. The program will utilize
a wide variety of communication media, disseminate information of
interest and concern to patrons, and provide the public an oppor-
tunity to know, understand, and to influence the development and
direction of the school.
School Facilities
Each school will have facilities, consisting of the site,
buildings, equipment, and services, which will provide a wholesome
physical environment conducive to operational efficiency and teach-
ing and learning effectiveness. Spaces will be flexible and adapt-
able to changes in program, a wide variety of instructional group-
ings, and extensive community use. The school building will con-
tinue to be the operational base for the educational program, but
the total community will increasingly function as an extension of
the learning resources available to students.
Evaluation
Each school will make increased use of evaluative techniques
in a continuing comprehensive program to help students assess their
own learning on measurable objectives, but also to enable the
schools themselves to analyze their needs for change and improvement.
Because the public will increasingly hold educators accountable
for student achievement and the wise use of financial resources, the
school faculty will continually assess its goals and objectives and
evaluate the extent to which they are being achieved.
School Finances
The Commonwealth's support level for elementary and secondary
education will be at least 50 percent to assure the ability of all
school districts to support programs and services at a levaa that
will provide equality of educational opportunity for all children
and youth. The allocation of school finances, from local, state,
and federal sources, will provide flexibility in operational prac-
tices, adaptability to new instructional content and methods, and
incentives for planned improvements in programs and services.
1W1.
- 154 -
Consolidation
Massachusetts will effect a school district organizationthat will consist of school systems of sufficient enrollLent andadequate resources to develop unified educational programs fromthe kindergarten through the twelfth grade. Each system willinclude one or more comprehensive high schools. The structureof school districts will facilitate the development of programsand services that will guarantee equal and adequate educationalopportunities for all children and youth in the Commonwealth.
Chapti.r
POSITION PAPERS PPFY-NTH) AT REGI( NAL CONFi.RhNCi c
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The ud t CorrTr Owns 1 %/4-' High School in Massachusettsis appropriately fo.cusin1/4; a cons iderable amount of attention uponvarious typ4,s of articulation. The rationale, I assume, is thatcomprehensivenoss, hidh quaiity, and timely relevance in the in-structional program and sorvices of the school aro dependent, inno small mea,ur. upon thoroughdoin9 provisions for art iculation.Articulation, cGordination, and coop.ratl.m arc' integrally relatedand tocus upon provision of an orderly continuum of education-al exporioncos.
t data-'_v: loct Irv; instrument f or the Studyt.e was askd, in oacn sub).'ct area section, -How effec-tly,, ar, nr, * articulation...With feeder schools, With-in a do;)ar n! sr noo 1 t n a deparNent of t he hS nools in th- r r , Am-)of, depar tment s in t\he sc hoo 1 , with
t see r tthr, a' . ona inst ituti ons and 1..10.x.c,upat on s`r,1 i " T!--e r s;))nden t was s r eque stod nd c th.-., t f)! tfoso typ1 of articulation as
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Provisions for Articulation
- 15'4 -
schools in the district was "Vory effective," 23'7., reported thatarticulation within a dopartment of the high schools in the dis-trict was "Effective," 6% reported it was "Ineffective," 3% thatthere were "No provisions," and 64% that this type of articulationwas "Not applicable"; 39% reported that articulation among depart-ments in the school was "Very effective," 58% that articulationamong departments was "Effective," 3% that it was "Ineffective";26% reported that articulation with postsecondary educational in-stitutions was "Very effective," 65% that it was "Effective," 6%that there were "No provisions,' and 3% that the item was "Notapplicable''; 5% reported that articulation with occupations fol-lowing school was "Very effective," 67% that articulation withoccuoations following school was "Effective," 19% that it was"Ineffective," and 9% that there were "No provisions."
It is quite possible that the term "articulation" was notinterpreted in the same manner by all respondents. Our visits toschools support this possibility. Hence, care must be exercisedin t;a, interpretation of those data.
A superior program of articulation of any of the types cited- -with feeder schools, with postsecondary educational institutions,and so onconsists of many parts, appropriately related and com-prehensive .n,comhination. In general terms, articulation meansbridging whatever gaps there may between feeder schools andthe hion scnool, among the various parts of a depattment of theschool, within a department of thP high schools in the district,among departments in the school, between the high school andpostsecondary educational institutions, and between the high schooland occupations following school. In specific terms, articulationrefers to the identitication of specific problems which studentsface in thir transition from one educational level to the nexthigher level, in programs they ale presently taking as they arc,moved tf, otno: soctions of tho sam subject in the same school, oras thtv can', to arthr s-nool in the same district, or move to:19othor district. Arti,ulation also rfers to tn.- formulation ofdofInitk. cto... whirr: tf. ,chools stc,u1.1 take tr help
:on T ; P t no tr an ,1 t Ions ( I t ci .
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I shall foc-us prImary, ?.LI! no attontinn on thl's typeAr!( ;1At,or, ",0",<,.A'; I n,n4 trat vou will Aire., that prar-
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Provisions for Articulation
- 160 -
This may be an appropriate place to recognize the fact thatmost high schools are offering preparation for college which isfar superior to that which was offered 35 or 40 years ago. All of
our evidence indicates that this is true. Moreover, the highschools have made excellent progress in refining the assessment ofstudents' capabilities and interests so that those who shouldattend college are encouraged to do so, and so that those who shouldparticipate in another form of postsecondary education are en--couraged to do so.
Nevertheless, the fact remains'that we still have much to doto improve our procedures to help students and their parents reachappropriate decisions.
1. The first part of a superior program of" school-college artic-.ilation is an understanding by college people of the roleand problems of secondary schools and an understanding bysecondary school people of the role and problems of collegesand universities. A few, but far too few, colleges and highschools are doing a groat deal to increase such understanding.ThP usual procedure is through a network of conferences be-tw-?en college and school personnel to review together theirroles and problems. College personnel are beginning to under-stand that high schools must accept all educable students andthat their accountability for such students extends far beyondpreparation for CEEB examinations. High school pArsonnel arobeginning to understand that colleges and universities mustprepare architects, civil engineers, doctors, and many otherprofessional peoplo in a given period of time and that theyare hold strictly accountable for the preparation of top-notch graduates who will be successful in obtaining positions.The complete understanding of th( implications of these somo-what over-simplified illustrations, and of others with whichyou are familiar, point to cooperativo efforts by the collegesand schools in th. interest of helpino the students concerned.
A seconl pa:t f,r articulation is coordination of subject-matter offered in col logo-preparatory courses with that off, redin the colleges. Such coordination involves, in each subject-matter area studied, a cooperative ohlctive examinatio:1 of acomx)n problem. Tr is necessitat.s well-structured meetins ofhigh school and -f-olle Lnglich teachers, of high school andfollege mathemal.,-s teAchers, anA so on to analyze and agrf.,opon th sublect-ma!tfr goInq to 1)(' ;,mphaciz,(1 In
-p:,par;lt )r; th n1,Jh Schry-)1 and the,
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Provisions for Articulation
Your rc:spons may be that successful scores on the CollegeBoards are adequate. If so, what happens to those who wishto attend a community college with an open-door policy or a4-year college which does not require College Boards?
A number of high schools in the Commonwealth reported thatintensive programs were being established to strengthenarticulation with feeder schools. Such programs should yieldhigh dividends.
3. A third part of articulation is coordination of testing andcounseling programs.
In each state, in the decade ahead, increasingly accurate datashould be obtained, through sophisticated procedures, for
.reaching decisions concerning students' qualifications andtheir admission to various types of institutions. An ad-missions processing center and data bank should be organizedin each state to provide the basic information that everypublic institution needs to determine the qualifications ofapplicants, including as a minimum, high school percentilerank, test scores, and the records of past successes of stu-dents from High School X or College Y in College A. Perhapsprivate institutions will wish to usP this center. We hopethey will. Participating public and private institutions maywant supplementary data that they can obtain independently ofthe center. The processing center and data bank, administeredby the state agency in charge of statewide planning, shouldprovide a level of expertise and data to institutions thatcould not otherwise afford them. It would enable the,stateto obtain an.accurate picture, in terms of common definitions,for tie entire state. The pot(ntial of such statewide centerand Lank does far heyr,rd the values indicated. rh impr)rtant
Point I., that eact- institution would have available the mostaccurate data that statIstical procedures ana g'oa machinescan produc for use in makind judoments concerning the stu-'!.nt. t admittd tr a diven institution. And the stat(
thrn,tf.h It a,:rcv tor viewina statewide provisions andar(ura', and Y. 1:;11.1( statovird( data_ tc,r Its
A w 3itr 71,A4 mac:r ava (Jr r, crar-
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Provisions for Articulation
- 162 -
Similarly, increasingly accurate data are needed in mosthigh schools to help counselors, students, and parents reachdecisions zoncerning the courses and curricula to follow. I
would guess that such information would be particularly im-portant in decisions regarding admission to vocational-technical schools.
We found, in our visits to the high schools in Massachusetts,a desirable ratio in numerous schools of one counselor for300-350 students. The attention of counselors seems to befocused primarily on preparation for college and college ad-mission with little attention to vocational career planningand personal counseling. Few complete follow-up studies werefound which revealed the status of graduates several yearsafter graduation.
Perhaps you have noted the February, 1970 release on "FactsAbout Education in Massachusetts," prepared by the Division of.Research and Development, Massachusetts Department of Educa-tion. It presented follow-up data, reported by high schoolprincipals, for 1967-68 graduates. The data indicated tnat32% of the graduates were attending 4-year colleges, 15% wereattending 2-year colleges, 2% were in nurses training, 9%were in other postsecondary institutions, 7% were in themilitary, 24% were workin9, and 11% were classified as"other."
Perhaps we should stop at this point and ask where principals,teachers, and counselors are going to find the time to performthe additional tasks suggested--and others to be suggested. I
do not know of any one answer which would be equally applicablein all schools. Released time during the school year is onepossibility, flexible scheduling is another possibility, theuse of auxiliary personnel or teaching assistants is a possi-bility, the employment of a number of teachers during thesummer months is still another possibility. You can nameothers. The important point is that if high priority isplaced upon a superior program of articulation, the time todevelop and implement it must be scheduled.
4. Another integral part of articulation is coordination of pro-grams which will not only oncour,le superior students to com-plotg high school and attend college but which will interestand challenge them to superior work. Numerous plans havebeen tried to achieve such coordination. A very promisingplan is thP Advanced Placement Piogram sponsored by theThis Program provides, as many of you know, for superior hiohschool students to take college level courses in high school.Mary colle*es and uhiv4rsities Accept credit earned throughthis i'rogram when the students have presented marks ectablishodby the collenPs and universities on examinations adminl,,tr(dhv the MB. Als(J, such students have, been given
Provisions for Articulation
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advanced placement. Another means of encouraging superiorstudents includes the use of some of the "new" subjects suchas those available in Biology, Chemistry, Physics, and Mathe-
matics. And, of course, numerous teachers develop independent-ly accelerated and enrichment materials.
5. Another aspect of articulation is concerned with the coordina-tion of efforts, beginning in the elementary grades, to helpstudents develop sound study and work habits, and then to helpth( m strengthen these as they proceed with their education.
6. A sixth part of a superior program of articulation is concernedwith research. At the high school - college levels, data fromthe SCOPE study, the American Council on Education studies, theAmerican College Testing Program studies, and others, are ex-tremely helpful. Institutional studies concerned with the pre-diction of scholastic achievement of students from a given highschool, of follow-up through college, of the relationship be-tween test scores and marks earned in given courses, of therelationships of high school percentile rank, test scores, andgrade point average--and many others--are needed by both thehigh schools and the colleges. Similar studies at the feeder-schools-high school levels shoulo be equally helpful. Also,
they should be helpful at the vocational-technical school-occupation levels. The studies provide assurance that articu-lation is effective or they point to arees which need to bestrengthened. And they provide evidence which is essential inthe continuous improvement of the curriculum.
Now let us turn to a number of points concerned with the imple-mentation of a program of articulation - -with feeder schools, withina department of the school, within a department of the high schoolsin the district, among departments in the school, with postsecondaryeducational institutions, and with occupations following school.
1. fhc' substance of the articulation program stems from the school'sstatement of objectives ano philosophy.
2. A definitive and highly syst(matized program must obtain toachieve superior articulation. Many, terhaps mo-*, of the highschools in Massachusetts have the departmental form of or.i;aol7A-tion. The principal and the departmint his occupy a centralposition in, and afford leadership to, the articulation program.
3. Ail or thp per-..onnel who are concerned with ths-,
of a given type of articulation should participate in its de-velopment and in its cnt,nuous improvement. Thus, appropriat.
scnool personnel and employers should work tog,tbei in articu-
I At 1011 c irs,4-1 Witt c-u,,ati.1citi f o I low re; ti is,r 1. ma t twrna t
Provisions for Articulation
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teachers should cooperate with the teachers of mathematicsin both feeder schools and in postsecondary institutions.And teachers in other disciplines should do likewise.
This point could be extended many times by observing thatthe high school of the future must utilize all of the re-sources available to it. There are rich resources in mostcommunities, some of them untapped by the school. And thereare many resources in the region and the state. The job ofthe superior high school is immense. It must capitalize uponall of the help it can get.
4. Guidelines are needed by every high school to give directionto the various types of the articulation program. I refer tostatements similar to those in the publication "Guidelinesfor Improving Articulation Between Junior and Senior Colleges,prepared by a Joint Committee of the Association of AmericanColleges, the American Association of Junior Colleges, andthe American Association of Collegiate Registrars and Ad-missions Officers. Guidelines are presented concerning ad-missions, evaluation of transfer courses, curriculum planning,advising, counseling, and other student personnel services,and articulation programs. Such guidelines would spell out,in addition to the guidelines, issues or problems, suggestedprocedures, and tne personnel to he ,nvolved.
At the statewide level, I should like to have, as a minimum,a committee representative of high school and college people'to cooperate in affordino leadership which would strengthen- -continuously and sv,,tematicallyschool-collooe relations.
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Vocational Education in the Comprehensive High School
by
Rupert N. Evans
Ancient alchemists spent their lives in a vain search for a sub-
stance which would transform all types of materials into gold. They
called this elusive substance the "philosophers' stone."
For as long as there have been educators, they have searched for
the educational equivalent of the philosophers' stone: a single curric-
ulum which would transform students of all types into model citizens,
model family members, and model workers. The educators have been no
more successful in their quest than the alchemists were, but the search
continues.
In the meantime, school superintendents and principals, beingpractical persons, have been faced with the problem of what to do with
students who have different capabilities, interests, and aspirations.
In this country, the answer almost everywhere has been to develop three
dist-nct secondary school curricula and to channel students into one
of the three.
Three High School Curricula
The college preparatory curriculum is slightly misnamed, since
it prepares students only for institutions offering baccalaureate and
higher degrees (it does nct prepare students for vocational and tech-
nical curricula in community colleges). It enrolls about half of the
male high school students, but only slightly more than one-third of
the females. If itsgraduates actually attend college for a significant
length of time, they do rather well in life. If they do not attend
college tand about 30 percent do not) , they Ire in nearly as had shape
as graduates of the general curriculum.
The general curriculum is Aptly defined lit, Prolect TALENT: "does
not necessartly prepare you for e,ther colle-w or for work,- but con-
sists of courses reg.iired for graduation pluc "subiects that you like.
It enrolls less than a fourth of the male stuOent;, and loss than a
fifth of the female,. On every measure or 1 ,ess, It; graduates r tnk
Last. Indeed, its dro,mut, do better than .ts Iraduates.
The vocatIonal carricila prc.(;rtm-, t, ctddynts
for ymplyment or for post-secondary schools of v.krIou; types. Nat:nn-
Ally, they enyoll forty ;wroont of the female- And nvor twontv percent
If the n1,11..,, but vir'.1t,ons from statc. to -;tat%_, Are ;rut. Ac,old:n1
, the state f vo,AtIntl 1? ;wrcont of MA,,,;trhu,;etts
,4,c,,ndAry Ar orir,,Iled in tf, edn-at.on
1
Vocational Education in the Comprehensive High School
- 166 -
Schaefer and Kaufman quote the Massachusetts Advisory Council onEducation Newsletter as saying that less than 25 percent of thestudents are enrolled in vocational programs. Since business educationis by far the largest vocational program in the general high school,and since less than 8 percent of students attend federally aided vo-cational high schools, the proportion of males taking vocational edu-cation in Massachusetts secondary schools must be near the bottom ofthe 50 states. Apparently the general curriculum is such larger inMassachusetts than in the nation as a whole.
AL1 three curricula devote substantial amounts of time to gen-eral education. Both the vocational and college preparatory curriculadevote approximately three-fourths of grades nine through twelve togeneral education. This appears to be a reasonable time allocation.The general curriculum purports to be entirely comprised of generaleducation courses. If this were true, the poor results achieved wouldbe a strong indictment of general education. It is more likely thatthe combination of watered-down content, lack of student motivation,and teachers, lack of expectation of student performance combine toinsure that little education of any type occurs in this curriculum.
Project TALENT asked ninth grade students what curriculum theywanted. Half said they wanted the college preparatory curriculum andhalf said they wanted a vocational curriculum. Half of the studentswere admitted to the college preparatory curriculum; one-fourth wereaccepted into vocational education; but one-fourth were placed in thegeneral curriculum, which they didn't want.
Characteristics of Secondary School Students by Curricula
Project TALENT data show clearly that students in the threeprincipal high school curricula rank as follows on both socio-economicstatus and verbal intelligence: 1. College preparatory curriculum;2. General curriculum; 3. Vocational curricula. Socio-economicstatus and verbal intelligence are two of our best predictors of highschool graduation and post-secondary school attendance. Yet two-thirds of high school dropouts cone from the general curriculum(though it enrolls less than 25 percent of the students), and vocationalcurriculum graduates are more likely to attend post-secondary schoolsthan are general curriculum graduates. Project TALENT also showsclearly that two-thirds of high school vocational students are female.Most major in business and commercial curricula, though distributiveeducation and health occupations are growing more rapidly. One ofthe most common misconceptions about vocational education is thenotion that it is a program for males.
The rate of youth unemployment (Ai A proporlIon c rloneral in-
orn,d has 1,0ei )rolgo:r14 stead.ty f,,r at leaqt th' past fottv
Vocational Education in the Comprehensive High School
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It now averages 31/2 times the general unemployment rate, and the most
recent figure for black females age 16-19 is 48 percent. Even this is
a conservative estimate, since a person can be counted as unemployedonly if he says he is looking for work. Many youth have stopped look-ing and are listed as "out of the labor force." Unemployment rtesfor untrained youth are sure to continue to rise.
If we consider the 50 percent of high school graduates rho do
not attend college, the graduates of the three curricula rank as fo3-
lows on unemployment rate, job satisfaction, earnings per year, length
of time unemployed, and "quit rate" (proportion of workers qdritting
each month): vocational graduates have the best records, college pre-paratory graduates are intermediate, and general curriculum graduatesalmost always have the poorest records. This is an almost completeinversion from what one would expect on the basis of the verbal intel-
ligence and socio-economic status of the students.
Socio-economic Segregation
All of the above data are based on national studies. Nationally,the great majority of secondary school vocational students are enrolledin high schools which are more or less comprehensive. The results gen-
erally have been excellent. Studies of vocational education in largecity schools have not been as encouraging.
In large cities, and in parts of the north - eastern United States,
the predominant pattern has been the creation of separate vocational
high schools. The result has not always been bad. Indeed, it can be
argued that some large "vocational" schools are the only genuinelycomprehensive high schools which exist in this country. Some suchschools offer a strong program of general education, send a large pro-
portion of their students to higher education, have no watered-downgeneral curriculum, offer a wide range of vocational choices, and are
prestigious enough to attract students from every socio-economic level.
This last point is extremely Important. In an unswhisticatedway, vocational educators long have sensed that it is educationally
had to operate a "dumpina around." The Coleman report and other studiesof the effect of socio-economic segrenation provide part of the answer.
All of the evidence suggests that when students of low socio-economic
status predominate, educational achievement suffers. Many separatevocational schools are populated almost entirely by such students, and
the record indicattes that both academic and vocational achievementsuffer in such a situation. This is the primary reason why separatevocational scho.Ils are being CI^Sfd in several 1ar;c <:t/es.
One can, of course, have socio-ecumic with:n
ni.)n schpol. When all vorat:ilnal classes are In a
seLcIrate t14,1.1/.1 -t w.,) ; if A t,,_101r1=;, when v(wat;,Inal stu,lent,, ATV
Vocational Education in the Comprehensive High School
- 1h8 -
assigned to general education classes attended only by other vocation-al students (as in the alternate week schedule which is used widely inMassachusetts), when the band is scheduled at a time which prohibitsvocational students from participating, when students find it difficult,practically, to transfer from one curriculum to another, and when vo-cational and academic teachers always eat at separate lunch tables,then socio-economic segregation is occurring. The result will be al-most as bad or same as if the two schools were miles apart. The onlyredeeming feature is that those athletic teams which the public paysto see almost always practice socio-economic integration.
There is no evidence tirsuggest that socio-economic segregationis educationally desirable. Instead, the eviuence seems clear thatsocio-economic segregation is had in both academic and vocational edu-cation. Common sense suggests the same answer. Why should we, duringschool, segregate students who will have to work together and livetogether for the rest of their lives?
Objectives of Vocat.onal Education
Vocational education in the public schools has three objectives:1. to meet the manpower needs of the nation; 2. to increase theoptions available to individual students; and 3 to lend intelligibil-ity to general education. The first of these two objectives is implic-t in many college preparatory pro.lrams. The second is frequently
cited as A goal of general education. Perhaps only the last of thosethree objectives is uni,;tie to a non-aeneral education program.
If we Are to met-t thc manpowc.r needs of the nation, we must beconcerned with hoth tne short-term And long-term needs. Vocat:onaleducation which is provided through cr.- the -job tr.-aln,rig and throunhprivate trade schools may do an excellent job of meeting short-termneeds. Since ;eneral education and vocational education are both re-quired to meet longer term needs, and t2ince OJT and private tradeschools rarely combine general and vocational education, these typesof training rarely have lang term value. Similar effects may be ex-pected from publ:,: school vocational programs which provide littlegeneral education or which water-down the general education untllis meaningless. A genuinely comprehensive h_ h sch,-,ol will not lot
th.s occur.
If we to n. ro:,sc. the option-. Avallale to Ind;vidualstudents, again the truly comprehensive high school seems the bestanswer. Certainly the general high schools of most states are notthe answer. Typically they offer a college preparatory course wh:chmeets the needs of some students very well. They offer a t)neralr:urricAlum which must be condemned in the stroges)11 possihle terms,and they offer one Cr twp vocational p aro)rm. (fri Massachw.ett,;, theon, common vocational course is business edutati,n. In my sate, :tis production agriulture). This is hardly the edur,Itonal re).menfor ihcreasIn; .nd.vidaal options ot student,.
1.:
Vocatinal Education in the Comprehensive Hintz 'r,cheol
One solution wail d he to discover A sin )le v,!ucationl pr.Jamwhich genuinely meets the needs of all students. I rvp.eat that no one
has developed such an educational pariacea.
Another solution, which does work, is to provide vocational
offerings, which cover a wide range of occupational clusters, and are
closely tied to strong general education offerings. The only real ob-
stacle to such a program is that it requires a relatively large school
(roughly 2,000 students or more) in a community with A wide variety of
types of employment (so that broad-scale part-time cooperative educa-
tion programs are feasible),
In a few parts of the nation, the population is to sparse to
permit students to commute to a large comprehensive school. Until
transportation facilities improve markedly, a residential hi0h school
seems to be the most feasible answer to this geographical problem. In
most parts of our country, however, the obstacle is not geography, but
local pride and selfishness which prevents school consoliciation.
The third objective of vocAtioual educ.stion, to lend intellli:-
bility to general education, is to ,eldom recogni?ed as important.Some students love learning for its own sake. Others-dut:fully learn
whatever the teacher or their peers say is imirtant. But a lame,
and perhaps A growing segment of the school populaton demand*, rele-
vance in education. If education of rot relevant, It ran not really
be general education. But this is not enotic;h. The student must he
aware that it is relevant.
Vocational education ;.rovides, ti-:e and Alain, the first OCC-
slon for a student to see the need for mathematics, for communica,tion
skills, or even for readin,i. For maximum effectiveness, this aware-ness should core before or concurrently veth enrollment in general
education courses. Too often it occurs too 'Ate for best utility.This suooests that education to promote awarenoss of the` world of ven7)r
should occur early in school, am!' thlt early occuatic,nal choc-eshould not be discoura ied so lonq Ac A cnanoe of choice can t-,e m,),774
any time. Moreoeer, it suggests that remedial courses should be
available at any age for students who, hocco aware of th ne -e d for
remediatiun. And finally, :t Nu11L,:ests that voriorial and ,:eneiAl
educat:on should always he o:(f4red
Ark,, Rvr; fq1A1 t.ocotinal IS
ti anv state plans for vocAtional eklkluot!,,)n
centives for the ostahlishment of area or rei:o!ill vo.ational school,_The motivations for provid.nc; the,i0 interne yes Are vAt:v(i. th%
Mntivat.On ls A trvI:Cf th,it '.he c,hncl. Is h,:t intorecte0
.n s.ocat:onat edi.cati,in Am! is unw:11.n: to r., i. ^.,! it e,:-it f,i
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_
°
Edun-ational 7echnoloqy in the .e.,ndary i -
Now And. in the i'ut'Ir 4
way of desitlnini, carrying out and evaluating the
total process of learning and teachir in terms of
specific ob)ectives, based on rese..,rch in hummp
learhing and communication, and employini A comb,n-
ati,1 of human and nonhuman resources to hrino
more effective instruction." (S:5 k
As the '-ommisslon admits, The widespread acceptance and
anplicati,, of this broad definition belonos to the future" (0:' fl.
But as the (..ommission emphasizes, "Though only a limited number of
institutions have attempted to design instruction using such a syc-
tematic, comprehensive approach, there is reason believe that
this apprGach holds the key to the contributIon technolow can make
to the auvancement of education- (7:1q).
It is the definition of instructional technolo9y as the design
of instruction usine a systematic, comprehensive approach to which
this paper is directed. Anything less is hardly worth anyone's time
unless it be for historians a oeneration or more hence to analyse
the deMise of the American dream or an educational system for all the
children of All the neo:)le sufficient to strdport the basic phAloSoPhv
of democracy which had its hitth in the Now England i.olonies.
Potelt:al Valles Instructional Technoloa
As a re,-ult of its study, the Commission concluded that the
present statu' if instructional technology In schools and colleges
is at a very low level of development. Even the most commonly used
materAls and devices Are employed but a small proportion of the
time and the quality as well as the quantity of instructional tech-
noloy :s ot i disturbin;ly low order. According to the Commission,
"Examlnin: tied im,)act of technology on American education in 146g
is l!k exam ng the impact of the automohllo on Xmerican life when
the Mixtel T F r-ft first came en the market- (8:10).
Oes7 this limited assessment of current practice, th,-
c-ommls*?n helleves that Instrur-tional technology has high potential
for improAin; the qual7tVid offectlyen..ss of educr.tion, Specif
(- ally, the t
Idertitiod the follow:ni octontial tia1uei of
instruct: tOchnolo-c;
1. Techn , can make education more productive (9:30).
11:4 mainitude of the task our societ% has assigned schools
and ct'1,1eqes coupled with the constraints in personnel, resources
and tire make it imperative that the educative process be as
elle(' -e and a' effl( nt as posqihle. Instructional technology
can he 'aoke it so. For one th n), it cin often Speed up the
ducatli-nal rechnol.; .n the ,ecNow and :n the vIt_;le
learn:no rocs,, at 1e.i.t :ci certain ind viduals, Whsle therewill alway, be A need for tea cheers, instrukt:,nal technolo.4v,when appiorr ate1 utilt:d, can tree teachers from many routinemanaoement and instruct:onal tasks so that they can concentratetheir time and effort': on the roles and functions for which theyare professionally tr.Alned and which they can do hest.
-A human beina should not be wasted in doing whatforty sheets of paper or two phonographs can do.Just because personal teaching is precious and cando what books and apparatus Can not, it should besaved for its peculiar work- (10:6-).
Illustrative of this point is the com-onplace argument thatif a teacher can be relieved of the routine, repetitive, and oftenboresome task of presenting factual information, generally bymeans of lecture, he may have time to participate in a small dis-cussion group, ohnzve students at work in a project, or evenrespond to a studenf`s question or listen to him tell of a recenttriumph. He might even have time to think about what he is doingor what he should do. In any event, if teachers had more timefor activities of this sort, it is likely that their effort% wouldhe more productive.
2. Technolocy, can make education more individual (11:31).
The problem of how to deal with individual differences amonglearners is ever present.
Practitioners as well as theorists have developed a varietyof approaches and techniques by Which teachers can make adjust-ments in instructional programs to accommodate the differences inpupils' abilities to learn. Carlton Washburne's Winnetka Plan 40years ago is an example of one attempt to make it possible forbupils to move through a standard curriculum at their awn pace.
It now seems likely that some of the recent developments xninstructional technology such as programed instruction and com-puter assisted instruction greatly increase the possibilities ofindividualizing instruction. Further, exploratory uses of thecomputer to record a pupil's past performance and to store infor-mation about his interests, abilities, and learning style suggestthat it may be practical to offer the student many alternativesregarding not only materials and methods but also with referenceto directions and objectives.
Accommodating individual differences among learners in ademocratic society requires more than modifying the methods,
liducationil Technology in the ,econdaii, -,cho.,1 --
Wow and in the Future
Les
materials and rate of in.tioction. It also demands curricula
which will enable each learner to reach that educational goal we
have long claimed to he the right of every citizen of a democracy?,
namely, the full realization of his unique human potential.
Instructional techn( logy, when utilized within a svntems
approach to the development of a program of instruction, offers
greater possibilities of achieving Individualized instruction than
those that have existed in the past.
3. Technology instruction a more scientific bane 112:12).
While we need to know more about how people learn, especially
from the electronic media, we already know a great deal about
learning that is useful in designing instructional programs and
in guiding the activities of teachers. For example, individuals
learn more easily and effectively when they are interested in what
they are studying and when they see that it has some value to them
personally. The work of S. F. Skinner demonstrates the importance
of rer- ,orcemcnt in the learning process. Feedback on a learner's
efforts also facilitates and increases the effectiveness of his
learn ing.
Instructional technology offers increased and improved possi-
bilities for designing Instructional programs that take known
learning prirciples into account. Instructional technology can be
used effectively to provide immediate reinforcement and feedback.
The use of videotape recorders to enable an athlete, actor, public
speaker or teache- to see and hear his performance immiethately
after he has completed it illustrates this point.
4. Technology can make instruction more powerful 13:32).
Marshall McLuhan's thesis that media are extensions of man's
body and central nervous system supports the contention that new
forms of communication increase man's capabilities of relating
to and understanding his environment. An obvious example is
television which enabled millions of people around the world to
go with the astronauts to the moon and to live with them through-
out their recent hazardous return. Because of what they saw and
heard on television-, .the viewers of moon flights now have a
knowledge and understanding of space travel, weightlessness and
the force of gravity on the surface of the moon far more mean-
ingful than that which most of them could have gotten through
written and spoken communications alone. It is also true, of
course, that what people saw and heard when viewing the astro-
nauts inside the capsule and on the moon was made more meaningful
by the explanations of commentators and the use of animated motion
pictures, working models, photographs, charts and diagrams. Rut
these media are also extensions of man's powers of perception.
At I. ( 1 Lek tks,1'ny,' 11 ht' vi,i1,11 V `),--110,11 -Now and in the I ut GI 1'
0,
lettee }utol oey t it) AS.-the 1 41,4 mote alined 1\te (14 4 I )
I he to ,1:11. An( rtt c'Nre 1 :t'ac't io leat ; ;%T11 h.need to relate the school euir:culum to the lives of letrner._and the society in which they live hat -t` been twin themes ofpedagogs tot years.
While the trip television viewets took to the' moon was notan Actual trip, the sense ot immediacy they experienced coupledwith the highly realistic portrayal of the events they observedmade it almost seem for many people that they were actually there.the inauguration of a president, the veto of an act of Congress,the formal opening of Lxpo 70 are other examples Among thousandsthat could he cited to document the fact that television providesvicarious experiences that are often extremely close to directexperience. The potential of instructional technology for util-izing the "here and now" in teaching and learning is very greatindeed.
Tcchnoloqy can make aCti,s to educat,on more equal (I5:31).
Lquality of educational opportunity is A fundamental idealof the American people, but the tragic truth is that for manychildren, youth and Adults in this land the reality has fallentar short of the ideal.
Many schemes have boon introduced Into American educationto make curricula more responsive to the needs ot learners andmore relevant to their lives. While it is fair to say that someprogre.,s has been made, we all know that much remains to be done.
It is the view of the Commission that the use of instructionaltechnology is necessary in order to provide learners with moreequal access to learning resources.
---What have we done to reali/e these potential values of instructionaltechnology?
-- -What have we done to use the new media to make teaching and learningmore effective and more efficient?
---What have we done to use instructions technology to make access toeducational opportunity more equal?
While our answers to these questions must recognize that theextent to which schools are employing instructional technology as wellas the success achieved through its use is limited and much less than
1: ';
Ive lw e t t on,i I le( hniii ooy t hi
Now and the euture
e c !III ta h -
1{
we would have it be, we /an demonstrate here and there that the growth
ox instructional technology has been (ons,derahle since 1918 when the
National Defense Education Art became law. Your study reports extensive
use of new media in some schoqls.
In a recent conference on the Report of the Commission on Instruc-
tional Technology, several people who have contacts with schools through-
out the country maintained that schools today, at least in general, are
much different than they were in the fifties. They claimed that teachersand pupils use overhead.proiectors, tape recorders, record players and
filmstrips rather commonly. One member of the Conference reportedshe had seen evidence of this in small schools in the rural Midwest.
Many of us can also attest to the fact that teachers and pupils aremaking increasing use of the new technology, particularly the less
expensive and more easily manaoed types of equipment and materials.
This fact is rcooni:ed in your report.
Lluch arc a few of the bright spots. Actually, some of the illus-
trations of promisind uses of instructional technology described by the
comin'isslon wete drawn from schools in Massachusetts and several educa-
tors cited vi its report are from Institutions located in this State.
It 1., the bright spats which heartened the Commission's view of
the much greater benefits still to be derived from instructional tech-
nology. As a result, the Commission agreed that our nation must invest
in instr-tInnal tchnolo-:w on a scale much greater than it has in the
past.
Ile does not permit a status report of current uses of instruc-
tional technology. Rut it will be worthwhile to recall a few pioneering
effort-. to mproe4 education through the use of instructional tech-
nology.
Television
Everyone here undoubtedly knows of the enviable record of WUBH
to utilize television as an educational medium. The accomplishmentsof this station are of such high order that the Commission described
WGBH as one of the nation's most successful educational television
stations. Nonetheless, it is unforturfhtely probable that this station's
programing has had relatively little impact on the curricula of thesecondary schools in its viewing area. It is also probabt* that the
high school teachers in Massachusetts who attempt to utilize commercial
television programs in their teaching, either by having their pupils
view at home or by playing in class a locally-recorded video tape of
the original telecast, are distinctively rare. It is also probable
that those who attempt to help their pupils become selective and dis-criminating viewers of television may he even rarer.
Educational Technolcriv in the =,econdiry ',f_hr,o1 --
Now and in the Fut'ire
- ')
The potential of open and closed-circuit televsifn as well asvideo tapes is still larely untapped so far as secondary educat;onis concerned.
Other forms of television technology including .7500 megahertz,multiplexing, electronic video recording and satellites, as reportedby the Commission, "have great potential for education . . . however,their use and effectiveness have been limited- -both in quantity andquality" (16:71).
Programed Instruction
About ten years ago, educators from coast to coast were sud-denly made aware of what was billed as a revolutionary and highlypromising instructional technique, namely, programed instruction.
Due, at least in part, to uncritical thinking on the part ofmany educators as well as the enthusiasm of some entrepreneurs for aquirk profit, programed instruction enjoyed but a brief period ofascendancy and then a quick demise. This was unfortunate because thefailures which caused educators to discredit programed instructionwere due mainly to the inexpert and hasty development of the programs.When the process is properly and appropriately applied--and it is aprocess--programed instruction is one highly effective instructionalapproach. Industry and military training programs have used it ex-tensively and successfully and there is no reason why it cannot con-tribute materially to .individualized instruction in our eiementaryand secondary schools as well.
Perhaps the moat important outcome of our experience with pro-gramed instruction is the clearer insights we now have of'the processof instruction. Our attempts to program instruction have helped us seemore clearly the vital importance of specifying our objectives, testingour instructional designs and materials with representative learnersand carefully validating completed programs. While this process isfundamental in the development of all instructional programs, itsimportance in developing programs for individualized instruction isespecially apparent.
Dial Access Information Retrieval Systems
Another recent innovation in instructional technology is theuse of dial access information retrieval systems. A nationallyprominent leader in exploring the educational potentialities ofinformation retrieval systems is the West Hartford Public Schools.The Oak Park-River Forest High School near Chicago is also experiment-ing with this particular technological device. Initial experienceswith dial access retrieval systems confirm their high potential forfacilitating individualized instruction.
ecilieAtional Technol-sly .n the Secorelar-,, -
Now and the l it ure
Other III-Act 1 ns
While we could descr,he numerous other pioneering efforts Ininstructional technology such as CAI Games and Simulation, Elmm film,
and student produced films (notably popular in some of your schools),
it would be useful instead, to show some excerpts from a film entitled
The Teacher and Technology which Illustrate new applications and pro-
cedures as of two or three years ago and which are still sufficiently
unilue to merit our attention.
Excer ;t: Learning as Self-Learning
"In a montage of young people in self-instruc-tional, media-centered experiences includingmodels, tapes, oscilloscopes, computers, teachingmachines, exhibits, and other technologicaldevelopments, the point implied is that, afterall, all learning is self learning and that whileJohnny must still learn to read, the fact is thatthe Second Industrial Revolution has caught upwith education. Instructional Technology is here
to stay."
Excerpt: Media and the Continuous Progress School
"The Brigham Young Laboratory School in Provo,Utah, is viewed as an example of a growing numberof programs based on individualized instruction,Independent study, and the use of both programedand non-programed materials. The breakdown oflearning activities into independent study, smallgroup, and large group instruction, individual
testing, and counseling is seen. Lowell Thomson,Director of the Laboratory School, describes theprogram with comments by several teachers.
While some of the examples of instructional technology shown in
these excerpts border on the systems approach to teaching and learning,
they are, in the main, illustrative of the more conventional use of
instructional technology.
As an example of a systematic approach to the development ofindividualized instruction it would be useful to show a slide-tape
presentation of the story of individualized instruction in business
machines and typing at Lansing Community College.
rid.t,-Nosir And .n the Entnro
(Si : r, :,resentAtzi-Yn
th=s nznhly ,c tho the
,ysteims apprach. It Is certainly ah excellent ;r11_t:Al effr,rt.
One point which should be particularly emphas;:ed is that therevised Business Machines proe)ram illustrated here was first des:fmelto achieve specified purposes for speclf:ed learners under highlyflexible conditions. Then, and only then, were the media brought inwhich were necessary to do the iob. Needless to say, it was a Job whichcould not be done without media and which was literally made possibleby educational technoloqy. Nonetheless, the important point is thatsuch systematic analysis of learner needs and systematic developmentof proorams to meet these needs is the process by means of which thereal potentials of Instructional technolooy can he real :red. It is
also the most promisini process develpe-! to this time for the solutionto education's crucial problems.
As to the lice of :nctrict.-)nAl 1::nh
fl )W, perhaps the hest we er-an .,ay Is th.lt s-ime schnol. mAdo
:s1n1 starts.
As to the future, you, the parents , board members, teAchers anda.d.n.n.strators, will play IcArl! pdrt .n determ:nlni that future.
Spoakino for many specialists in learnini theory and instructionas well as :n media, the Commission on Instructional rechnolo,,y haspointed the way we should cio. Whether we 'let there or not w:11 depend,in no small way, on the depth of your commitment, the effort yn maketo devylop the requisite knowledie An'l the in:,ft,rt you
-jot from the public oemerally.
the stakes are We hdpe w.II . :c, *hr :14'n _2*
ant': !.urceed In meetn) nor regponsihillt16-..
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Th.irsday, Aprtl q.
tsGENDA
9:3t1 Coffee And Reqistratioo
- 10:1C- Report of Study - Dr. C.
Dr. Lloyd S. Michael
10:1t - 127-,0 Discussion about the Study
- N r! -; e'.;
le arol
11:'' 11:45 Position Paper - Dr. Lloyd %. Michatsl
: 31
Ed.D. New York University; Director. A Sttsdy of theComprehensive High School In Massachusetts; Professorof Education, Northwestern University; Superintendent,Evanston, Illinois Township High School, 048-68;National Committee on Secondary Education; Chaira,;.n,National Advisory Board. National Instructional Tele-vision Center; National Advisory Commission. A Sluid3eof the American Independent School; Chairman, IllinoisState Scholarship Commission,
WRJECT. -PEPSPUCTIVa.S ON THE COMPPRM,4571Vrt HI-;
iCHOOL IN
L v_ao Ow on
PoF,:tion Paper - Dr. Lloyd True
Ph.D. University of (hicalo, Associate 5.ecretarY,National Association of Seccndary School Principal.'since 1960; Director, NASSP Model School Project.He is also a widely traveled educational consultantar,d lecturer. Dr. Trump's varied positions in edu-cation include: Professor of Education, University
of Illinois, 047-59; Director, NASSP Staff Otiliza-tion Commission; Director, NASSP AdministrativeInternship ProTram. Author of numerous articles andhooks.
5t !Togr : -Tx) I 'or, FIErTE:IP 47 WRAT,
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F.erspectivts on the ComprehensiveHigh School it the Seventies
-
Vc71 on adequat, enrollmtnt, Can a school with limitedfinancial resources offer a curriculum with sufficluntbreadth and depth to meet the needs of a diverse studenthody, and to providt cssontial
is the establishment of regional vocational-technicalhi ih schools discouraging the development of regionalcompiehensive high schools')
Should regional vocational high schools greatly extendth.ir academic programs and become multi-purpose highschools'
5. Doe-s the locale of tte school - the large city, thesuburban community , the rural area - impose uniqueConditions in the development of future comprehensivehigh school s"'
what extent is the cooperative affiliation of one ormore high schools the most feasible answer to needed
%.0compreh.ns:veness7
An adequate educational 1.rogram must afford each student anumter of options for his future - a doh, college entry, furthervocational training, or a combined work-study program. In addition,it should help him develop his greatest potential as a person, andPrei,are him to Asir' th, duties and responsibilities of an effectiveitizen. Recognizing the wide diversity of educational needs andinte:ests whiet the unselected student body in the typical high
:)040,..,5PS, tte prooram ip the Co chensive high school can!,.t m.t tte comnon, integrating needs all students and thespec.:alized needs of thi individJal student.
Th. high school of tho seventies must meet the test of quality.' lam Carr stated several years ago that we had solved the problem
of qottinf: children and voutn in schools, now the concern must bewhat the -v 40,t out f-)f sct.onl. Quality through diversity is the chargeto tr, puttic high t.chtkl. utiality must be the kind of comprehensiveedsieaton that sorv.c n.11idual and serves al._
".,1r mAr 'awe :ti wi! f- mod: I :r at inns and revisions from other
A' rs, d.veloped 17 characttristics of a quality hlOh school.F,,t tor 1,,r1 w, have 4,0n sat, sfied with tangible, observable con-
Oit:,--ns an, rran(wnrts as valid indiLators of quality. T refir tosuch re_er- ,d intitc,,s as training and experience of the staff,
rA7. exl,onditurs, number --Aumes inthe ilhTAVV, allotm.nts, and e,.en the number of NationalMvr_t w:nnirs. Tee characteristics that rawelti andotl., es ;- muct !14.-,r1r1 it, rnr, traditlimal m..acut.m,,nts of
/).
Perspectiv., on the Comprehensive
HIgn Schur): 1- the Seventies
quality. For example, they ask high schools to answer such
searching questions as the following:
1. Are there sufficient course offerings to choose from
so as to permit all students to pursue in depth those
authtntic vocational and academic interests they may have?
2. Arc sufficient instructional materials, procedures, and
methods sufficiently varied, extensive, and contemporary
to make learning itself a self-renewing process for
students?
3. Are students increasingly encouraged and/or required to
assume more responsibility for their own learning and tb
make intelligent decisions about their future? Are they
extended more autonomy, both in studies and general
control as they move through the school?
4. Is the school organized so as to provide the principal
and his staff with the authority, responsibility, and
funds to initiate new programs on an experimental basis
and to evaluate their effectiveness?
5 There is the characteristic of quality related to per-
ceptions of the school. Do students perceive the school
as a desirals-le pelaee in which to learn and live? Do
teachers envisage the school as one where their own
personal and professional aspirations can be fulfilled?
Do parents consider the school to be providing that
quality of education they are seeking for their children?
Does the administration perceive the school situation to
be amenat le to growth, change, improvement?
These questions and others like them are truer measures of
quality than those traditionally utilized in our schools. The new
Evaluative Criteria 4th Edition, now being implemented in the
schools in cooperation with the New England Association of Colleges
and Secondary Schools, provide other significant indices of quality.
It is hope1 that the National Assessment Program and efforts of
other natIonal groups will add greatly to qualitative measurement and
evaluative,. The important fact is that quality secondary education
demands more service, to students and more effort and achievement
from them.
In addition to the measures of comprehensiveness and quality,
the hi:L school of the seventies must meet the test of relevancy.
Rp1PVanC., as you know, is a "buggy" word. One writer states that
education lacks relevance because it is too disengaged, too detached,
too remote from those significant choices which confront students
A.'f .'"1
Perspectives on the ComprehensiveHigh School in the Seventies
- 200 -
here and now, and too indifferent to the actual problems of society.Newsweek Magazine in a recent article entitled "What's Wrong withAmerican High Schools Today?" states,. 'Basically the student complaintis that their schools are out of touch with what is most important intheir lives, that they have failed to keep pace with the great changesin American life during the past two decades." Ralph Tyler writing inAgenda for the Nation challenges the secondary school to develop arelevant and authentic curriculum to serve more adequately the needsof youth and the demands of a changing, technological society.
Alvin Eurich in his book, Reforming American Education, makesa strong case for the humanities as the new and essential frontierin curriculum reform. He states that the humanities, properly con-ceived and taught, constitute the great integrating force in theschool curriculum. To achieve this schools must transcend thetraditional subject matter categories by which the schools organizethe curriculum. Schools, according to Eurich, must center theirteaching on major ideas with which students will have to grapplethroughout their lives. Only the insights of the humanities, he con-tinues, can illuminate such themes as freedom, responsibility, andthe aims of life.
Too much of what we now teach is deflecting young people frommeaningful, productive lives. Teaching must be relevant to youngpeople in today's world. Every subject field must do soul-searchingin terms of relevance. Many students are no longer willing to studysomething because we as teachers and administrators say that eventu-ally they Wre going to use whatever it is we are presenting, or thateducated people must have this information as part of their back-ground. Students are going to have to be, in the current lingo,"turned on" in school more than they are. Much less attention shouldhe given to imparting information, in teaching students how to per-form, and much more effort .end imagination, as Norman Cousins says,expended in the process of .elf-discovery and creative developmentso that youth can learn up to their productive capacity.
Schools must motivate the student to become the person he iscapable of becoming. Raymond Houghton wisely reminds us, "Everyone isan intellectual when provided with opportunities for involvement. Asstudents find the teacher relevant and the school relevant, they willfight to be involved. Youth drop out of school not because they wantto avoid involvement, but because they seek it and the schools denyit to them." We must constaAtly remind ourselves that in America ourcommitment to education includes not only the right of every individualto an opportunity for an education but the right to an equal oppor-tunity for a meaningful, satisfying education.
If the high school of he seventies is to be more widely compre-hensive, more relevant, and of higher quality to serve both individual
0)( v S..?ti'. ,
Perspectives on the ComprehensiveHigh School in the Seventies
- 201 -
and social needs, it must differ in many ways from most of our high
schools today. There are four primary dimensions of change and
innovation that I believe need simultaneous attention and careful
implementation. Ignoring any of these areas will, in my judgment,
inhibit the effectiveness of the other three. Stated as goals
these dimensions of change are:
1. We must make effective institutional rearrangements for
teaching and learning.
2. We must use more educational technology wisely.
3. We must introduce relevant, authentic curriculum content
into all of our courses and in new courses as they are
developed.
4. We must emphasize the responsibility of the student for
his own learning.
One could easily spend an equivalent amount of time that I have
used this morning in a discussion of each of these areas of needed
'hange and innovation. Perhaps during the discussion period the panel
dnd the audience may wish to raise some questions and suggest some
promising practices now underway in their schools.
We have made great progress in our high schools. The issue is
not whether they are better than they used to be; they are better.
The question is whether they are good enough for the critical and
demanding ,imes in which we live and for the times that lie ahead.
A sober appraisal of the Commonwealth's need for improved high schools
today and tomorrow should convince all of us, educators and laymen,
of the necessity to use wisely and effectively the material resources,
the ideas, and the personnel essential to produce the best possible
schools. This is no easy road. Focus on change, as Lloyd Trump has
said, requires focus on courage.
You and I need to be conscious of the fact that we are giving
responses to needed improvements in education each day by what we
do and how we do it. I am convinced that the genesis of change and
innovation lies within each of us. The inspiration must be a young
man or a young woman whom we have helped to motivate and direct to
higher purposes, who senses in the words of Alfred North Whitehead -
"a vision of greatness." I am assured that the stakes are high. The
results can bring high rewards. The satisfactions both personal and
professional ale immeasurable.
- 202 -
Doing Better with What You Have- -
NASSP Model Schools Project
by
J. Lloyd Trump
My purpose today is to help anyone in any place to improve thequality of teaching and learning. Your school, old or new, in ghettoor suburb, poorly supported or richly endowed, can be better than itis. How to do it is our mission. The basic requirement is that youknow where you are going, that your educational goals are clear.
The NASSP has developed a model to help you. tell youabout that model and, in the process, suggest some alternatives foryou to consider in making changes in the right direction in your
schoolliainaL921-221122.11.Some persons argue that any change is better than no change
at all- -but that is a useless controversy. The directives from pupilsand teachers are too clear these days. Schools will change.
The NASSP Model is being implemented in a project, supportedpartly by the Danforth Foundation- -with 34 schools participating. Howwill these schools be different? What should we call them--morehumane schools because each individual gets more attention? Somepeople in one of the model schools, a junior high school in southeastWashington, D. C., call it the NOW School.
The National Association of Secondary School Principals has theModel for the NOW School. No one else has such a comprehensiveprogram. We have been working a long time with some very old ideas.The roots of our Model are deep,
Quintilian stated the philosophy almost 1900 years ago:
Moreover, by far the larger proportion of the learner'stime ought to be devoted to private study. The teacherdoes not stand over him while he is writing or thinkingor learning by heart. While he is so occupied, theintervention of anyone, be he who he may, is a hindrance.
The foundations also are in pronouncements of Plato, Socrates,the Humanists, in Herbart, Rousseau, Morrison, William Wirt, CarlRogers, and thousands of others, past and present.
Doing Better with What You Have
- 203 -
Our contribution in the NASSP is to put a lot of those old
ideas, and some new ones, into a total commitment for a Model--or
system--where changes in all aspects of schools have to occur. we
have been working on quite a number of school improvement projects,
for a long time. A few examples, are the work experience project
with the NYA in the late 1930's; Planning for American Youth in the
19401s; the staff utilization studies in the 1950's and 1960's; and the
Administrative Internship as a means for better schools, also in the
1960's. I am sure that many of you know that Dr. Lloyd S. Michael,
Director of your Study of the Comprehensive High School in Massachusetts,
served as Chairman of the Committee that developed the NASSP staff
utilization studies. My privilege was to direct that project.
The NASSP staff utilization studies developed several publications
that attracted world-wide attention. The first, New Horizons for
Secondary School Teachers, suggested a broad spectrum of studies while
indicating some important choices that principals had to make. The
second publication, Images of the Future, attracted even more attention.
We put new ideas from the staff utilization studies, supported by the
Ford Foundation, into a frame of reference and described our teaching
and learning system. The report at the end of the project, Focus on
Change--Guide to Better Schools, still sells a lot of copies with
translations into several foreign languages.
We tell you these things that you may understand better the
origin and development of our NASSP Model. A lot of so-called new
ideas today need the model because a failure to change all aspects of
the school program limits the possible gains of such innovations as
television, programmed instruction, flexible scheduling, micro-teaching,
use of varied learning strategies, including educational games, total
environment education, various curriculum projects, the school-within-
a-school, year-round school, and many more. These innovations fail in
most cases to produce pupil gains and to help teachers because they
try to function in self-contained classrooms, or with poor staff
utilization, and with principals who sometimes have the wrong priori-
ties.
Now I want to give you a more detailed explanation of the NASSP
Model. Later I will suggest some ways for you to take steps toward
it in your school to do better with what you have.
Outline of THE MODEL of the NASSP Model Schools Project
1. BASIC GOALS:
a. To provide a program with varied strategies and environments
for learning through which all pupils, regardless of difference-_
in individual talents and interests, may proceed with gains.
Doing Better with What You Have
- 204 -
b. To provide conditions for teaching that recognize differencesamong teachers and capitalize on the special talents andinterests of each person.
c. To define clearly the role of the professional teacher asseparate from the roles of clerks, instruction assistants,and general aides.
d. To separate the principal's role in instructional improve-ment and general supervision from management tasks that canbe done by other persons.
e. To emphasize in curriculum revision the distinction betweenthose learnings that are essential for all pupils, and thoselearnings which are specially relevant for some of them.
f. To reduce required learnings in all subjects to provide moretime for pupils to follow their own interests and talents.
g. To develop better methods and materials for evaluating changesin conditions for learning, teaching, and supervising, as wellas changes in the use of the things of education;-also forevaluating the effects of the program on pupils, teachers,and principals.
h. To utilize school funds, supplies and equipment, and otherschool facilities differently to produce better results asdescribed under Item "f" without necessarily having more ofthe things of education.
i. To discover better ways of utilizing outside consultant helpnot only within a given school but also through audiovisualdevices to spread the consultants' talents among other schools.
j. To analyze the process and the progress of change among schools.
2. BASIC CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PROGRAM:
a. The principal spends three-fourths of his time working directlywith teachers to improve instruction and learning.
1) He organizes learning for teachers according to the samegeneral principles that he expects teachers to follow withtheir pupils.
2) He selects assistants qualified to handle the school'smanagerial and other tasks only indirectly related toinstructional improvement.
b. Differentiated staffing and other arrangements produce changedroles for teachers.
Doing Better with What You Have
- 205 -
1) Instruction Assistants (average of 20 hours per week per
teacher) oversee pupils' independent study, etc.; Clerks
(average of 10 hours per week per teacher) keep records,
etc.; General Aides (average of 5 hours per week per
teacher) perform tasks not requiring competence in subject
areas or clerical skills.
2) Teachers are scheduled an average of not more than 10 hours
per week with pupils groups (2 hours with large groups, 8
hours with small); the balance of 20 hours, mostly on school
premises, are for keeping up-to-date, developing materials,
evaluating, conferring, and supervising.
3) Most teachers serve a new role as teacher-counselor (helping
about 35 pupils individual to plan, schedule, and change
their independent study time and collecting information
about each pupil's progress and difficulties).
4) Teachers work individually in offices or in groups organized
by departments or on some other basis.
c. Individualized learning methods emphasize motivation, continuous
progress, self-direction, individual scheduling, personalized
evaluation, and attention to personal needs and interests, while
maintairEingtpiilaccottabint.
1) Pupils are required, all the years they are in school, to
attend 8 hours of motivational presentations and discussions
each week in all 8 areas of human knowledge (30 minutes in a
large group and 30-minutes in a small_group per week in each
area). These groups are scheduled by the school office.
2) Pupils have 22 hours per week for scheduling independent study
in the school oecommunity (distribution decided by pupils
and their teacher-counselors, changeable by them at will with
joint approval). A professional counselor or the principal
resolves disagreements, if any, between a pupil and his
teacher-counselor. These pupils schedules are made, changed,
and recorded by teacher-counselors and their secretaries.
3) Each pupil covers required content at his own pace, using
specially prepared materials. Much of this work may be done
cooperatively in various-sized groups, as established by
students themselves.
4) Evaluation for each pupil is in relation to his own past
achievement in a variety of educational goals. Since teachers
cannot evaluate every aspect of learning, priorities are
established.
5) Attendance of pupils is regularly checked and the amount of
each pupil's progress systematically reported by the instruc-
tion assistants who supervise independent study.
2' '1
Doing Better with What You Have
-
d. Curriculum revision sep.rates basic, essential learningsfrom other learnings that mainly are appropriate for pupilswith special talents and interests.
1) Materials are organized to provide self-direction, self-motivation, self-pacing, and self-evaluation by pupilsthemselves.
2) The amount of depth and creative studies in relation torequired, basic studies increases with the age maturityof individual pupils.
e. Improvement of teaching and learning requires that money andfacilities be utilized differently.
1) Financial input is analyzed in terms of gains (productoutput) in the foregoing items "a," "b," "c," and "d"(principal's role, teaching roles, individualized learning,and curriculum revision). Improvements in those areasdo not necessari', cost more.
2) Most conventional classrooms b:come learning centers(both kinds: study and work) for independent study; afew rooms are divided for small-group meetings and forteacher offices and workrooms; a few spaces are neededfor large-group instruction (motivational presentations).
3) Priorities for new construction or for purchase ofsupplies and equipment are based on what will produce themost good for the most pupils, in terms of the goals ofthe teaching-learning methods the Model.
f. Increased emphasis on evaluation is essential to provide feed-back for directing further improvements, and to produce con-fidence in the changes.
1) The emphasis is on behavioral changes when evaluatingindividual pupil progress.
2) Analyses will reval changes made in conditions for learn-ing, teaching, supervision, curriculum development, anduse of funds and facilities in school and community.
3) The effects of the changes on pupils and teachers en masse,on principal and assistants, and financial efficiency willbe measured.
Doing Better with What You Have
Son.' Transitional Steps Toward Achieving the Yodel--Z'.noBetter with what You Have
A Increased attention by the principal_to the role of wtrking with
teachers to improve instruction.
1. Keep a log for two weeks or a month to show what the principal
(1,-;es.Then summarize the data in a report to the superinten-
dent, calling attention to the time the principal now spends
on routine management snd other duties that persons with less
professional training but more specific preparation might do.
Show how the school district cannot afford to have principals
spend their time on sub-professional activities. Conclude the
report by making positive recommendations about what the prin-
cipal will do to work with teachers when the changes are made.
Set up an "instructional system" to help teachers learn about
the concepts in the NASSP Model Schools Project. Here are,'
the three basic parts of any instructional system:
a) Make a motivational presentation (30-40 minutes) at a
general faculty meetingthat is, large-group instruction,
the purpose being to encourage independent study.
b) Organize a faculty study center with materials for reading
and reviewing. The other aspect of independent study--
going beyond reading, listening, viewing, and thinking- -
is doing. Help iedehe-rg TtrFlast, Carry 41-otr-4444 evaluate
minor projects as described later ir this 'statement.
c) Plan a systematic program of small-group discussion with
teachers, some groups being departmental and others cut -
tino across those lines.
B. Teacher Roles in the MSP
1. Reduce scheduled class meetings per week to give teachers time
for independent study, includino the development of materials
for pupils' continuous progress. Classes may meet 2, 3, or 4
times per week (same length of tine as before) instead of 5.
Someone will have to supervise the pupils. Use some teachers
while others are free. Better still, use some instruction
assistants.
Help teachers to develop continuous progress materials fnr
pupils to use.
a) Use the present, basic textbook--the author(s) provide a
sequence, content, and suggested activities. Teachers
doubtless will want to supplement the textbook with re-
corded explanations and tests for pupils to use to help
their own self-appraisal.
Add "gu:denheet% ta, tr!%uppst-fd Ln ivirn Ant: wr,rioteet% t!-A!
to dorel.0, wr.tc, v:w, 1'a ten, r+c:feel,-,wrimew, etc.
,ke xt -:eArn_n; :nrto .! !
vithro '.v=?-f*"*=',".
4e f -pac :r1,) loll' "elf -eval,, r_1 ',tpu,,% Is .
}le In to.-her'.
rlAsirconn.. r ,V*' C
aeduce tn. amount ^f t: i that teA,'heTq ', 'he ent:reclass to not, more than ;4.N-en!, and preferatAy 14_74iO4-.
MAkW th; talk prImar:ly mntivatIonAl, nnly t-,72%-tn,; Infc!ma-trnn not avA:lAtAv el4ewhore mak:n; A54:_gnmentAotherwtge not topec;f)ef! :11 wr:11n1.
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And 3.1 _f11"_,
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F. Svalua on
In additioc to tha, A, 6, 7- -or, better still, in place
of letter oracles for one gradino por:od -report 'sore accurate-
ly what each pupil know, or can do in one or two basic goals
of instruction; thi* procedure requires that those Goals are
defined in holhavtoial term.
.Evaluate some special pro!ect, using as INAhV affective 9,141%
AO you wish, ,And indicate where the pupil's achievement falls
on a continuum from one of the best the teacher has ever
observed to one of the worst. Some illtistrative goo/4 are.
creativity, pervstence, use of human resou s, use of
material resources. valve tr others, t e b ee. Sari,
term is defined and a mark placed on a the= ContinotIO:
Rei! rusts!
RE-> [IN AL (INN FEPENC!
A s*,:t!-',' I omprohen,,Ivq- Hi 4h School :n
AL:34:WWIN r-S-,IONAL HIGH SCHOOLNorthboruqh, Massachusetts
Friday, April In, 147,)
AGENDA
crIffee and Re9istration
10:3o -
Report of Study - Dr. WIlllam 3alqe andDr, Lloyd S. Michael
Discussion about the Study
A1:15 - P, :tion Paper - Dr. Kevin Ryan
M. A. Columbia University; Ph.D. Stanford University;Associate Professor, School of Education, Universityof Chicago; Director, Triple ' Prg.gram; Recipient,Alfred North Whitehead Fellowship, Harvard University1470-711 publications - contributor to numerouseducational journals and oeriodi-als; co-author withDwight Allen, Micro-Itanhiu; and author of Don'tSmile Until Christmas (soon to be published).
SuRJECT: "AFTER THE SLOGA,N';, 4HAT7"
Reactc,ms - Panel, Audience
Lundloon
- PosIti,71n Paper - Dr. Leon M. Less finger
-
rd. D. ttnIVVIgIty of (alifornia at Los Anoeles;l_allaway Professor of Education, Georgia State Uni-versity; Associate U. S. Commissioner of the Bureauof Elementary and Secondary Education, 1968-70;Superintendent of Schools, San Mateo, 1964 -68;ormerly Chief Research Consultant for the California
State Department of Education; served as a member ofthe Advisory Council of the Pr.,Pident's Youth Oppor-tunity Campaign and the Advisory Commi;tee on theEducation Professions Development Act; Author ofnumerous articles for professional journals.
'AcCOUNTASILITY: A CHALLENGE FOR OUR SCHOOLS"
Peact:(ns - Panel Audlerwe
SUMnary
- 2I3 -
After the Slogans, what'*
by
Kevin Ryan
The writer's Introduction
The opportunity to address such an important diverse group as
this is quite rare. It is an event I've been contemplating and
looking forward to for several weeks now. An audience of concerned
high school principals, superintendents, teachers, parents, and school
committee membersis a broad and demanding audience. And, I will
take as a measure of my success whether or not I've been able to
articulate one statement that is offensive to each of the assembled
groups. Right off, you should be offended, having to listen to some-
one's speech while he is lolling around in sunny Mexico. However,
this is a picadillo compared to what I've foisted on the person I've
asked to read the speech, Mr. Cooper. I've asked a good friend, the
Godfather of my daughter, not only to read this to you, but also to
standup afterward to your questions and intellectual hand grenades.
* * * * * * * *
As our society gets itself into deeper and more disturbing
trouble, more and more people are turning their attentions to the
schools. Although many of the worse problems of the society are
reflected in the schools, there is the growing hope that schools
will provide solutions and a way out of our myriad troubles. when
the Russians shot into space a steel ba.3ketball called Sputnik, the
high sch-ls t=.,:e expected to turn themselves into MITs and Cal Techs.
We are confronted with a frightening drug problem at all levels in
the society, and the schools are being asked to teach the problem out
of existence. Racism is the American original sin. It is buoyed by
almost every aspect in t.`.2 culture. Instead of going to the economic
ots of the problem or even to the second level problem of residen-
tial living patterns, the problem is handed on to the schools. The
schools have been asked to bus the problem out of existence. what
all-these people, who are asking the school to take on all these
extra job', do not seem to realize is that the school is a very
fragile institution. The school's mission is of the highest impor-
tance, but it is not firmly grounded. There is little consensus
about what should actually go on in a school. The school has wide,
but very thin support. And, it has plenty of critics just waiting
to sandbag it. Perhaps it is because the school is so near at hand
and so much A nart of everyone's experience, that it is being asked
to respond to so many social conditions and ills.
Dr. Ryan's pape was presented by Dr. James Cooper, Assistant
Professor of Edu at ion, University of Massachusetts.
After the Slogans, What?
- 214 -
To say that the school is a fragile institution is not toimply, however, that it should not change very fundamentally.Recently I read tWo provocative statements which bear heavily onthe future of the public schools. The first reads, "What thefuture holds is a recasting of the entire educational system inthe United States." The second statement deals more with theproblem. "We sense intuitively that the first thoroughly televisedgeneration in the history rf the world cannot simply be passed intoand through the same rigid institutional structure that its parentsand even grandparents traveled." I find these sentences provoca-tive not so much because of what they say, but who has said them.We have been hearing this kind of rhetoric for the last ten years.However, before it came from critics on the left like Paul Goodmanor your on Jonathan Kozol or on the right from Admiral Rickoveror IrYtC angry academician convinced that the young can be savedfrom mediocrity by a good stiff course in literary criticism.Not this time! The authors of these two statements are the nation'stwo top. school officers, part of an administration elected by theForgotten Americans from middle America. James Allen, the U. S.Commissioner of Education spoke to the recasting of the entire edu-cational system. Secretary Robert Finch of Health, Education andWelfare addressed the stresses and strains of a new generation incontact with the rigid institmtional structures of our currentschool system. What all of this says to me is that not only arethe schools not doing very well, but thatthq word is out. Theaverage American is aware of the problems. *tale this is frighten-ing to some, we would realize that this is, also, a great opportun-ity for the schools. It is very difficult to reform the schoolswhen the great majority of the people are rather satisfied withwhat is going on. The present discontent can become the impetusfor a new leap forward in education.
To say that any fundamental change and schooling is inti-mately linked with in-service training is perhaps to betray amagnificient grasp of the obvious. Massive training and re-train-ing efforts for teachers are needed if we are to reform the curricu-lum and renew the school. But one hesitates to even use the word'in-service." The term has tired blood. It has been tied too longto empty slogans like "the teacher as continuous learner." Hearingthe term "in-service" conjures in the minds of teachers the annualSeptember pep talk by the rIxperintendent before they go into thecombat year for yet another battle with the children. It bringsback the echoes of a conversation right before the beginning teachersigns her contract, when sh-, was told about all the friendly,supportive supervision she would receive during her all-importantfirst year of teaching, a promise that would soon dissolve. Or itbrings back memories of in-service days which were devote.; to"professional growth," but ended up in a weird activity called"buzz groups." In-service training has such a poor record of
.9)."/gt
After the Slogans, What?
- 215 -
unfulfilled hopes that it is hard for educators to continuously
believe in it. This condition reminds me of G. K. Chesterton's
comment on Christianity. "It is not that Christianity has failed,
it is simply that no one has really ever tried it." We have
never really tried in-service training.
In-service training, then, is a broad and elusive term.
A way to get at our topic is to ask some questions of it. Fer
instance, do teachers really need in-service? What are the prob-
lems with the way it is presently being conducted? Are there any
promising approaches into in-service training? And, lastly, what
can we here today -- this group -- do to improve in-service train-
ing in our schools?
The first question: "Do we need in-service training? Is
it a very real question in a society that isstruggling to meet
many priorities? Or put another way, the question is, can we
get along without in-service training?" Can we have quality
.Education without attending to the training and education of our
teachers? My answer to this is a resounding "No!"
First of all, high schools are confronted with a new student.
He's better educated, but not necessarily because of the schools.
The new student is what. Secretary Finch calls thoroughly televised.
He comes to school smarter. Or as Marshall McLuhan put it, "He
interrupts his education to come to school." But I'm not at all
sure that much of this apparent brightness stems from the fact
that he knows more facts. I don't think he has any more systematic
command of knowledge or that he a better problem-solver. However,
the gap between what he knows about life and what the teacher
knows is much smaller than it was even a decade ago. In some
areas like drugs, the high school student probably knc.w5 much more
than his teachers. It is estimated that between one-third to one-
half of high school students have used drugs. I cannot imagine
the percentage is any where near that among teachers. The same
student and his peers are much less willing to passively accept
authority. I don't think that it is because they are particularly
anti-authority. Rather, they want to question the legitimacy of
the authority that impinges on them. Those of us who for years
hammered away at high school students about the importance of the
question "why" are beginning to rue these days. This new student
will not passively accept things he doesn't like. Last year, there
were over 6,000 "incidents" -- ranging from arson attempts to
political protests -- in the nation's high schools. All of these
incidents are not simply the actions of "spoiled kids." Much can
be attributed to young people who are deeply disappointed and bored
by school. The implications of this for in-service training are
profound. Most of us learned our profession in quieter times with
more docile students. We need to catch up here. We need to learn
in a very fundamental way who our new students are.
0)011r.0
After the Slogans, What?
- 216 -
Second, we are moving into a new world, and whether we'rebrave enough for it is yet to be seen. Since World War II, we haveseen profound changes in our society, and we have barely kept ourcollective heads above the water. But the pace of change ispicking up. Experts tell us that by the year 2,000, the populationof the world will have increased three-fold. Voyages to the moonwill be normal and many will live in space in artificial satellite.Knowledge will be accumulated in electronic banks and transmitteddirectly into the human nervous system by means of coded electronicmessages. Geneticists predict the scientific planning and shapingof personalities. Families will own computer-robots to do allmenial household work. There will be extensive use of mechanicalaids and substitutes for human organs, senses, and limbs. Therewill be substantial increase in life's expectancy and the post-ponement of aging. We will have some control of weather and cli-mate. Hereditary and congenital defects will be greatly reduced.This is not the world of Buck Rogers. It is the world our childrenwill inherit. Our hest estimate is that _the children who enteredkindergarten this year will be about 35 when all of this is areality. But they and we have staggering problems to face alongthe way. Poverty is expanding at the same time that expectationsfor a better life are arising. This augers for more war, revolu-tions and general international instability. At home we have thecancer of racism that eats at our souls. Unrestrained privateenterprise and public apathy are on the verge of upsetting thedelicate ecological balance and sending us into a spiral of famineand pestilence. Then there are the second-order problems ofadjusting to the sexual revolution, providing massive job retrain-ing as we enter an era of automation and cybernetics. And whatwill be the affect of all this on the human spirit? After tran-quilizers, what? Already mental illness is our major healthproblem. But the question we must answer is what will be theschool's response to this new world? Are our schools preparingchildren for the future? Or are we ignoring the future and makingminor adjustments on a sterile, outmoded curriculum?
A third issue that is related to our question of "Do we NeedIn-Service Training?" is our present system of teacher preparation.While there have been some promising developments in the lastdecade, pre-service teacher education is a national embarrassment.It is understaffed, under-financed, and under-conceptualized. Ifa teacher succeeds in a classroom today, 90% of the credit goes tohim rather than the program that trains him. But this is notsurprising in a culture that spends 5 or 6 times more on profession-al preparation of a doctor, who ministers to the body, than on ateacher, who ministers to the human mind and spirit. Even if pre-service training improves dramatically, and I think it will, muchof the advanced training of the beginning teacher must be done inthe schools with the strong support of experienced professionals.In brief, then, the present state compels us to provide effectiveon-the-job training for the beginner.
After the Slogans, What?
- 217 -
Fourth, there are new ideas in education and we need the
means to bring these ideas before teachers. For all our discontent
and the public criticism of the schools during the last decade,
the sixties have been years of great creativity in education. It
has been a time of daring innovation and experimentation. However,
these ideas and programs have not been widely disseminated. And,
certainly, they are not widely practiced. I'm thinking of such
things as flexible or modular scheduling which is an attempt to
break us out of the rigid, lock-step pattern which is so evident
in our schools. Or individualized instruction with its emphasis
on independent study and the student moving at his own rate. And
programs like the Parkway Project which takes education out of
the narrow confines of the school building and makes an entire
city into an environment for learniny. Or the non-graded school
movement. Or teaching by television which we've seen done with
such flare on Sesame Street. Or the emphasis in the new curricula
on the inquiry technique. Some of these are old ideas but they
have come back to us with new vitality. We need to find ways to
expose teachers to these new approaches to teaching and learning.
They have to have the opportunity to work through them, become
familiar with them and, therefore, be in a position to truly judge
their value. Right now, to most of us, these exciting ideas are
like the term "in-service training.'' They're little more than
catch words and slogans.
Fifth, teachers need in-service training if they're going to
stay alive intellectually. This is particularly true of secondary
school teachers who are teaching a discipline. We continually
underestimate the physical and psychic drain of teaching. Most
high school teachers spend more hours teaching in one day than the
majority of professors at my university spend before classes in a
week. Further, high school teachers have more extracurricular
and clerical duties than university professors. It seems, too,
that a very good case could be made that teaching on the high
school level with its ever-present problems of motivation is much
more demanding than on the university level. Given all this, we
make few provisions for the teacher to stay on top of his field,
and to be continually thinking of new ways to engage his students
in the study of his discipline. We've given high school teachers
the staggering job and provided them with fewer resources to grow
and develop intellectually. It is no wonder that there are pock-
ets of anti-intellectualism on our faculties. The very people
who should be exemptors of the life of the mind have no opportunity
to attend to their minds.
After the Slogans, What?
- 218 -
In-Service Training as It Is
Our second major question is "What are the problems in theway in-service training is presently being conducted?" Severalyears ago, as a graduate student at Stanford University, I was ina seminar with Robert Bush in which we studied this question ofin-service training. We canvassed many teachers and principals toget a sense of what was going on in in-service training. One imageprovided by a classroom teacher really seemed to summarize whatwe found. This teacher stated, "When I think of in-service educa-tion, I have the impression of mosquitoes nibbling at billiardballs." I read this to mean that we have hard, tough problemsconfronting us in the schools and our attempts at solution throughin-service training are rather harmless and flitty. Many may beannoyed with this rather cavalier dismissal of our in-servicetraining efforts. They think of teachers having summers off tostudy and refresh themselves. Then there are the in-servicetraining days. And the special late afternoon and evening coursesoffered by colleges and universities especially for teachers. Andthe free time during the teaching day. And the curriculum speci-alist and supervisors provided by the schools for the on-goingtraining of teachers. What about all of this! While not for amoment questionning the potential value of any of these means ofincreasing the effectiveness of teachers, they are either notworking or they are not enough. Few men could afford not to workin the summer. Evening courses are frequently irrelevant to thereal needs of teachers or the teachers themselves are too tired atthe,end of a working day to seriously engage in sustained study.Free periods are consumed in frantic efforts to stay on top ofteaching responsibilities. Often, the curricula and supervisoryhelp never get to the people -- the people who need it most.
There are two problems which vitiate trie efforts mentionedabove. First is the transient nature of the teaching profession.Ours is a swinging door profession. Half of the teachers whoentered the profession last September will have left teaching bya year from June. There is a fifty percent dropout in a two-yearperiod. Obviously, many teachers entered the profession with arelatively low level of commitment. Teaching is an easy occupationto get into and an easy occupation to drop out of. This conditiondissipates the trained resources which are available. Also, itis difficult to get much enthusiasm to support in-service trainingfor such a transient group. The second problem deals with thenature of in-service training. Simply stated, we put too much faithin words. We think that simply talking at people about new in-structional techniques and methods is enough to change their be-havior. The little we know about modifying human behavior shouldmake ns realize that talking alone rarely brings about change.People have to be motivated to change. They have to have a very
After the Slogans, What?
- 219 -
clear idea of what is entailed in the change. They need opportuni-
ties Us tryout newly discovered skills and strategies. They need
encouragement and support. However, our normal approach -- and
we university professors are the worse offenders here -- is to
announce how something should be done and then step back, waiting
for the magnificient change.
What Can We Do?
What then can we do to break into this circle of ineffective-
ness and inefficiency? Or put another way, what can we do to
overcome the teacher obsolescence problem? I am reminded of Samuel
Gompers', the pioneer labor leader's statement when asked by the
frustrated industralists, "What do you want, Mr. Gompers? What do
you really want?" Gompers replied "More!" However, our answer to
in-service needs should be "More and better!" I believe our great-
est nrcblem is that we, as a profession, settle.for crumbs. Teach-
ers and the communities that support them are trapped in a cycle
by low expectations. E.:lacation can learn a.great deal from the
military and industry. The armed forces tile continually retrain-
ing their personnel, not only through combat exercises, but also
through a vast network of service schools. The major industries,
too, are allocating large portions of their annual budgets for the
educatior of their personnel. IBM is said to be presently devoting.
30% of the time of its employees, from executives to technicians,
to training and re-training. And, again, they're only in the
business of making machines.
More specifically, we need to give much more attention to
the educational and training needs of the career teacher, those
who have demonstrated that they will be staying in the classroom.
These experienced teachers are frequently the forgotten men and
women of education. Given the present demand for highly qualified
teachers, it does not seem unreasonable that every four or five
years teachers return to the universities or special centers for
a semester or perhaps a full year of advanced work. Also, the
Summer Institute Programs should be expanded for many more teachers
and for teachers of all subjects. It is imperative that teachers
should be able to attend without having to make any more financial
sacrifices. We can learn from the recent experience in Japan that
has helped revolutionize the teaching of science there. To keep
teachers abreast of the developments in the teaching of science,
the Japanese have formed local science education centers that draw
teachers out of the schools and retrain them for periods from as
short as one week or for as long as a semester. While they're
sway at the centers, they are replaced by special teams of travelling
teachers who have been previously trained at the centers. All of
what the regular teachers study at the center is immediately appli-
cable when they return to their classroom.
191/ 407OWI
After the Slogans, What?
- 220 -
This idea of training centers or complexes is beginning toattract a great deal of attention in this country. The AmericanAssociation of Colleges for Teacher Education and the Office ofEducation are in the process of putting together three prototypetraining centers. Their long-range plans are to have over a1,000 centers scattered around the country. The plan is describedin a recently published book entitled Teachers for the Real World,which B. O. Smith and Dean Saul Cohen of Clark University had amajor hand in writing. A training complex will be an institutionthat stands, somewhat as neutral ground, between the public schooland the university. Based on the premise that teacher training isdifficult to do effectively in a university where children aresuch a scarity and that the public schools are too absolved intheir primary job of educating the children, the training complexwill draw on the strengths of both institutions. It would alsoinvolve that missing ingredient in teacher training, the community.Its function will be to do advanced teacher training. It woulddraw heavily on the new technological equipment, such as video-taping equipment, and kinescopes. The staffs and training complexparticipants will develop courses, seminars and workshops in subjectmatter fields and in new instructional approaches. A function ofthe training complex will be to provide specialized training forteacher aides and other auxiliary teaching personnel.
Perhaps, the most crucial in-service training, though isthe introduction of new teachers to the classroom. Earlier, I
brought up the disturbing problem of the high turnover and drop-out rates in teaching. Given the fact that so many leave so fast,we might be tempted to try to get as much as we can out of thebeginning teachers and not waste precious resources on them, Butthis is exactly the way to keep this malady going. While I'maware that there are many reasons for teachers leaving the pro-fession, I am personally convinced that large numbers of peopleleave after the first and second year because they feel they havefailed. They receive no sense of satisfaction, no sense that theyhave accomplished anything, so they move on. We should take anentirely different tack, one that attempts to insure the successof the beginning teacher. Specifically, we should make sure thatthe beginning teacher has no more than two preparations, that hisclasses are not filled with what we euphemistically call disciplineproblems, that he has not more than four classes. Experiencedteachers that are particularly skillful in working with youngercolleagues should be given time off to work very closely and sys-tematically with a group of four or five beginning teachers.These experienced teacher-team leaders should observe their classes,frequently videotaping them for replay-discussion zonferences.Further, community people should take a more active role in inteo-ducing beginning teachers to the community. I'm not talking abouta one-shot luncheon by the Rotary Club, but a planned program sothat by the end of the first year the new teacher not only knows
I)')
After the Slogans, What?
- 221 -
the local community but feels like a part of the very fabric of
the community. This kind of special attention and training should
go on for at least two years. If this were a regular part of our
in-service training, not only would we have better and more respon-
sive teachers, but they would be staying in the profession longer.
At the University of Chicago we are presently engaged in an
experimental program to train in-service leaders. It is part of a
new Office of Education project entitled "TTT' for Trainers of
Teacher Trainers. Teachers from two districts in the Chicago Public
Schools have been selected by their fellow teachers to function in
a role we call Resource Colleagues. Their function is described by
their title. They're simply to be teaching resources for their
colleagues. After a year of training in new curricula ideas, in-
structional skills and teacher training approaches, they go back
to their schools to provide a variety of services to teachers. One
of their main functions is to work with beginning teachers and-
make sure they have a successful introduction. They also work with
the principal and faculty committee to put on in-service programs.
Another part of their job is to scour the university, the Board of
Education staff and the community for people who have something
important to say to teachers or children. Another role of growing
importance is to act as a mediator between teachers, who are be-
coming more threatened by community people and angry community
people who feel immense dissatisfaction with what is going on in
schools. Resource Colleagues will not have classroom responsibili-
ties, but they will do a good deal of demonstration teaching. In
essence, they are teacher trainers in residence. I might add, too,
that having these successful, experienced teachers available to
our pre-service teachers at the University has greatly enhanced our
pre-service program.
I have been able only to touch on a few ideas and movements.
These examples are meant to be suggestive of some of the things
presently being done. I have stated them not as instant solutions,
but as appetite whetters.
What can we do abut it?
One of the questions we started with is, "What can we do
about in-service training?" I must change that question to "What
can you do about your in-service situation?" My reason for the
change is simple. I can do nothing for the in-service problems
in your schools. I could waste our remaining moments with elabo-
rate sets of prescriptions which may or may not be solutions to
the problems in the school with which I work in Chicago. Or, I
could try the buckshot approach of shooting at you two dozen
dubious panaceas in three minutes. I believe, however, that it
would be more beneficial if I made some suggestions which you
might translate into action.elf,fa
After the Slogans, What"
222
First, we all need a new set of expectatIr4 Atr-,LIT ilat Ittakes to train 'a teacher and what a teacher needs to sustain himduring his professional life. Presently, we are trying to do P-iscrucial task on the cheap. We must spend much more of our timeand energy and money on this problem or it will continue to ataway at our effectiveness with children. Instead of the presentcondition where we are spending something in the neighborhood ofone percent or less on in-service training, you should he askingfor five percent of the school budget.
Next, you need to realize how important You are to a solutionof this problem in your own school. As I understand it, groups offour from several schools have been sent here to think about in-service training. You represent, in a sense, different constitu-ents -- all of whom I presume hopi some good comes out of thismeeting. What I am suggesting is the obvious, that the four ofyou take this on as your special problem, not just for today butuntil you have reached some goals. Une thing you could do is be-come a question-asking group. Superintendents can start askingquestions of their staff. Teachers of their colleagues and prin-cipals. School committeemen of their constituents. Parents ofother parents._ You might ask, 'What exactly are we doing in thename of in-service?' "Are' our in-service efforts having a positiveeffect on classroom instruction and the lives of our children?''Are our teachers satisfied with the in-service program'''. 'Arethey involved in its planning?" "What are parents and the communitygenerally contributing to the in-service program?' If thesequestions get little reaction, I suggest you read a marvelous paperentitled "Education for Survival," by Michael Scriven, of thePhilosophy Department at the University of California at Rerkeley.I am sure if you wrote him there he would send you a copy. In hispaper, Scriven poses to the American high school one tellingquestion after another. The questions deal with what students andthe total society need to know and be alle to do in order to surviv,".The questions are the right ones and the vary fact they are raiseswill force people to think hard about their high schools. Whilethe questions relate to what should be taught in schools, it is a'easy step to 'How do we help teachers treat th.se issues effectively'
Question-as1,;r7 and fact - gathering are necessary first steps,but they are not enough. If you want action, you need to plan, youneed to be strategists. We should not kid ourselves: getting basicchange in an in-service program will not he easy. Good ideas andgood intentions are not enough. Anyone who- is serious about makinichange in an in-service program can benefit smensely by a finearticle by Hubert Coffey and William Golden. It is the classic inthe area, and it appears in the National Societ for the Study ofEducation's (NSSE) Yearbook for 1)57. The entire yearbook is devotedto in-service training, and while there may be much of value to you
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.iccounta. A Challenge for Our Scnool,
IT Why Is Accountahillty an important new notion in education'
Our survival and enhancement as Individuals and as a nation isso intricately bound up with services and competences of organizations,impersonal bureaucracies and strangers that the subject of keepingpromises has become a central issue of life in a free society. In theearly days of our republic popular custom recognized simpler ways ofpledging faith than contracts and extensive negotiations. With strongrelioious sanctions against breaking one's word, a handshake was enoughto bind a bargain. The delivery of promises was a relatively easything to monitor and failure to deliver could be redressed iri a ratherdirect manner. Things are different now. Many young people todayallege hypocrisy when they match ideals -- promises -- against rea ty.
Accountability tn education is a response to the general CII.6, of keepromises in a complex yet freedom-loving society, Its quick spread andgeneral acceptance in principle may be explained by both the felt needand the sense that the concept can successfully address that need intne critical area of delivering Int fd educational benefits to children.
The American education system today is experiencing the mostsw,tained, diverse, widespread, and persistent challenge ever to confrontit. The criticisms no longer center solely on alleged lack of responsive-ness, middle class bias and the like but on competence. This is amortal challenge. For if it can be established that schools lack thecompetence to achieve results with any other than those from certainhomes and areas where the family is the most critical element then thesystem like the emperor stands naked. Both critic and suppolter whenanalyzing the performance of many city school systems for example andthe problems of strikes and student unrest, agrees that something haslone wrong and that corrective action is needed. Nor does this implyby all that the school is responsible. Over the past half-decade,Congress and State legislatures have responded to this growing publicconcern by providing additional funds, but are increasingly dismayedtilat puzzling problems persist. Recently, this dismay has cry.stallizedinto refusals to vote additional monies until we learn -what works" orsee to It that the money produces results.
In princikile, the American educational commitment has been thatevery child should have an adequate education. This commitment has beenstated in terms of resources such as teachers, books, space, and equip-ment. when a child has failed to learn, school personnel have assignedhim a label -- "slow ", or "unmotivated", or "retarded". To move towardaccountability, our schools must assume a revised commitment -- thatevery child shall learn. Such a commitment includes the willingness tocnange A system which does not work, and find one which does; to seekcauses 0! failure in the system and its personnel instead of focusing
snle:y on students; in short, to hold themselves accountable for resultsin term of student learning rather than solely in the use of resources.
4t.
Accountability! A Challenge for Our Schools
- 227 -
If schools are to be accountable for results, a new approach tothe basic mission of the schools is necessary. In the first place,the focus must shift from teaching to learning. Second, the schoolswill cease to merit credit solely for their ability to screen and sortin a rutted roadbed toward college or the discard pile. Third, atechnology of instruction based on specific learning objectives willstart to build. Fourth, striking changes will be made in the curricu-lum. Finally, a rational relationship may be established betweencosts and benefits.
III. Engineering Accountability into Public Education
Accountability is the product of a process. At its most basislevel, it means that an agent, public or private, entering into anagreement to perform a service, will be held answerable for perleroingaccording to agreed upon terms, within an established time period andwith a stipulated use of resources and performancetatandards. Thisdefinition of accountability requires that the part/ WS to the agreementkeep clear and complete records and that this information be availablefor outside review. It also suggests penalties and rewards; accounta-bility without redress or incentive is mere rhetoric.
Performance cont acting is the process for which accountabilityis the product. The ideaof contracting is older than free enterprise.Its appeal to both liberals and conservatives revolves around itsattention to two things that leaders agree are desperately needed ineducation -- quality assurance and knowledge of results.
Seen from the federal level the process works like this: Apublic authority grants money to a local educational agency to contractwith private enterprise to achieve specific goals within specificperiods for specific costs. The money is targeted at pressing needswhich are not being adequately met, such as: drop-out prevention amongdisadvantaged groups, bringing the underprivileged and undereducatedup to competitive educational, levels, helping the students whose mothertongue is not English perform as well in regular school subjects usingtheir "native" language as those whose mother tongue is English, pro-viding vocational, adult and remedial schooling, et cetera.
From this vantage point accountability appears to be merely apassionate embrace by education of a private enterprise methodology for
getting things done, a methodology, incidentally, already in use byschool systems fot years. Any superintendent of schools or businessagent for example, can quickly show that performance contracts have
long been a critical element in school operation and maintenance. The
use of performance contracts to achieve accountability is not new to
education. It is the extension of this idea into the realm of learningthrough a particular process called here "educational engineering"which represents what some in Congress are calling the "coming revolu-tion in American education".
Accountability: A Challenge for Our Schools
- 228 -
Since World War II several fields have been developed to enablemanagers of very complex enterprises to operate efficiently and effec-tively. These emerging fields of knowledge and practice are commonlyknown as: systems analysis, management by objectives, contract engineer-ing (including bids, warrant"1:s, penalties and incentives), logistics,quality assurance, value engineering and human factors engineering, toname a few of the more important. If to these are added instructionaltechnology and modern educational management theory a new and valuableinterdisciplinary field emerges. This body of knowledge, skill andprocedure can be called educational engineering. It is the insightsfrom educational engineering that make possible contractingto achieve accountability for results in education.
The question might well be asked, "Why the tern engineering tocouple with education? Why more apparent dehumanization ?" It is notappropriate here to treat this question at great length. But it may beIrlpful to note that engineering has traditionally been a problem-solving activity, a profession dedicated to bringing the ideas and re-sources of technology to the resolution of real world difficulties andopportunities. While it is true that the teaching/learning'environmentdiffers from the world of business and industry, some rationalizationof the two sub-cultures may be beneficial. A major objective of edu-cational engineering may very well be to arm educational practitionerswith both the technological competence of essential engineering gener-alizations, strategies and tools, and the prbfessional practice of asuccessful instructor or educational manager. From this point of vieweducational engineering can be a symbiedic art -- a marriage of humanismand technology. It is this possible symbiosis that makes performancecontracting for learning accomplishment feasible. The concept ofaccountability may appear more sharply at this point b9 illustratingthe application of one educational engineering process to achieveresults in the basic academic skills.
(1)
This accountability process can be engineered as follows:
The local educational agency employs a management support groupwhose members competency to assist them in political,social,/econotuic, managerial and educational matters. The re-lationship between the management support group and the localschool leadership resembles that of long-term consultants ona retainer account.
(2) The management support group works with staff, community (orother groups as required by a particular local situation) toproduce a Request for Proposal (RFP) which is a set of speci-fications indicating as clearly as possible, the service tobe performed, the approximate amount of money to be invested,the constraints to be observed, the standards acceptable andrelated matters. The RFP is the local education agency'sblueprint for action to meet pressing priorities.
Accountability: A Challenge for Our Schools
(3)
- 229 /-
The next stage of the educational engineering process occurs whenthe RFP is set out to bid. The pre-bidding *conference becomesthe forum for educational exchange. Here a rich and varied com-munication through competition occurs between elements of theprivate and public sector. The bidding process is flexible tothe extent that allowance is made by local education agencyofficials for new insights and better elements to be incorporatedinto a revised RFP.
(4) Following the bidding conference a revised RFP is issued andactual bids are entertained. The management support groupassists the Local Education Agency in operating the conferenceand reviewing the bids. The local board "hears" the top bids ina manner similar to the process used in the employment of anarchitect.
(5) The local school board selects what it considers to be the bestbid and enters into negotiation for a performance contract withthe successful bidder. The management support group assists atthis stage.
(6) Concurrently with the signing of the performance contract anindependent educational accomplishment audit team is employedby the local education agency both to monitor execution of theperformance contract and to provide feed-back to the LEA tocertify results for purposes of payment.
The "physiology" of an educational engineering process has beendescribed. Its "anatomy" may now be useful.
The Performance Contract is the managerial tool to assure theachievement of results, while encouraging responsible innovation. Theapproach is simple in concept although complex in actualization. Withtechnical assistance, the learning problem is analyzed, and a delinea-tion of achievement outcomes to be expected is specified. A request forproposals (RFP) is developed and sent by the Local Education Agency(LEA) to potential contractors who have demonstrated competent andcreative activity in the specific and related fields. The RFP does notprescribe how the job must be done but does establish the performance,financial, administrative, and legal parameters of the operation. TheRFP requires that the bidder guarantee specific results for specificcosts. The confidence that the bidder has in his approach is reflectedin the level of the guarantee, the social practicability, the time, andthe costs indicated in the bid he presents.
The program to be bid is described in the contract including the
specified number of students. Incentives are provided for the contrac-tor to bring each child up to specified levels of performance, at least
cost. Provision is made in the performance contract to develop aprogram fnr which the contractor will guarantee results.
010011-.4
Accountability: A Challenge for Our Schools
- 230 -
After the demonstration period is completed and all relevantcosts, procedures, achievements, and performance data have beenvalidated, the contract requires of the contractor that he, willguarantee an equivalent level of effective, fiscally responsibleprogram and then, on a "turnkey" basis, the LEA incorporates theinstructional program into the school after it has been provenfeasible. Thus performance contracting is a capability-creating-resource for public education!
The Management Support Group (MSG) is the catalytic and buffer,agency which provides not only technical assistance to the school, buta communication link between those determining priorities and the schoolsystem which is developing program proposals. The group has access tonew developments in the field, especially those in industrial and gov-ernmental sectors; and assists the LEA in developing the RFP to assurethat conditions and constraints in the RFP do not preclude but actuallyencourage the opportunity for these new developments to be dem6nstrated.Furthermore, it plays the role of a buffer between the LEA and communitygroups, as well as between the LEA and potential bidders. It alsoprovides assistance to the LEA during the proposal evaluation and oper-ational stages on an "as-needed" basis.
As operational results during the initial stages are determined,the group provides program planning assistance to the LEA so that theinstructional programs are effectively and efficiently "turnkeyed" intothe school. In this way, the school can achieve the potential benefitswhich will have been demonstrated., Too often school systems eitheradopt programs not proven or acquire techniques proven in pilot programsonly. Later they may discover that the results in terms of costs andperformance increases, erode over time. The MSG can provide criticaltechnical assistance to the school officials during the adoption of"turnkey" process, ranging from projecting administrative costs requiredwithin the system to the implementation of performance budgeting tech-niques which will insure continuing quality assurance.
The Independent Education Accomplishment Audit is a managerialtool to assist quality control of the program. By reporting on results,this procedure encourages responsibility, creating a need for clearlystated performance objectives and an accounting for the costs incurredin achieving results. Just as the performance contract allows theschool to monitor the contractor, the IEAA is designed to assure thelay board and the community they represent that the school leaders andthe contractors are doing their work. The independent accomplishmentaudit, first _introduced through ESEA Title VIII by the U. S. Office ofEducation is the first, practical recognition that education is animportant investment in human capital. Just as fiscal audits adopteduniversally in public education virtually from the beginning of themodern school period certified that public school resources and expendi-tures were in balance, the IEAA certifies that investments in humanbeings have been successful according to stated goals and demonstratedaccomplishment. 2:39
Accountability: A Challenge for Our Schools
- 231 -
The patterns of funding the educational engineering process arecritical for the flow of Federal, State, and local funds must encouragethe creation and responsible control of the process components. Budget-
ing must be based on clearly defined criteria for "go" or "no go"decisions to be made at the end of each discrete stage. Three-stagefunding as a facilitating deirice consists of resources and the timelyfreeing of previously "ear-marked" funds for other new starts or opera-
tional programs.
The Texarkana Model
The August 13, 1969, Congressional Record included remarks by
Congressman Roman C. Pucinski, Chairman of the House Subcommittee on
General Education, about an educational experiment launched in Texarkana,U.S.A., described in an article by Jonathan Spivak, of the Wall Street
Journal. Under the heading, "The Coming Revolution in American Educa-tion", the Congressman states, "The unique aspect of the Texarkana
experiment is 'guaranteed performance'." The contractor must promiseto bring educationally deficient Texarkana students up to normal gradesfor their age levels at a given cost and in a given time -- or else pay
a money penalty.
Advantages of Performance Contracting
The advantages of performance contracting are inherent in the
nature of the serious problems that confront education today.
First, it facilitates the targeting and evaluation of educational
programs. Many good instructional programs have not been given theopportunity to demonstrate their potential due to the lack of an effective
delivery system at the school level. The recent critical evaluation of
Title I of ESEA notes this operational inadequacy. The performancecontract approach, which utilizes a separately managed and operated center
with separate accounting procedures, fosters the objective evaluation of
educational results and also the managerial processes by which these
results were achieved.
Second, performance contracting for instructional services could
introduce greater resources and variability into the public school
sector. Now, new programs are being offered to the public outside the
school system; the process of fragmentation and competition has begun.
Several large corporations are establishing franchise learning centers
across this country. One company, for example, has at least forty centers
operational in the major cities of this country; ten others are establish-
ing centers in other cities. Performance-type contracts to improve stu-
dent achievement in compensatory education are usually enacted between
the parents and the franchisee. The dollars which they pay for schools'
operations. As these franchised centers expand, it is conceivable that
parents will begin to refuse to pay property taxes through continuing
to defeat tax and bond issues. The performance contract approach, on
the other hand, would allow the school system to utilize the services
and products of a particular firm or firms so that the public schools
Accountability: A Challer,ge for Our Schools
- 232 -
can be renewed through a "turnkey" process. Performance contracting canbe looked upon as a means to foster and catalyze institutional reformwithin a school system, allowing school systems to continue operationsand to become competitive with private schools and franchised learningcenters.
Third, the performance contract approach allows a school systemto experiment in a responsible manner with low costs and low politicaland social risks. Both school officials and critics have expressed theneed to determine the relative cost-effectiveness of various instruc-tional methods in contractor-operated centers, as well as upon incorpor-ation into the particular schools. The performance contract approachnot only allows for determination of these costs and benefits but alsoprovides the bases for projecting initial adoption costs as well asoperating cost when the system is implemented into the schools. Inthis sense, the approach allows lay board members to make rationalchoices when choosing new credible techniques for extension into standardclassroom practice.
Fourth, the new "Bill of Rights in Education", giving the right ofevery child to read at his grade level, will undoubtedly place greatburdens upon the schools' resources. If the Nation's schools are tomake this principle a reality, they might want to consider using per-formance contracting for the development and validation of new readingprograms. Upon successful demonstration, the school can then adopt theprogram or portions thereof. The success of these programs, that is,the child's ability to read, will in large measure depend upon theability of the school to skillfully design and execute performance con-tracts and then effectively incorporate the project into its normaloperation.
Fifth, according to the most recent decision rendered by theSupreme Court, school systems across this country will be required todevelop effective desegregation plans which will provide not onlyequal opportunities, but also equity of educational results. One ofthe major fears of the white community (rightly or wrongly) is that"black" or "brown" children, upon integration, will hold back the pro-gress of their children. Through the use of the performance contractapproach, many of the previously segregated children will have theiracademic deficiencies, if any, removed on a guaranteed achievementbasis while they are attending the newly-integrated schools. From thispoint of view, performance contracting would allow communities to de-segregatein a nondisruptive, educationally effective, and politicallypalatable manner.
Finally, the approach creates dynamic tension and responsibleinstitutional change within the public school system through competi-tion. Leaders will now have alternatives to the traditional instruc-tional methods when negotiating salary increases; performance contract-ing and its variant, performance budgeting, permits the authorities tocouple part of a salary increase on increases in effectiveness. As theDallas Morning News has stated: "Taxpapers can now tie results to tax
2. )
Accountability: A Challenge for Our Schools
- 233 -
dollars expended." Boards of Education can establish policy and
choose among alternative instructional programs.
The Management Support Group
"The Catalyst and Buffer Mechanism" first introduced in Texarkana
is the concept of the management support group. The MSG is new to
education. Its precedent was established in the defense-aerospace area
when, in the mid-50's, the Aerospace Corporation was created to act as
a buffer and technical assistance team between the Air Force and weapons
systems suppliers for the Air Force. The Aerospace Corporation's major
functions were to develop programs, design requests for proposals based
on performance specifications, assist in evaluating proposals-, and
provide management services to contractors. The major functions of the
management support group (MSG) in education under the concept of educa-
tional engineering would be in the following areas:
Functions provided by MSG
1. Program planning and development assistance. School systems
generally lack such a management capability, or, if such is avail-
able, "day to day" operations prevent effective utilization of
that resource. Moreover, an outside group provides new insights
and a different perspective in analyzing educational and other
problems and in developing alternative solutions. For these and
other reasons, it is advantageous for the school to have an MSG
develop the RFP. The MSG could assist in the following ways during
program development and planning:
a. Analyze and determine the community's educational needs and
the desired levels of student performance.
b. Conduct program definition phase studies and determine sources
of funding.
c. Develop the RFP and experimental design to be used for "turn-
key" purposes as well as national dissemination.
d. Develop and recommend "program change proposals" on a continuing
basis during the initial stages.
e. Develop means for gathering and maintaining political and
community support for the program during all phases.
f. Contact potential bidders in the education industry and R &
D laboratories to insure that the latest innovative techniques
are considered and are encouraged for application by the direc-tion and flexibility allowed in the RFP.
Accountability: A Challenge for Our Schools
- 234 -
g. Determine the qualified bidders and send them the RFP.
2. Project management assistance. Too often, proposals are developedby outside groups who curtail relationships with the school oncethe contract has been awarded. The management support group hasto provide extended and sustained services in the areas rangingfrom establishing the project management office to the developmentof evaluation techniques. The project management services would bein the following areas:
a. Develop a multi-year management plan for the conduct of thedemonstration and "turnkey" effort, including an administrativesystem for the LEA's project management office.
b. Conduct, when appropriate, pre-proposal development and bidders'conferences with all interested parties.
c. Establish a proposal evaluation procedure and assist in theevaluation by presenting strengths and weaknesses to the LEA.
d. Continually evaluate the contractor's progress and assist incontract renegotiations as required.
f. Manage pilot programs when specifically requested to do so bythe LEA.
g. Analyze the administrative and managerial changes required whenthe techniques proven in pilot programs are integrated into theschool system. This "turnkey" phase is critical to overallsuccess and requires careful analysis and program planning andbudgeting.
3. Linkages for communications and coordination. As an unofficialadvocate of change and an ombudsman for the public interest, theMSG can provide an effective, disinterested, and politicallypalatable linkage between Federal, State, and local agencies sothat priorities and program directions are coordinated. Becausemany firms of unknown or questionable reliability will be enteringthis newly-created multi-billion dollar market, the MSG is anecessary mediator and "honest broker" between the firms and theschool systems. At the community level, the vested interests ofpowerful groups and important decision-makers must be determined.Here, the MSG, acting as a buffer between the LEA and these interestgroups, both within and outside the school system, can obtain suchinformation in an effective and politically a( ntageous manner(e.g. the superintendent could point to the MSG as a scapegoat ifspecific ideas or recommendations are not accepted by the Board).The MSG can provide an on-call, as needed, manpower pool duringplanning and implementation. It can hire potential school employees
0-1
Accountability: A Challenge for Our Schools
- 235 -
ti
in order to allow officials to see them in action. Ooreover,
the MSG has access to consultants around the country, and on
short notice it can provide their service without having to go
through cumbersome bureaucratic procedures.
In short, the politics of experimentation where private
industry, local schools, and the Federal government are all in-
volved creates the need for unofficial "advocates" and "buffer
mechanisms" to protect politically all parties concerned, while
insuring that the project does in fact become a reality. The
success thus far in the Texarkana project, which was the first
to use the MSG is noteworthy:
a. Within nine months, a radically innovative concept acceptable
to three districts in two states was conceived for multi-year
funding and was in operation ten days ahead of schedule with
preliminary results indicating success beyond normal expecta-
tions.
b. A new venture was initiated with private industry, despite
some experts' prediction that no firms would bid. To the
contrary, 42 firms attended the bidders' conference and 10
firms submitted proposals.
c. A cost-effective program (e.g. "a dollar an hour guaranteed
education") run by an outside private firm, yet accepted by
all elements within the school system, promising early and
effective adoption was accepted.
d. A project is operating which has the support of responsible
citizens regardless of their political persuasion and the
interest of media ranging from the Washington Post to the
Dallas Morning News.
Independent Educational Accomplishment Audit Group: "Closing the Loop"
Similar to the earlier demand for fiscal audits, the public is
now demanding an accounting of student accomplishment. Just as the
independent fiscal audit of schools has eliminated most fiscal illegal-
ity and has forced fiscal management changes, the IEAA group can also
be used to create the demand for the necessary instructional reforms.
The concern for results in education among the electorate is a recent
development, but it is gaining momentum. "Equal opportunity" in
education no longer mollifies the majority; "equity of results" is
demanded. This is especially true of the educational benefits conven-
tionally called the "basic skills". Even though Title I language
reflects a traditional concern over inputs such as equipment, teachers,
space and books, the subsequent questions raised by the congress have
2, 3
Accountability: A Challenge for Our Schools
- 23c-,
moved beyond haw the money was spent to questions concerned withwhether the students have learned, had secured jobs, or are fallingbehind. This is the political soil from which the independent accomp-lishment audit has grown.
The Auditing Process
The Independent Education Accomplishment Audit is a processsimilar to that used in a fiscal audit. The emphasis, however, is onstudent performance as a result of financial outlays. The IndependentEducational Accomplishment Audit (IEAA) relys upon outside independentjudgment and has six essential parts; the pre-audit; the translationof local goals into demonstrable data; the adoption or creation ofinstrumentation and methodology; the establishmeht of a review calendar;the assessment process; and the public report.
1. The Pre-Audit:
The auditor selected by the school system starts the IEAA processby discussing with the staff, students, and community the objectivesand plans of the particular program to be reviewed. This phaseproduces a list of local objectives and a clear description of theprograms in some order of priority. In performance contracts, hereviews the project's "procedures" manual.
2. The Translation:
In concert with local people, the auditor determines a clearformulation of the evidence indicating that the objectives havebeen met and the methods that will be used to gather the evidence.This phase produces a set of specifications revealing what thestudent will be able to do as a result of the educational experi-ence, the manner in which the evidence will be secured, and thestandards which will be applied in interpreting the success of theprogram in bringing the students to the objectives.
3. Instrumentation:
Along with the translation, the auditor, working with the LEA,determines the audit instruments, such as tests, questionnaires,interview protocols, and unobtrusive measures which will be usedto gather the evidence. The product of this activity is a setof defined techniques and procedures for data gathering.
4. Review Calendar:
An agreement is secured in writing which indicates the nature ofthe reviews, where they will be held, how long they will take,when they will occur, and who is responsible for arrangements,the nature of the arrancements, and other logistical considerations.It is essential that the calendar be determined in advance and thatall concerned by a party to the agreement and have the authority tohonor the agreement.
4
Accountability: A Chalienge for cur Scho,:-Is
5. The Audit Process:ti
This is a responsibility of the auditor. In this phase. the
auditor carries out the procedures agreed upon in the pre-audit,
translation, and instrumentation phase as cod.fied in the review
calendar.
The Public Report:
The auditor files a report at a public meetIng, giving commenda-
tions and recommendations as they relate tb the local obpectivel.
The report is designed to indicate in specific terms both ac*
complishments and ways in which the program may be made more
efftyttive.
Advantages of the IEAA
The IEAA is a new technique designed to put local school
personnel and the clients they serve in a problem-solving cipde of
thinking. It is built around a financial core since money is a
common denominator for the heterogeneous elements of inputs, but its
focus is upon student attitudes, skills, and knowledge. Out of the
IEAA, a whole range of useful by-products are anticipated. First, it
may lead to a knowledge of optimum relationshii's between outputs and
inputs, e.g. the "critical mass- in funding different typsp of com-
pensatory programs. Second, it can form a basis for the alscovery
And improvement of good practice in education. Third, the IEAA
creates the need for performance type contracting and /or budgeting
in the basic academic and vocational skill areas./ Finally, it can
renew credibility in the educational process by effecting more
responiveness to the needs of children and supplying the understand-
ing necessary to produce change. The power of the electorate over
public education must be politically, not administratively, derived.
If techniques can be developed to convince the community of the
benefits of responsible leadership through accountability for results,
those interested In furtherino education can better support the
educational enterprise.
1?evelaPmental Cali tag : Fin4nclngInnovation in Education
For too long a period of time, the public schools of this Nation
have been funded and operated in such a manner that educators and ad-
ministrators have been discouraged from providing efficient and effec-
tive instructional services.Federal funding, despite a plethora of
regulations and guidelines, proposals and reports, actually supports,
and,in some cases, encourages,inefficiencies and inequities in public
schools. At all levels of financial support, money has been directed
toward specific problems as they emerge, rather than being systemati-
cally used to reform the institution. Hence, taxpayers and legislators
Acco,Antahtlity hal:ett;or f-r
thymaelve* thy tra91( nf thr.,m:n,; riviney afterfor, while the price t''my ha* newer t,e4gre lteater. the
:3rohlems emetlin-_,: from tiubitc 04u.cal:on ha.le _olover *'rte moberc%!_ot.
The hard le*aon tn be Imarrted frig veal* of ma,nrFederal funding of edutAtIninal programs to ch."? "t may to which themoney is delivered it at important an thy smc:,unt If %'±e Cvele ofmore money and over greater problems is to he broken, onlitical authrr .ities should reellre that dinoretionAry money must be used for notonly successful progress, but Also for system ree_eval. writing lh TheFall, Igh4, issue of The Public Intereet, Daniel Movniban admonishedthat -The Federal government must d;volop and put into 3,eartice farmnre effective incentive *votess than now exist whermbv s tate-606 Inceigovernments, and priv.te interests, too, can be lid tie achieve thegoals of federal programs.- Properly conceptualized, therefor*,Federal aid to edurat1C0 'should b' etewed is capital, which, when wsdeavailAble in a predictable and systrmAtle wiener, will 7)r-ovtde theenergy for educational engineering. The battle OurprAe of developsentalcapital is to provide A financial resource to attoulate and sustainr-examination and modernization of the educational system. The ;r1--
velltment of -risk- capital <An generate new educational tradition* bappiyIng IN* developentel repets of buA:n su:rese te, The publicAertor.
Effertlo,1 necessary chanle rOluire* d:*-tettooiry flindA whichAre not now availatle to lor.Al school leader*, In the abarnce ofAh :rifkr*Ion of nee montei for development, dissemination, and inetaI:s-tin of new products and practices, the fia;- between the desand cartehldher quality education and perf,-,smance to 1;7oely to. widen furthel
with developmental capital A.vt-afflOrt, renemal can t-±s4 directedthrough Federal, State, And lo,Lal channel*, and ACtl.ty can be aimedat improvInc management leadership capabilities_ Ail frIrpr ector%of Government can work to crottlun,:ton w.th each other attract thebest mInds and reedurces to !he renewal of the trate
FuntlA at the i.ederel Imvel can tt. to 'hiqh r:Ak- .n.v-estments, fog this .5 the only g(ivernseental level that coMm10the amount of dollers am: manpower to isccmill:st, reses:ch anti develop-ment. Another ma)or cons:c!eration of the F4deral :weal :,;overnMerktwould he the JentificAtion of su,ceritful Orart:ces Around the nation_wenewal capital can by used ro determine the most :-Ity*A:n1 menagementand operations' nerds of scho21 actmin.atrat -_,rn and to :dentlfycessfui scho.ol menagement and ClAkilf00* PTACtl'searcil needs to be orqattazed tn OducAt.onAre etfect:vir as welt AA achool* haw re*,
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Account& ..1tv A r.h.Allenge for Our 3chnols
policy also permitted the set-aside of funds raised from Federal,State, and private sources around this one percent set-aside. Forthe period 1965-68, with the assistance of an elected teachers'group called the Academy of Instruction and the cooperation of students,administrators, community members, and the Board of Education, thisset-aside account was used to invest in competitive teacher/student,adm-nistrator proposals tied to demonstrable objectives.
Sign.ficant changes in student accomplishment, teacher effective-neos, and administrator initiative have resulted from this grantsmanagement strategy. Such things as a Know and care Educational Re-aou.,es Center, a :era Reject Reading Laboiatory, a Physical F&tnessTesting Center, a Humanities Center, and the incorporation of voca-tional programs into the fundamental reorganization of an entire schoolare only 4 few of the results. Tie one percent set -aside was used asa "rudder" to Cause change affecting the entire budget.
Another developmental effort undertaken with funds from thisinvestment account brought shout the production of a film designed tofamiliari:e students with the dangers of LSU and other drugs. Thefilm proved to he so successful and popular that sales to other schoolsystems earned the produrino district a profit of about $100,400(called non-profit income' which WAR added to the investment accountfor further Activities.
In Uallas, It:icAs, the Superintendent of chools has obtained one,wrcent of the local school revenue for a developmental account called"Pennies for Innovation'. Ieachery submit innovative proposals whichare then ,iidoed and approved by a board of master teachers, with 75to ,Ctql of local budgets tied to salaries and with a salary schedulethat is so rigid that the weakest teachers are often the highest paid,this s.mHe strategy shows great pronisv for stimulatiml the creativityAnd flexibility of mans.- teAcners.
43-10,
If we Accept :e r2,,Ilenie of n+(oun-,Ah.l.ty IN our high schools,we (An expect ser.o,;s wor'v toward the accomplishment of basic pro-fessional ends. these :nr!nde. the l,)(-At ion and/or design of goodpractice, the .adoption, Adoption And invtAllAtion of that practice incir,nt:fl'iln; ef:.c.ont And effct:y wAy, and the provision of incentives
for renw,.. pie L.tr: T140T trim chAllenio :f we w:11 engineer accountabil-ity %Le- those mod ti,sAt orl- which fit nor unique
'1? .1,1.1; V;V:e r t, s on the hed-rock of problemi,--t oroi-lem,. we ne. n or dispirited. we
en;t;e ,he w.%vst AN' reitrd;ess of where it.redeu',Ard_
Accountability; A Challenge for Our Schools
- 241 -
Our old programs were effective and just within the contextof those eras -- but they cannot and are not meeting new needs.
Unlike many Congressmen, we in education cannot run on our record- -
on keeping more pupils in school longer or getting more pupils into
college. we cannot run on more of the same. Leadership is no longer
a reward for years of faithful service. The call for accountabilityis a call for review and reform through an emphasis on shared infor-mation, objective reflection, and results. We can meet that challengeif we will aefine our burdens and build Our capability to meet those
burdens. Out of these troubled times will come a stronger schoolsystem. This is a Can Do nation. American education has been the
most i.ventive on earth. The times call for new inventions, new modesof proof, new roles for professional personnel. Of course accountabil-ity is difficult; but then who ever thought setting out to truly edu-
cate each child to his maximum capability was going to be easy?
- 242 -
REGIONAL CONFERENCE
A Study of the Comprehensive High School in Massachusetts
ANDOVER HIGH SCHOOLAndover, Massachusetts
Wednesday, April 29, 1970
AGENDA
9:30 - 10:00 Coffee and Registration
10:00 - 10:30 Report of Study - Dr. William C. Gaige andDr. Lloyd S. Michael
10:30 - 11:00 Discussion about the Study
11:00 - 11:50 Position Paper - Dr. Harold Gores
Ed.D. Harvard University; President, EducationalFacilities Laboratories since its funding by theFord Foundation in 1958; Superintendent, publicschools, Newton, Massachusetts 1949-58; AssistantSuperintendent, Newton, 1943-49; Council ofEducational Facilities Planners; Building ResearchBoard of National Academies of Sciences; Educa-tional Board of New York Times; U.S.O.E. Commissionon Educational Technology; Honorary Member, Ameri-can Institute of Architects.
SUBJECT: "PHYSICAL FACILITIES IN THE RELEVANT HIGHSCHOOL."
11:50 - 12:35 Reactions - Panel, Audience
12:45 - 1:30 Luncheon
1:30 - 2:20 Position Paper D. Dwight W. Allen
Ed.D. Stanford University; Dean; School of Education,University of Massachusetts; Associate Professor,School of Education, Stanford, 1965-67; Director,High School Flexible Scheduling and Curriculum Study,1960-67; Director, Stanford Micro-Teaching Study,1962-67; Coordinator, Secondary Teacher EducationProgram, 1962-67; currently, Chaiplan, Commission onEducation for the Teaching Profession of the NationalAssociation of State Universities and Land-GrantColleges; author of numerous educational publications.
SUBJECT: "LEVERS FOR CHANGE."
2:20 - 3:10 Reactions - Panel, Audience
3:10 - 3:20 Summary }rh.% -
-243 -
Physical Facilities in the Relevant High School*
by
Harold Gores
I get around a lot and, you understand, these days I deal only
with the solids of education -- not with its fluids, the people who
flow in and flow out, netr with its gases, the curriculum. I deal
with those things you can with impunity kick with your foot -- build-
ings and equipment. I also realize that as I report some of these
things that they will not be practical for you. Just let me report
that they exist, and then you try them on for size. Education responds
to subculture, and it is made up of many subcultures; and things
that work beautifully in one community won't work in another or are
politically impossible. Robert Moses swirl it best some years ago.
He was the well-known planner here in New York City who said something
to the effect -- "No municipal enterprise is ever perfectly done so
the public administrator gets what he can get when he can get it and
moves on."
For many of these things the time is not right but here are
sow of the things I see. To begin with, education is a recession at
the moment. Taxpapers over the country are in revolt. They can't do
much about Washington. They can't do much about Boston, Albany, or
what's happening at the capital, but they can do something about their
awn affairs, and they frequently take out their hostility on the
schoolhouse. Not only are the taxpayers in revolt, but federal cut-
backs are drastic these days. Compare 1969 with, say 1967. Title III
alone that year was bigger than The Ford Foundation. Title III alone
had something like $312,000,000 when The Ford Foundation itself htd
only some $310,000,000 that year. Of course, you know Title III has
been dispersed to the various states and there has been less of a
federal thrust in setting venture capital into education. Corporate
profits are down 7% this quatier and that affects support, and then
the 4th source of help in education, the foundations, are nervous these
days. The foundations have been taxed for the first time. Now the
tax isn't very much. It's 4% on the average which simply means they
have 4% less money to give away. It is much like first surgery. Even
though it's the removal of a wart, you still make out your will the
night before you go. And the foundations are nervous. Some are what
you call "flow through foundations" which means the corporation looks
at its profit and loss sheet at the end of the year, and if they had
a good year, they'll flow a lot of money through their corporate
foundation. If they had a bad year and the stockholders are sullen,
they'll flow less through. So, you add all those four factors together,
and this is a period of recession for us.
*Transcription of a telelecturei
4....
Physical Facilities in the Relevant High School
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Now the shape of the emerging high school, as I see it,takes various forms. It's clear that the principals' thrust at themoment is to increase individualization. The old block-booking ofstudents, regulated by bells, moving from box to box, is breakingup. The schools try to increase individualization; they also try toincrease visualization. That is, to appeal to more of the senses inlearning rather than talking to people about what they should belearning.
Secondly, I see the open plan coming increasingly to accom-modate the rearrangement of space and to forestall obsolescence.Now, if any of you are planning a high school, stay loose. Planlarge zones of space which are easily alterable and avoid designingevery little part of it precisely or you will speed the day when thebuilding is declared obsolete. Now this will be difficult, in partbecause architects prefer to detail everything. This is one way theycan show the client how hard they worked and how much skill they had.Whereas if you ask for general space mutable, malleable, universalspace, the architect has a feeling that he is not practicing archi-tecture but is creating a warehouse. I notice also increasing amenity.Our schools are getting quieter because they are carpeted. They aregetting increasingly comfortable. At long last, the child who alwayshad a right not to be cold (so the earliest schools in New Englandhad stoves) now has won a new right, and that is not to be hot; so wesee air conditioning now, no longer a matter of public dispute.Indeed, I was told the other day in Florida that when you put a schoolup for bond issue now, unless it is air conditioned, you know you willlose it. The people themselves, because they want year-round use andbecause they want community use, and because the adults are coming inthe schools, insist upon air conditioning.
The furniture lags most of all. The furniture is still slip-pery and plastic, potato chips which make a youngster pay attentionto holding himself upright lest he slip out of the chair. On thegeneral theory that he could learn more if he could focus all of thisattention on what he is learning, rather than having to defend him-self from heat or noise or to keep himself in balance, it seems to areasonable person he might learn more if we did something about thefurniture.
Increasingly, in high schools now, I see adult furniture. wehave dejuvenilized the high schools in many respects. Go in thelibraries now, and they are not filled with that steel, plastic, formica,hard, reverberative, bland, antiseptic furniture that so pleases thecustodians and city hall, but somehow does not make the library anattractive place for a student, if you ever turn him free so he cango there. Another problem is to get the faculty to loosen up oncontrol of children. r
Ao-
Physical Facilities in the Relevant High School
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Then I see community use coming everywhere. People aren't
building schools for children anymore; they are building schools
for people. Now, to be sure, the schools should serve the children
well when they are there, but set your cap for the general public.
In physical education, for example, a school ought to be as concerned
about the father who is jogging for his life as for his seventh or
eighth or ninth grade boy who is jogginv 'round your track in the
daytime. Furthermore, if you get the community in, you have a
broader base of support at the next bond issue.
Than I see decentralization and dispersed locations coming
everywhere. As you know, there is the famous Parkway School in
Philadelphia (I guess that's called the nowhere school) and in New
Haven they've got a dispersed arrangement called the everywhere
school, so that more and more of the school learning takes place
outside the schoolhouse. Increasingly the schoolhouse has become a
base of operations, and the community is increasingly the general
extension of the school as a laboratory.
Another thing that I see coming in the big cities is "joint
occupancy" -- that is, the school and some other compatible enter-
prise, which may be private or public, occupy the same premises.
Evans Clinchy, who is there with you this morning knows a great deal
about the subject.
In general, those are the changes that I see. Now let's talk
about some of the specific parts and pieces of the buildings. To
begin with, I find more and more communities perplexed about demography,
especially in the suburbs. If you have a very desirable town to live
in, and if you have zoning that requires large amounts of land for a
house-and costs are high, you can make a mistake in projecting your
school enrollment if you simply take your kindergarten and first
grade enrollment and extrapolate it in a linear fashion. If you pro-
ject those early grades, it will indicate that your high school is
going to shrink and now grow. But the fact is that in these very
desirable places around central cities where the out-migration comes,
high schools continue to grow. The school system grows at the top
and at the middle and not at the bottom. It is easily understood
because one has to be middle aged before he can afford to buy it, a
house these days, and by that time his youngster is already in high
school. So in many of these posh places (of which there are a
number in greater Boston) the system is going to continue to grow at
the top, and this will mystify people at the town meeting who think
it's so simple to predict how big the high school is going to be ten
years from today by just going back into the second grade and counting
the children.
I notice everywhere I go now, there is concern with so-,palled
"systems buildings". A systems building is made up of pre-engineered
components. The parts and pieces are manufactured in factory, off-
Physical Facilities in the Relevant High School
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site, then they are assembled on the site. There is less on-sitelabor and more in-factory labor. This doesn't mean that any twoschools need ever look alike. This is not Howard Johnson's orangeroof standardization. The silhouette of the building and theexterior planning can be anything you want it to be, but systemscomponents do guarantee that on the inside the building is flexibleand will give you a second guess. After all, you are just in thestream of change. Your successors are going to have problems because,hopefully, education will change, and when it does, you need a buildingthat will get out of the way. These systems buildings maximize theinterior flexibility so that children, teachers, and the curriculumcan cut their own pathways through the school in future years. Manycommunities have what you might call a sense of trusteeship -- theydon't build the building just to get themselves off the hook. Theyare building this building now as the launching of an enterprise thatwill only be in middle life in the year 2000. They are thinking oftheir successors. They are putting up buildings that are easily andinexpensively alterable.
Be sure to watch the Agassiz School Study at Boston; EvansClinchy knows a lot about that. That's going to be a systems school.It's coming in Boston. In Florida, last year one quarter of all theschools built were systems buildings. Toronto Metropolitan Districtjust bid 2 million square feet of space. Montreal Catholic Schoolsare expanding and will be employing a systems approach for theirbuildings. Detroit is developing additions.
It started out in California originally in this country,transplanted here by EFL from the British. After World War II, theBritish aircraft industry needed a project, since they weren't makingSpitfires anymore. They decided that the schoolhouse was somethingthey could make which was needed. Knowing nothing about anythingexcept making airplanes, they tended to approach the schoolhouse asif it 'were a plane, so they made everything fit. Ynu never see acarpenter sawing a board to p1- a 707 together on a runway. Thepioneering work was done in Britain. We transplanted it to thiscountry and it's hopeful to observe that Mr. Romney's "OperationBreakthrough" for the housing in this country is going "systems".
Everywhere you see open planning. I know of a school systemin Texas that has partitions for sale. They have $40,000 worth ofpartitions they will sell you for $8,000 if you want to buy partitions.Partitions are the walls that go from the floor all the way to theceiling. They have them in a warehouse. They didn't dare not buythem. This was, you know, three years ago. The partitions arrivedlate so they opened the school without the walls. At the end of theyear, nobody said "Where are the walls?" The teachers were teamedin groups and they had team learning, putting youngsters in six-packs or whatever and the teachers no longer wanted the walls; thewalls stood in the way. And so I'd say watch out. Don't load your
1,-1X...
Physical Facilities in the Relevant High School
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building up with any more partitions than you absolutely need for
physical security - a lockable place. Indeed, next year, go down to
North Kingstown, Rhode Island, where there will be what is in effect
a one-room high school. I think the enrollment, as I recall, is
around 500, but it is a great acre of space, air conditioned, of
course, quiet, carpeted, and so forth.
If you ever have reason for being in Colorado, go to Idaho
Springs which is about 50 miles out of Denver and see there another
one-room school of large enrollment. If you are up in Maine, especi-
ally you Colby graduates in Waterville, qo over to Coburn Classical
Institute and see a whole school under a geodesic done great space
in which teachers, children, curriculum can run their own pathways.
There are some advantages to this general open space I am told. I
go around and say "so what", other than that maybe you save money on
partitions and doorframes and doors and so forth. I hear that there
is less absenteeism among students. There is less friction among
children and among teachers. In the typical eight-grade school made
up of square classrooms (each classroom about the size of a prize
fight ring) you get a confrontation between pupils, pupil and teacher,
teacher and teacher, or whatever, and they are already in the ring.
If they are in a great zone of space, it is possible to back off into
the hills about 40 feet away and reassess one's position and the
reasonableness of the other person's argument. General observation
is that there is less friction, reduction of absenteeism. When daily
substitutes are difficult to procure, it is quite possible that the
team absorbs the missing spot, and there is a trade-off here in the
cost of substitutes.
Let me say something about physical education. The emphasis is
increasingly on the lifetime sports and not just on the inter-scholastic
athletics which tend to set the design of that gymnasium. Especially
if you include community use, that basketball box is not the ideal
or most useful way of providing space. What I see now coming especially
in the Wvst and Midwest is just a great roof, a scoop of the sky, what
you might call an acre of June, and in it you put new surfaces. There
is the artificial turf, rolled down when wanted. Incidentally, in
Texas a study has revealed that even if there is plenty of land, if
you were to put in an artificial field (and the price is coming down
drastically as competition comes in) you could get your higher origin-
al cost back in about six years. So if you are playing for long-range
economy rather than initial cheapness, look at the artificial turf.
For one thing, there are fewer knee and ankle injuries which is why
professional football and professional baseball is putting in the
artificial turf. If you have your eye on cost per square ft., forget
it; but that's not the criterion. It's cost per use. You can have
so many more uses without having to rest the turf that if you take cost
per use, it's the path to economy. It also saves if you are tight for
site and cannot afford to take those six houses to make a parking lot
and football field or whatever.
)
Physical Facilities in the Relevant High School
- 248 -
Plastic ice is just beginning to come. If there is one thingthat kids like to do, it is skate, and general skating is a wonder-ful thing for the typical family. The father, mother, and the littlesix-year-old girl who is sure to become another Tenley Allbright, canskate together; but we don't have skating in many schools because ofthe cost of refrigeration. Some of the private schools spend aquarter of a million dollars for hockey rinks. It won't be long, Iam sure, before the plastic ice (which at the moment isn't quite asslippery as God's own ice and has certain advantages for small childrenlearning to skate) will be cheaper. When you are next in the New Yorkarea, go out to Glen Cove and look at the elementary school there thathas plastic ice put in a gymnasium. Someday it is going to be quitepossible to announce in a typical high school that Friday night isbasketball and Saturday night is skating. The difference is thatSaturday afternoon, someone has put down the plastic ice.
Vocational education is complex. EFL has put out a publicationdescribing six of the best designed vocational school buildings wecan find. If you are interested in receiving this publication, dropus a line. We would be happy to send a description that will saveyou from having to go to Las Vegas, if that could be called saving,because there in Clark County is one of the best technical-vocationalschools in this country. All we did was send out a writer and acamera to try to tell you the story of these six schools.
The facility that is really the liveliest, or most in agony,I guess you would put it, is the library. On our staff here at EFLwe have Mrs. Ruth Weinstock who is just in yesterday from two weeksin California and the West looking at libraries. She put togetherthe publication THE SCHOOL LIBRARY, cares very much about thelibrary, and is a former teacher herself, and, if I get Ruth's eyehere, -- come on over and tell them what you saw in California lastweek as you visited library after high school library after highschool library. This is Mrs. Weinstock, mother of two. I won't getyou weeping at this point.
MRS. WEINSTOCK
Hello. Mr. Gores has pointed out, I have indeed just come backfrom a quick tour of California looking at one library after another.What is very evident is that libraries are growing in leaps andbounds, and they are growing so rapidly that there is a large areastill, of unthought-out approaches to how to use the vast quantitiesof information they are beginning to store. And not the least of howthey are going to use what they've got involves physical facilities.Most libraries are really places of information-zero. That is, youwalk into a library and what do you see? You see tons of bookshelveswith books on them, with their secrets locked between the covers, andif you are an unsophisticated user of a library, you can he totallylost. We have to assume that large segments of our school populations
,)1
Physical Facilities in the Relevant High School
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are unsophisticated library users. We have to assume that they do not
know how to ferret out information, and therefore, the library has to
find a way to make its wares available, to make them known, in a
totally new kind of way. Not long ago, I heard John Humphreys, who is
the Assistant Commissioner of Public Libraries in New York State, say
that unless public libraries begin to reach out to their communities
with sensitive programs really designed to meet the needs of the people,
that unless the public libraries take to the streets with their pro-
grams, then there is a strong danger they will be put out of business,
that the new private information industries will be contracted to take
over the job. It seems to me that this is something to which school
libraries ought to be alert. They, too, have to reach out and they
have to do it by using everything known about exhibition techniques,
about the use of graphics, about the use of all kinds of communications
devices to trigger ideas, to confront youngsters with notions, to
juxtapose concepts, so that kids will begin to think about things in
ways they hadn't thought of them before. One sees very, very little
of any attempt to do this as you go from one library to another. When
you see, as I did, a student walk over to another student behind a
desk, say to him "What have you got on culture?", and the student
library worker behind the desk says, "Why don't you try the card
catalogue under C?", then you begin to realize the kind of bewilder-
ment that there is in the use of this ton of information, of locked-
up information.
Another thing that one sees is a good deal of lip service, I
suppose, to media rather than actual incorporation or use of media in
libraries. It seems to me that librarians regard media (or school
people still regard media) a little bit the way the United States
regards China. It recognizes that it is there, but it isn't exactly
crazy about dealing with it, and is going to put it off as long as
possible. Now that's true in a large portion of libraries. It's
beginning to be untrue in a small portion, but even where libraries
are recognizing the enormous power of non-print devices to communi-
cate, once again, the application of what they know is quite primi-
tive. Librarians report to me, for example, that the largest piece
of media, the largest type of media in their collection, is a little
gadget which is a combination filmstrip viewer and record player.
They say kids get restless just listening to something. That suggests
that perhaps they are not listening to the right things, that ptelhapa
if they were listening to the live voices of the past, which are
otherwise inaccessible, they might not get restless. It suggests that
perhaps we shouldn't be recording music on inexpensive tape cassettes
because there's poor fidelity and they get restless listening. It
suggests that when we take 8mm film clips, extracted from 16mm sound
films intended for a totally other purpose, we distort the integrity of
that medium and we render it lifeless. So there is still a cvlod deal
we will have to learn about how to use media, what distortion of media
Is, and how to get it to people.
Physical Facilities in the Relevant High School
- 250 -
Another thing one sees as one moves through these libraries isthat though libraries are growing larger and larger and seem to runany place from 10,000 feet up to 30,000 square feet, with collectionsranging from 15,000 volumes up to 50,000 volumes, this is an enormouschange from what we had five years ago when most libraries were justa collection of a few thousand books, maybe less than that in an oldclassroom. But even where we see this whole new movement towardinformation centers, we see too that schools continue to cling totheir study halls. The study hall is an administrative device plannedto keep the administrators happy and to keep the kids in a tidy mannerwhere everybody knows where they are. They are not intended for thestudents themselves, and they are not intended as places to move aheadwith inquiry. They are places where kids go with their textbooks.Now, it seems to me that if we are going to be developing large in-formation centers, it is time that we shed the old study hall notionwhere kids go to be supervised and don't have materials to work with.
Another thing we see is the development of scattered resourcecenters throughout the schools. Clearly, departments ought to have apiece of a library very, very close to then so that kids can move froman instructional space immediately into another area where they canfind equipment to work with and where teachers can be close by to givethem a hand as well. But if these sub-centers are not adequatelystaffed, and stocked, then they run the risk of becoming another kindof study hall.
In sum, one has to say that we've come a long way in libraries,but we have an enormously long way yet to go with the refinements tomake them do the job for us that they can do.
MR. GORES:
Thanks very much, Ruth. Let me add a couple of more items tothe library. The last time I heard (this may not be accurate) thetypical high school in this country had about 6% of its space devotedto something called the library. I'd predict that if you do rightby those who succeed you, you'll create schools that can give 50% ofthe space to a library-like environment. This doesn't mean that itis all booklined walls or whatever, but all the media, all the carriersof information will be brought together in something that I hope isstill called a library. Parenthetically, I understand the youngsterswould prefer to call it an instructional materials center. The T.M.C.has a certain missile sound to it, and I am told by some students, too,that the image of the library is a pin-drop place prefided over by aVictorian character dusting her books; the boys particularly adjustquickly to other carriers of information, including little black boxesthat can talk, provided they have something to say. And what theyhave to say is getting het'er all the time, and the devi,-es are being
Physical Facilities in the Relevant (4h c-chool
miniaturized, The old heavy equipment which the audio -v:sual manused to lug around the building is going to be replaced with -hands-
on" materials and miniaturized boxes. I r.,loe here in my hand right
now a little projector which costs less than 5100. Its about sixinches long and about three inches wide, maybe four inches high,
battery operated. You can use it on a bus, with a jack and earphones.
Listento it. The audio quality is only as good as the telephone, but
that's good enough to get information from. Inexpensive - ..hands on-.
It won't be long before many a librarian will have a number of these,
or less expensive ones, and youngsters will get their informationprivately and without acoustic interference with another youngsterthree feet away reading a hook.
Watch the whole microform development. We have here a car!
which looks to be about 4 x b on which 3,0,00 pages of hooks are
printed, with a reader not much lamer than a portable typewriter,increasingly inexpensive. Someday they predict that It wall be cheaperto hand the youngster a book on so-called microfiche than to give him
the physical hook itself. All these things threaten the library andthreaten the old formulae A5 to how big it should he, but someday,
ultimately, I think that a high school :s no:rig to he a great library
surrounded by living rooms. I would call them classrooms except if you
call them classrooms, they tend to be ceramic and like kitchens. What
we need is high quality space with some dignity which praises theoccupant as he sits there and, in the presence of a teacher, hammers
out the values. The student can ,et a lot of his information fromboxes and devices and books but then the meaning of it All has to be
thrashed out in the presence of the teacher, and we have no mach:Teo
that can replac.:, the teacher. Therefore, technology is not a threat
to the professional teacher. Indeed, we will have to pay the teachers
more because the questions are i)o.nq to get harder. The teacher will
spend less of his time tel it like :t is and instead will t#e
marrying the cultural values, the meaning, what's right, what's wror;,
what',0 moral, what's :mmot,ll, what's amoral. Those are hard questions
that the teachers w:11 ;et l*ecause the your. -:titer w.11 have T,tten h.ntact.5 from thin,1,, and then ;ets his f"r-vt ':coPle. There are
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t'.1ezi, a, or: :zers 1.n.1 Are to1.1 they w:11 get more reso,11,-es t,work with :f they chAnge than ;I they mftIntsin trad't,onAl practices.A premum Is placed on the development cf (1rternst:v* Every dollsrof estra money, for example, is worth fifty dollars of regular moneyIn tQr23 of 'IA 13.;',Ict '''11 A Prnqram. And triose who pr.apose the',ozdat c-hzn)e ;et tC pot of r"Jrc'".
the Iv --nnd lever :s traJt7.-0.1t7 :ntrvent rn , F or .(.Arilp 1the :1:,01 of liduoaton at the !!'nzulars:ty of Massachusetts dIscontInuedevery de )wee, course, anct pro,;ram effective eighteen months down theroad. The school then put 1c" faculty and graduate students on aplane for A wes.--I-,n; retreat In Colorad to InItrate the plannzhnprocess for A new eduriationl program. The retreat rost $35,q0-0 -
but thot i cheap ;r1 reiAt:oh A SevvrAl mgzIlon dollar budget.Aculty App,);nlivelts, 1,f ,(AMpIV, 1% A waste f per
Yezr.
A retzest ,s ,ne iknrt of 'traunAt;:.-- interventio. . lecohd'0.1-1i; :qtrvention !, the ro =es- of _:S tattoo. Thi Is a *tandardtechn: 1.to whch s over-used and often mzs-used tpecause It tends tozorluence a very eaI.111 group <sf peopla. AwIthere tiro always threetypes of v:sttrs. Ftrst, vou .1e! those that believe bvforehand thatthey Are F-Ing to Mecca, And they back 4nd say' evrything IsaowlerfuI, Then vru ;et the second kind whn gn to see hfsw you haveeen to theta. And they lee h have been ly Inc) t r, them.And they come b a r i . and they lay s A 1 1 A ;WWI . 1 _ 1 t y eke. T h s t h r dtV;'-e of v.1, toy ;us An Int el 'ed spec ta f-)r. 'he r t owl of
s sc:n Art- 7cii Impnr tan!
-Ivre Are oki,_ rwg 0,1 A, .Itesyn',e,1 spectators - people whoaloe to thy 9chn-o1 I- vl.W! 1.e,1ttg it ;n z pArt of the country
that ',tented t-t 1.1; or they wanted ts-, 04' Aunt silly. Thera areor of those v:sYt,-1 a than we care to Atirsit, Secondly, you 9et the
typo of iFrect%tr,r trough!. ty ilaW Cale 11 ho 'ih t it-o111the -power strj,ture . Thts may e A h-Ard Wibilr or unror- pres:letywho, when sold, ,;r.1! n ThAt ..; A
popuisr teennraue. Th Ali CAn.', the Interested spectator la tree
anst tszports-t t.ecsuse th..at ls the person you -Al'1 t.:-,n.:ert
s ,11 .17 e, 1.1 1. t .% 1 e, A n
to r z he nevi ;r Am. 7:1 1.. feta fro-7 T hs per s a,i swh
',trot 4e, -e t . 'IA,: : ,r ;he pcsapt '- it- e, d .. ht, ti r . .-1,t {!' .
t' VI ±.*
s .1, ?.... ;s ,e!.1 .A: r .--0. _----. W.V, le-__ . A
r.-- 1 . 4 i`. "-, , t .,.1etr L.r.ez
rt e., 'ler to- '7 t.
Levers " it
dIsParli can move their families for a year or a semester.
Those wh, oosr- the exchange idea, even if you are not exchanging
with sc-Ja,led lighthouse experimental places, provide a different
perspectve than was available before. Even if that different
perspect..., is mediocrity it is still a different perspective.
Another kind of "traumatic intervention" is the community
event. Tnis is where everybody shares something in common which is
important to them, and this communal sharing - this common bond -
can last for a long time. It could be a sharing among parents,
students, teachers and administrators. A number of colleges oavedone this in terms of closing down for a day or two to examine the
nature of the college. That is just one example of the communityevent which can he a very useful device.
Another obvious lever is the -change agent catalyst". This
catalyst can he a student, for example. A group of high school
students vin:ted Stanford about five years ago. They were so
excited by flexible scheduling that a promise was made to schedule
their schools free if they could sell their district on flexible
scheduling. The student body president of one high school went
hack and sol0 tne principal, the school board, the faculty, and the
commun,ty - they went on flexible scheduling and saved the sum of
S5,40,). rh, st :der' was the catalyst.
\ 'Tulivdual or group from outside can be an effective "ch.lo':e
aqent catalyst-. About five years ago a school district in Oregon
held A conference. The teachers in the system claimed, "Oh, we'd
rice to change but district won't let us." And the administrators
love to change but our teachers won't let us." The
outside consultants selied the opportunity to sit both groups down
toqrthr and ,sot... each :larty's posttion to the other. That con-
frontatior forces: h.Ange.
The furictIon he cat,Ilyst is to stir up the waters, to try
tc :re-lp.tate new ac-t:\..1 and encourage new thought. There are
;.laces in American ed,icotion !there there is more desire to change than
we recoonize. A helpful orinriple which should he adopted is the
not:on that everything :s permitted unless :t ,s prohitited. Most
schools operate on tre S r:oc:ple th.it nothin is permitted unless
t 1.% endorsed.
Another leyor wou. he 'Flt' tre-set Sche,!rie lrie .4-1e(f,,,
pvlsuAde 10 corsts_t tilt rsselves now for A prooram in '1-4.
future, They will no cos.nit themselves to chanoe in December of
io-° but they sight airee to implement the proorAm in 4:leptemher lo-'
If you want In lock :n the new program, get A cn-Tmlt!-iont to a ":,re-
,,e AO1PCIU. % IA""lOre change.
Levers for Change
- 256 -
You also have to know the right "psychological moment." Thisis called "striking while the iron is hot." Too many districts loseout on substantial opportunities to change because they talked aboutit too much. Educators always plan things too well. You have adramatic moment when everybody wants action, out then someone becomesalarmed and says, "Wait a minute - we have to get the ducks in arow." By the time you get the "ducks in a row," the moment has passed.You have to be willing to get under way when you are not completelyorganized. The "psychological moment" is a very good lever for change.
Another important lever is the principle of "juxtaposition."This can be viewed as a group of alien structures. For example,teachers have always had five hours a week at the secondary level forteaching their subject. Teachers might be told they have two hoursa week plus independent study. The teacher has to roll up hissleeves And get to work to figure out how to use independent study asan alien structure. However, if you tell the teacher, instead offive hours a week he has four hours a week plus independent study,the teacher just nods and smiles. He can see how to get it all donein four hours a week what he used to do in five hour's time. Thenhe will pay no attention to the independent study and not learn howto use that time. But if it is an alien enough structure, you demandthat people chahge and that becomes a lever. It has to be a bigenough change so that people have to take it seriously.
You can establish an alien structure or an alien curriculum.Just changing geography from the fourth to the fifth grade is notenough. If you demand a new curriculum of human relations, communi-cations, aesthetic!, and technology - that degree of change in the waythings are taught would plobably be sufficient. The historian in theschool then will be forced to build bridges to the various areas,and will not teach all students as if they were little historians.
You may also introduce alien personnel. A superintendent mighthire someone ,oho is completely off the chart, take him down to theprincipal and say, -Here's someone I hired for you to use next year,and I assume you will be able to find a way to use hIm." Theprincipal suddenly inherits an architect. The principal did not wantan architect - he wanted a read.m) teacher. But he must find out howto use an Architect.
fhe princlpal can play the sartc jAme by h.r1n-; Allen personnel.Cne school near Denver hAs a pro-iram of Independent study optIons.Onp of the options Is modern dance because one of the housewlves .nthe Area wanted to teach It. They 9ave her A rri and asked her tn domodern danne on Independent,9t4y
Levers for Change
- 257 -
Alien technology can also be employed. Today, before you canintroduce technology, you have to justify how you intend to use it
in triplicate. There is another strategy. Take a video-tape machine
and give it to the teacher and say, "Here, this is yours to use and
I'll leave it while you use it creatively." In one school they had
two overhead projectors. They were still in their polyethylene film
after three years. But they were all in the audio-visual checkout.Finally, they were assigned at random to two classrooms in the
school. The teacher was told, "Here is an overhead projector for your
full-time use." One of those projectors at the end of the year wasbeing used daily, and the other was used on the average of three times
a week. At the end of the year something else unique happened - there
were twenty-five requests from other teachers for an overhead pro-
jector in their rooms.
Another lever is the idea of "competing programs." In schools
that is an original idea because everybody has a monopoly. Why not
create two English departments and let them compete with each other
for students, and then provide resources based on their student
enrollment?
A very important lever is "experimental options". The multiple
school concept can be utilized. Establish one experimental school and
say, "We won't let anybody come to that school unless they allow us
to experiment any way we please.'" In fact, in some districts theystate, "We won't bus your kids to school. If you want your kids
get to that school, they have to get there on their own." Then they
say to the teacher, "You can't be in that school unless you promise
to experiment the way we want." The predictable result is you will
be over-subscribed by the teachers trying to get in, and you will be
over-subscribed in terms of the students trying to enroll. However,
if you force the issue say, "Such and such a school is an experimental
school and the kids have to be there," all the problems whIch existed
before will he blamed on the experimental school.
The school concept is central to the ioea oxper,-
mental options" because it maximizes the opportunity for chc es.
-Don't experiment with children" remains a powerful adversar; of
change. By developing options, parents can learn that studeh's who
are experimented with are fortunate children. Experimental s,-hools
have more resources, the proorams 31'4' closely monitored, angl xemsed.al
act:on .s immediate.
Another idea the c',tetra; on the,-Iry- of chan,iv. ("han7e
alwra Wrq,PAr% lAr,)er than It is. If you are the one who spnronlthe new contrapt:on, the plan Jei alwavi enhanced by the ro,p...761,,red
,;lasses you wear as yol look a! :t. Hut for the the
r,r, rapt . on for ,-ks ./v r s r_ A9. a! :r 1! rir .1 A C 'OW: 'I Al's tr.:J.
Levers for Change
- 258 -
contraption is a rocket headed for the moon. They believe that onceyou mount the vehicle you are practically dead if it does not work.Experience with ed .ation contraptions usually proves, however, thatyou can get on and stay there almost indefinitely with nothing likely
to happen. It is much more likely that the contraption is not goinganywhere than it is going to the moon too quickly. In order toeffect change it is necessary to understand the "contraption theory."
Another notion is the "open-ended commitment." The "open-ended commitment" implies a willingness to "get on the train eventhough we don't know where we're going." Let's start because we wantto start, because we have people in whom we have confidence, becausewe are not satisfied with the status quo." One of the things thatplagues educators is that we are in some instances too goal oriented.We do not recognize that every category of the system is arbitrary.We have big arguments about a category system, and once we adopt one,the future is determined. We do not recognize that the designatedsystem is only pne of many many alternatives. Situations should becreated which are open-ended.
Combining this with an earlier idea, we should propose, "Hereisan experimental school which we are not sure where it's going orhow it's going to come out. Come with us." A present example is theParkway Program in Philadelphia. Teachers students there areusing the resources of the city of Philadelphia. They are stillplanning the program and yet they have several thousand applicantsfor several hundred places. That shows how well satisfied people arenow. We need to overcome the compulsive need for order and system.Adopting an "open-ended commitment" is one way.
Another lever is the "great cause." People give to greatcauses not needy institutions. Too often schools portray themselvesas needy institutions. If you go to the community and say "ourschools are poor," no help will be forthcoming. Rut if you say "ourschools are great," you will get everything - money, the right totake risks, community action and involvement.
"Coalition governance" is an important vehicle for change.Create a faculty council. Involve students and the community in thedecision-making process - in other words, give away the power. Giveaway some power to various kinds of coalitions. Administrators oftensay, "You know, I just can't hold on very long." A reply might be"Well, if you can't hold on very long you don't have much to loose.Now jive away some of your power--maybe you can give away enoughpower and create a different kind of coal t ton--mayhe you'll he ableto hold off longer. You certainly won't be In any Orc,IGe pos;tionthan you are in now." School can develop different hinde. of If-mill:onpatterns, different processes faculty ane. 4,uctent part:, .;..itc, 'c
a means affect cLarlq4 .
Levers for Change
- 259 -
How much of our fear of student participation In governancehas to do with the legitimacy of the lack of perspective of students,and how much has to do with our fear that what we are now doing cannot stand the light of day? Are we really willing to submit our cur-riculum, our organization, our staffing to measures of relevance,performance, and accountability?
An important lever is the "band wagon". In America everybodywants to be instantly second but not first - particularly in educationwhere the first question is always, "Show where it has worked." But
everybody wants to be number two because that is a lot safer andsociety demands we keep up with the others. Band wagons can be goodbecause you can use them to persuade people to Join, and band wagonscan be bad because people can climb aboard without knowing where they
are going. It is our friends that kill us, not our enemies - ourfriends that add '100 to somebody's salary and say they have differ-entiated staffing. Or they add seven minutes to the second periodto read the bulletin and call it flexible scheduline;. Rut band
wagons can be used in positive ways also.
Thelong-term commitment" is also an imp,,rtant lever. When ar
experimental situation is created, a i-henomenon called the 'morale
escalator" appears. For example; if A district aorees to initiate adifferentiated staffinq Project, an a;reement not to reverse the pro-gram for at least two years should !e secured_ You can never cer_.;!e
that agreement in the middle when the situation hecomes difficult,
morale is low, the critics are vocal, Amd the advocates become flAT1';ued
That Is exactly the moment when it is rici-puIlino time not commitment
time. '7,,et the "Ion;-term comnitment- see the proram thrr,u;h.
the f;rst time A horse A 5.44,AM h.ui a race tn hr_t,ne
won, Alm-1'; with the 1 ,ng-term tommitment and the morale esLalat
is the 'expectatIon vet_,;;Ie should LA, told, -If yo_i
think this is qo:nq to fi,r's, yrnl: may right and you may he wrorvi,
tut if you th:nk th'n,p4 ATP ,-)oln, to run smoothlv, vot, Are At'sr-lule
wrong.' One or the prohleas in educ.s..-rt ;s that we promise every -
hridy that they are goin,; to win. We in advance that we kncm
the experiment w.11 rri.r6 . When 1, .=, as :,.i :y trt3e evcrper:.r.erls
rxti t, we Ar(. di-fermelesl. 11.t etenorp0 the r;lh t f,_1
there : no 41,1ch /hIne AS AM ev;1't.;t0Mt_
ci,lf.) 'he :-.T...1*-0 1,4 a ..O.fer TAr.; 1r,nr.f,VAI. fA4i '..'4:4y !tit, -:i.tr ' INA4 A,.,,,mv,! ,, .1e::0 art'
t_.at 1-.0. 1,'*, , , 0; t l' .; AI VT% .", le', _It oI .
, Alt ' 4 .4" 4-T. I ' its' T 0 .v re ,.4. I
f A: It It: .M 1.4 .44 tho'
test. Vi WA, 4 'I T-ir ;4"
the t mv ,!or, r/474_ 4,. 41! A!
xr 944v 1.'14.! 14r,V.! 'f4 * 014;
t.
Levers for Change
- 2r,. -
At one college, a department adopted a hold strategy to getnew courses approved. It presented the academic committee with 200courses to certify. They were set up with a mechanism that requiredmonths to approve one course. If the department had presented sixcourses, they would have had difficulty. But the committee, whenconfronted with 200 courses, gave provisional approval to the entireprogram. Sometimes large changes can be effected where small changeswould be thwarted. Educators have been slow to recognize that prin-ciple.
Another lever is -job mobility.- There can not he an educatortoday who is an educational leader in any sense of the word if heneeds his job. Educators must he completely willing to have the lobblow up and fly away tomorrow. Otherwise, innovations in educationare impossible. Ironically, many educators who act as if they didnot need their jobs disarm their adversaries and increase theireffectiveness.
the appropi_Ate use rf "collect::e bargaining' is an importantlever. This answer is rant that collective bargaining Is gn-od nr badin Itself. Rut the choice of :.sus :s crucial. 'What do you bar-gain for- is the relevant question. With some leadership on bothsides, the issues of what to bargain for in a particular instance cantie changed. You can harqain for differentl-t,d staff - administratorsran propose to the tearilers th-t they liar`, ?..nr a S2S,,V1,0 sala-yfor classroom teachers. the great danger is that the various grouvlallow themselves to get Into An advocacy kind of situAtl.in -- thelato.r management 1--,utine. Administrators then have to go out and getsurvival train :ng. Teachers MU! AfIrtinIStrAtorS should not be adver-saries. The admin.strat,rs were 'sever in favor of lower salaries for'Leathers. the adminIstrators ha.\.e never had the -1.,,ot 1- get ' : : ;her
441Ar:es fI !eta, her,.. But tar4a:nznq give, theT., what is
needed :ti : ,r/1 /-.trk; t hrtlkini; t t ; 11 f :r
t= -,-suret
orter are :rrl,rts! F.rst tr.e siljur:(-.=ffset.de.. Ihls I. INFLPIU A I ^ ;,?:* cent of ;-repent resources
;el 4 done, An-1 t',.t. Ask t:it .t t -e p_th 4 i-er
ens ot tr A.ifTa':-aily hAvv :/eAt4Alr _ I liplth (tat.3. 1,-; reale the sf41-1, -IA-.
:e ;e: :er-. .! -744! _ t
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''.%" ;tr-, ' " .. :- 1:.
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41
Edooational Treohnologo t)., ';oro,ndary xo!-ool -
'Vow and in the Fut'ir
way of designini, catrviog out, and evaluating the
total process of learntno and teacting in terms of
specific objectives, based on research in humAp
learh:ng and communi,at:on, and employ:ni a combin-
ation of human and nonhuman resources to brino
more effective instruction." (:!, 1, 1')
As the Commission admits, "The %vides:Ire:Ad _acceptance and
application of this oroad definition belongs to the future" (6:1'4).
But as the fommission emphasizes, "Though only a limited number of
institutions have attempted to design instruction using such a sys-
tematic, comprehensive approach, there is reason to believe that
this approach holds the key to the contribution technology can make
to the advancement of educat ion" (7:19).
It is the definition of Instructional technology as the desgn
of instruction using a systematic, comprehensive approach to which
this paper is directed. Anything less is hardly worth anyone's time
unless :t be for historians a generotion or more hence to analy:e
the deMise of the American dream or an educational system for all the
children of he peonle sufficient to support the basic ph!lo1,0ohy
of democracy which .0. Its bitth in the New England Loloniec.s.
Potont:al ':aloes of .nstruotional Technoloux
As a re-sli of its study, the Commission concluded that the
present statun. If instructional technology schools and colleges
is at a very low level of development. Even the most commonly used
mater' ass and devices are employed a small proportion of the
time and the quality as well as the quantity of instructional tech-
nolooy is of A distuthinily low order. According to the Commission,
"Examinin: th4 impact of technology on American education in lgog
is like oxam oang the impact of the automobile on :merican life when
the Model T FIrd first came on the market" (8:1g).
"t-0 this limited assessment of current practice, the
(-ommissivn bol,eves that inst:ootional technology has high potent,a1
for improyin; the qual,tytand eIfectiveless of education. Specifl-
rally, the knnIMISCon ideNitioti tho followini pi tent:al Value'; of
Lnstruct:ooa! technology:
1, Techr-o,,o can make education more pioductivei2L12).
11
Tht magnitude of the task our >oc:et has assigned schools
and coLlees coupled with the constraints in personnel, resources
and ti-c make it imperative that the educative process be as
effes, oe and as effi( -cot poss.iblo. Instructional technology
can h:, ,L,ke it so. For one th ni, it clo of ten speed up the
gducationaZ rechnolifl -: .n
*low and :n the F.:t,;ie
proces,, A: least :ii certain Ind vidua:s. Ahile therewill alway,. be A neod for teachers, in,,truktional technology,when appropr at : utill:ed, can free teacher--; iron nary routinemanagement and instruct. tonal tasks so .hat they can concentrattheir time and efforts on the roles ano functions for which theyAre professionally 1 r..,ried and which they can do best.
"A human beini should not be wasted in doing whetforty sheets of paper Dr two phonographs can do.Just because personal teacher is precious and cando what books and apparatus Can not, it should besaved for its peculiar work" (I(1:6-').
Illustrative of this point .s the commonplace argument thatIf a teacher can he relieved of the routine, repetitive, and oftenboresome task of present:no factual information, generally bymeans of lecture, he may have time to participate in a small dis-cussion group, obsee students at work in a project, or evenrespond to a student s question or listen to him tell of a recenttriumph. He might even have time to think about what he is doi-
/
or what he should do. In any event, if teachers had mitre timefor activities of this sort, it is likely that their efforts wouldbe more productive.
Technoloz_ can make education more individual 111:31).
The problem of how to deal with individual differences amonglearners is ever present.
Practitioners as well as theorists have developed a varietyof approaches and techniques by uhich teachers can make adjust-ments in instructional programs to accommodate the differences inpupils' abilities to learn. Carlton Washburne's Winnetka Plan 40years ago is an example of one attempt to make it possible forpupils to move through a standard curriculum at their awn pace.
It now seems likely that some of the recent developments ininstructional technology such as programed instruction and com-puter assisted instruction greatly increase the possibilities ofindividualizing instruction. Further, exploratory uses of thecomputer to record a pupil's past performance and to store infor-mation about his interests, abilities, and learning style suggestthat it may be practical to offer the student many alternativesregarding not only materials and methods but a'.so with referenceto directions and objectives.
Accommodating individual differences among learners in ademocratic society requires more than modifying the methods,
Bducationil Technolo.gy in the ..eiondais,
Now and in the isture
materials and rate of instiuctl,,m. It also demands cuiTicula
which will enable each learner to reach that educarional goal we
have long claimed to be the right of every citizen of a democracy;
namely, the full realization of his unique human potential.
Instructional technology, when utilized wittun a systems
approach to the development of a program of instruction, offers
greater possibilities of achieving individualized instruction than
those that have existed in the past.
3= Technol ran 7tve instruction a more scientific base (1' :12).
While we need to know more about how people learn, especially
from the electronic media, we already know a great deal about
learning that is useful in designing instructional programs and
in guiding the activities of teachers. For example, individuals
learn more easily and effectively when they are interested in what
they are studying and when they see that it has some value to them
personally. The work of B. F. Skinner demonstrates the importance
of reinforcement in the learning process. Feedback on a learner's
efforts also facilitates and increases the effectiveness of his
learn ing.
Instructional technology offers increased and improved possi-
bilities for designing instructional programs that take known
learning principles into account. Instructional technology can be
used effectively to provide immediate reinforcement and feedback.
The use of videotape recorders to enable an athlete, actor, public
speaker or teacher to see and hear his performance immediately
after he has completed it illustrates this point.
4. Technolo y can make instruction more powerful_i1.121).
Marshall McLuhan's thesis that media are extensions of man's
body and central nervous system supports the contention that new
forms of communication increase man's capabilities of relating
to and understanding his environment. An obvious example is
television which enabled millions of people around the world to
go with the astronauts to the moon and to live with them through-
out their recent hazardous return. Because of what they saw and
heard on television; .the viewers of moon flights now have a
knowledge and understanding of space travel, weightlessness and
the force of gravity on the surface of the moon far more mean-
ingful than that which most of them could have gotten through
written and spoken communications alone. It is also true, of
course, that what people saw and heard when viewing the astro-
nauts inside the capsule and on the moon was made more meaningful
by the explanations of commentators and ere use of animated motion
pictures, working models, photographs, charts and diagrams. But
these media are also extensions of man's powers of perception.
1"r-. .)
t".1.1:1( I till 11 et tillk,10)V the et t V 'IC !It t,Ntrw flf,tt t n the ! vat
Teehnololiy (an make learnin,; mote immediate 114 11).
The importance of direct experience in learn,ni and theneed to relate the school cuir:culum to the Leos of learnerand the society in which they live have been twin themes ofpedagogs for years.
Whale the trip t*levision viewers took to the moon was notan actual trap, the sense of immediacy they experienced coupledwith the highly realistic portrayal of the events they observedmade it almost seem for many people that they were actually there.The inauguration of a president, the veto of an act of Congress,the formal opening of Expo 70 Are other examples Among thousandsthat could be cited to document the fact that television providesvicarious experiences that are often extremely close to directexperience. The potential of instructional technology for util-izing the "here and now" in teaching and learning is very greatindeed.
h Tt1.1111111112ys11-2t.tke arcss to educat'on more eq.ual
equality of educational opportunity is A fundamental idealof the American people, but the tragic truth is that for manychildren, vouth'and adults an this land the reality has fallentar short of the ideal.
Many schemes have been introduced Into American educationto make curricula more responsive to the needs or learners andmore relevant to their lives. While it is fair to say that someprosirc,.s has been made, we all know that much remains to be done.
It is the view of the Commission that the use of instructionaltechnology is necessary in order to provide learners with moreequal access to learning resources.
---What have we done to realize these potential values of instructionaltechnology?
-- -What have we done to use the new media to make teaching and learningmore effective and more efficient?
-- -What have we done to use instructional technology to make access toeducational opportunity more equal?
While our answers to these questions must recognize that theextent to which schools are employing instructional technology as wellas the success achieved through its use is limited and much less than
h4111( I I (Ca I 1 4.( hnl,141+11,' :I t t;1' ,t.< ,nut., I V till, -
NOW and *. :1 t he rut ar
we would have it be, we can demonstrate here And there that the growthinstructional technolooy has been (ons.derable since 19sti when the
National Oefense Education Act became law. Your study reports extensive
use of new media in some schonls.
In a recent conference on the Report of the Commission on Instruc-
tional lec-hnolooy, several people who have contacts with schools thrnuoh-
out the country maintained that schools today, at least in general, are
much different than they were in the fifties. They claimed that teachers
and pupils use overhead projectors, tape recorders, record players and
filmstrips rather commonly. One member of the Conference reportedshe had seen evidence of this in small schools in the rural Midwest.
Many of us can also attest to the fact that teachers and pupils are
making in(reasino use of the new technolony, particularly the less
expensive and more easily managed types of equipment and materials.
This fact is recogni7ed in your report.
are a few of the bright spots. Actually, some of the i11us-
tration of promising uses of instructional technology described by the
commission were drawn from schools in Macsachusetts and several educa-
tors cited in its report are from -istitutions located in this State.
It is the bright sprits which heartened the Commission's view ofthe much greater benefits still to be derived from instructional tech-
nology. As a result, the commi,,sion agreed that our nation must invest
in in.itr.1,tional tochnoloy on a scale much greater than it has in the
past.
do,- not permIt A stilly. report of current uses of instruc-
tional ..-,_hriology. But it will be worthwhile to recall a few pioneering
effort.. to .mprov4 education through the use of instructional tech-
nology.
Television
Everyone here undoubtedly knows of the enviable record of WGBH
to utilize television as an educational medium. The accomplishmentsof this station are of such high order that the Commission described
WGRH as one of the nation's most successful educational television
stations. Nonetheless, it is unforturfttely probable that this station's
programing has had relatively little impact on the curricula of thesecondary schools in its viewing area. It is also probabl.* that the
high school teachers in Massachusetts who attempt to utilize commercial
television programs in their teaching, either by having their pupils
view at home or by playing in class a locally-recorded video tape of
the original telecast, are distinctively rare. It is also probablethat those who attempt to help their pupils become selective and dis-
criminating viewers of television may he even rarer.
Educational Technolcye. in the ',econ'L 'ffil.f,f,1 --
Now and in the Future
The potential of open and closed-circuit televisifn as well asvideo tapes 19 still largely untapped so tar as secondary eduratIonis concerned.
Other forms of televisifm technology including 2500 megahertz,multiplexing, electronic video recording and satellites, as reportedby the Commission, "have great potential for education . . . however,their use and effectiveness have been limited--both in quantity andquality" (16:71).
Programed Instruction
About ten years ago, educators from coast to coast were sud-denly made aware of what was billed as a revolutionary and highlypromising instructional technique, namely, programed instruction.
Due. at least in part, to uncritical thinking on the part ofmany educators as well as the enthusiasm of some entrepreneurs for aquick profit, programed instruction enjoyed but a brief period ofascendancy and then a quick demise. This was unfortunate because thefailures which caused educators to discredit programed instructionwere due mainly to the inexpert and hasty development of the programs.When the process is properly and appropriately applied- -and it is aprocess -- programed instruction is one highly effective instructionalapproach. Industry and military training programs have used it ex-tensively and successfully and there is no reason why it cannot con-tribute materially to individualized instruction in our elementaryand secondary schools as well.
Perhaps the most important outcome of our experience with pro-gramed instruction is the clearer insights we now have of the processof instruction. Our attempts to program instruction have helped us seemore clearly the vital importance of specifying our objectives, testingour instructional designs and materials with representative learnersand carefully validating completed programs. While this process isfundamental in the development of all instructional programs, itsimportance in developing programs for individualized instruction isespecially apparent.
Dial Access Information Retrieval Systems
Another recent innovation in instructional technology is theuse of dial access information retrieval systems. A nationallyprominent leader in exploring the educational potentialities ofinformation retrieval systems is the West Hartford Public Schools.The Oak Park-River Forest High School near Chicago is also experiment-ing with this particular technological device. Initial experienceswith dial access retrieval systems confirm their high potential forfacilitating individualized instruction.
EducatIonal Technol-.§gy .n the Sec-ndary Schc--1
Now and in the Future
-
Other Illactrations
Whilly we could describe numerous other pioneering efforts ininstructional technology such as CAI Games and Simulation, Bmm film,and student produced films (notably popular in some of your schools),
it would be useful instead, to show some excerpts from a film entitled
The Teacher and Technology which Illustrate new applications and pro-cedures as of two or three years ago and which are still suff,cientlyunilue to merit our attention.
Excer;,t: Learning as Self-Learning
"In a montage of young people in self-instruc-tional, media-centered experiences includingmodels, tapes, oscilloscopes, computers, teachingmachines, exhibits, and other technologicaldevelopments, the point implied is that, afterall, all lea -ning is self-learning and that whileJohnny must still learn to read, the fact is thatthe Second Industrial Revolution has caught upwith education. Instructional Technology is here
to stay."
f:xcerpt: Media and the Continuous Progress School
-The Brigham Young Laboratory School in Provo,Utah, is viewed as an example -wf a growing numberof programs based on individualized instruction,independent study, and the use of both programedand non-programed materials. The breakdown oflearning activities into independent study, smallgroup, and large group instruction, individual
testing, and counseling is seen. Lowell Thomson,
Director of the Laboratory School, describes theprogram with comments by several teachers."
While some of the examples of instructional technology shown in
these excerpts border on the systems approach to teaching and learning,
they are, in the main, illustrative of the more conventional use of
instructional technology.
As an example of a systematic approach to the development ofindividualized instruction it would be useful to show a slide-tape
presentation of the story of individualized instruction in business
machines and typing at Lansing Community College.
::durat
Nr7w and .r& the Fntureyecr'n,ta
;'resentat,r,n,
th4s hirih;y q.00ram :s ::o 'he '-lme the
sy.,terzc apprach. :s certa:niy an excellent efft,,rt.
One pn:nt which be part:cularly emphas;:ed Is that therevised Rusiness Machines program illustrated here was first designedto achieve specified purposes for specified learners under highlyflexible conditions. Then, and only then, were the media brought inwhich were necessary to do the job. Needless to say, it was a job whichcould not be done without media and which was It made possibleby educational technology. Nonetheless, the important point is thatsuch systematic analysis of learner needs and systematic developmentof prolrams to meet these needs is the process by means of which thereal potentials of instructional technology can he reali7el. It is
Aco the most promlsini pro v44 devrlone-! to th:c time for the solutIonto eduratIon's crucial problems.
As to the ur.e of Instruc-t.onal techn-lit;v .n ht ;h schnIsn-yw, perhaps t!e hest we pan say Is that some sch(.ni< hve made :rom-
starts.
As to the future, you, the parents, hoard members, t,pachers andadn_n.strators, will play a slAnlf scant part .n determining tl'at future.
Speaking for many specialists :r, learnInl theory and instructionas well as in media, the Comm:ssion on lostructional Technology haspointed the way we should no. whether we get there or not will depend,in no small way, on the depth of your commitnvnt, the effort you maketo develop the requisite knowled;e and se.111s, an the sw.p--)rt you-;et from the public ,:e.nerally.
The stakes are We h:Ipe we w.11 all r:sfand surceed in meet :n'; our recp-nsih;lt:vc.
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CANTON HIGH SCHOul..rintori, Massachusetts
Th.Arsday, April q, 1)1-
AGaNDA
coffee and Peoistration
1074; Report of Study - Dr. ill:all C. .44io. andDr. Lloyd S. Michael
11: - 11 ),() DIscussion about the Study
- 11:4S Position Paper - Dr. Lloyd S. Michael
Il 4c -
3
Ed.D. New York University; Director, A Stud; of ttie
Comprehensive High School in Massachusetts; Professorof &ducat:on, Northweatern University; Superintendent,Evanston, Illinois Township High School, 1948-68;National Committee on Secondary Education; Chairman,National Advisory Board, National Instructional Tele-vision Center; National Advisory Commission, A Studyof the American Independent School, Chairman, IllinoisState Scholarship Commisaion,
SITJECT. -PEPSPUCTIVEA ON THE COMPPRVeN';IVSC1.4001 IN THE SPVENTIF-,-
Pe.ct1.-4141
.1' LonPco,ItIon Paper - Dr. urs;)
.1 - 3 CPO
T.D.h University of Chicaejo, Associate Secretary,National Association of Secondary School Piincipalisince 1960; Director, NASSP Model School Project.He is also a widely traveled educational consultantand lecturer. Dr. Trump's varied positions in edu-cation includ.v: Professor of Education, Universityof 111Inols, 1147-59; Director, NASSP Staff Vtill:a-tion Comnission, Director, NASSP AdministrativeInternshir PrOg)rAll. Author of numerous article, andhooks.
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Horspectivos on the ComnrchonsivHigh ..chooi in the tiovontits
,.iven an adequat. enrollmint, can a school with limitedfinancial risources °liar a curriculum with sufficiinthroadth and depth to moot the needs of A diverse studentt,odv, and to provide essential facilitlos"
Is tha establishment of regional vocational-technicalhigh schools discouraglng the cloy. looment of regionalcompruhonsivo high schools'
4. Should roglonal vocational high schools greatly extendthoir academic programs and become multi-putpose high
5 the locale of the school - the large city, thesuburban communit , the rural area - impose uniqueconditions in tno development of future comprehensivehigh schools'
To what extent is the cooperative affiliation of on or
more high schools the most feasible answer to neededcomprohinsivoness'
An adequate educational program must afford each student anumber of options for his future - a job, college entry, furthervocatic.o.al trainino, or a combined work-study program. In addition,it should help him develop his greatest potential as a person, andnreparo him t':, ?scum t1-0 duties and responsibilities of an .ffectivocitizor Pocognating the wide diversity of educational needs and7.1torosts whl,h the unsolocted student body in the typical high
school possosses, tho iu 'gran :p tl,c co c,honsive high school can
191!is! m. 't Ito. common, integrating needsintegratin hoods o all 'udonts and thesi,oc.ialized noeds of tho individual student.
Th. high, sclool cf the sovntis must meet the test of quality.'....111ain Carr stated several years ago that we had solved the problemof gotting childron and youth in schools, now the concern must bewhat 0..t out of school. Quality through diversity is the chargeto tu. I:c 111)t Nchlki. Uualltv must F,c. he kind of comprehensive,dufa.... that sorvos a t indiIdual and servos all.
',"tma!' with modifinatiu.ns and revisions from etherts, Uped charactiristics of a quality high school.
For too in w. have satisfied with tangitlo, observablo con-ditions And arrangmts as valid indicators of quality. I ref. r to
sue h ovor-usod indiros as training and oxporionc. of the staff,pupil-toarhor ra. por-pupil expendituris, number -Aumes inthe Ithraiv. pupil sp,. allotments, and oven the number of NationalMerit '.cholarshq winn.rs Th.' -haractoristics rawelti andolP. us 1)i-vnr: I1 4 mor. tracts' iona i ft4.AS r4monts of
'7'ti
)
Perspectiw.s (,n the Comprehensive
High Schor: 1,, the Seventies
quality. For example, they ask high schools to answer such
searching questions as the following:
1. Are there sufficient course offerings to choose from
so as to permit all students to pursue in depth those
authentic vocational and academic interests they may have?
2. Are sufficient instructional materials, procedures, and
methods sufficiently varied, extensive, and contemporary
to make learning itself a self-renewing process for
students?
3. Are students increasingly encouraged and/or required to
assume more responsibility for their own learning and tb
make intelligent decisions about their future? Are they
extended more autonomy, both in studies and general
control as they move through the school?
4 Is the school organized so as to provide the principal
and his staff with the authority, responsibility, and
fu.lds to initiate new programs on an experimental basis
and to evaluate their effectiveness?
5 There is the characteristic of quality related to per-
ceptions of the school. Do students perceive the school
as a desirable- plac-e in which _to learn and live? Do
teachers envisage the school as one where their own
personal and professional aspirations can be fulfilled?
Do parents consider the school to be providing that
quality of education they are seeking for their children?
Does the administration perceive the school situation to
be amenable to growth, change, improvement? (
These questions and others like them are truer measures of
quality than those traditionally utilized in our schools. The new
Evaluative Criteria, 4th Edition, now being implemented in the
schools in cooperation with the New England Association of Colleges
and Secondary Schools, provide other significant indices of quality.
It is hopeti that the National Assessment Program and efforts of
other national groups will add greatly to qualitative measurement and
evaluatior,. The important fact is that quality secondary education
demands more service, to students and more effort and achievement
from them.
In addition to the measures of comprehensiveness and quality,
the high school of the seventies must meet the test of relevancy.
Rolovanc, as you know, is a "buggy" word. One writer states that
education lacks relevance because it is too disengaged, too detached,
no remote from those significant choices which confront students
0)(
Perspectives on the ComprehensiveHigh School in tte Seventies
- 200 -
here and now, and too indifferent to the actual problems of society.Newsweek Magazine in a reccnt article entitled "What's Wrong withAmerican High Schools Today?" states,_ 'Basically the student complaintis that their schools are out of touch with what is most important intheir lives, that they have failed to keep pace with the great changesin American life during the past two decades." Ralph Tyler writing inAgenda for the Nation challenges the secondary school to develop arelevant and authentic curriculum to serve more adequately the needsof youth and the demands of a changing, technological society.
Alvin Eurich in his book, Reforming American Education, makesa strong case for the humanities as the new and essential frontierin curriculum reform. He states that the humanities, properly con-ceived and taught, constitute the great integrating force in theschool curriculum. To achieve this schools must transcend thetraditional subject matter categories by which the schools organizethe curriculum. Schools, according to Eurich, must center theirteaching on major ideas with which students will have to grapplethroujhout their lives. Only the insights of the humanities, he con-tinue, can illuminate such themes as freedom, responsibility, andthe aims of life.
Too much of what we now teach is deflecting young 11_ ple frommeaningful, productive lives. Teaching must be relevant to youngpeople in today's world. Every subject field must do soul-searchingin terms of relevance. Many students are no longer willing to studysomething because we as teachers and administrators say that eventu-ally they are going to use whatever it is we are presenting, or thateducated people must have this information as part of their back-ground. Students are going to have to be, in the current lingo,"turned on" in school more than they are. Much less attention shouldhe given to imparting information, in teaching students how to per-form, and much more effort and imagination, as Norman Cousins says,expended in the process of ..lf- discovery and creative developmentso that youth can learn up to their productive capacity.
Schools must motivate the student to become the person he iscapable of becoming. Raymond Houghton wisely reminds us, "Everyone isan intellectual when provided with opportunities for involvement. Asstudents find the teacher relevant and the school relevant, they willfight to be involved. Youth drop out of school not because they wantto, avoid involvement, but because they seek it and the schools denyit to them." We must constaAtly remind ourselves that in America ourcommitment to education includes not only the right of every individualto an opportunity for an education b,2t the right to an equal oppor-tunity for a meaningful, satisfying education.
If the high school of the seventies is to be more widely compre-hensive, more relevant, and of higher quality to cervc both individual
0)f u1,4ItiN.
Perspectives on the ComprehensiveHigh School in the Seventies
- 201 -
and social needs, it must differ in many ways from most of our high
schools today. There are four primary dimensions of change and
innovation that I believe need simultaneous attention and careful
implementation. Ignoring any of these areas will, in my judgment,
inhibit the effectiveness of the other three. Stated as goals
these dimensions of change are:
1. We must make effective institutional rearrangements for
teaching and learning.
2. We must use more educational technology wisely.
3. We must introduce relevant, authentic curriculum content
into all of our courses and in new courses as they are
developed.
4. We must emphasize the responsibility of the student for
his own learning.
One could easily spend an equivalent amount of time that I have
used this morning in a discussion of each of these areas of needed
change and innovation. Perhaps during the discussion period the panel
and the audience may wish to raise some questions and suggest some
promising practices now underway in their schools.
We have made great progress in our high schools. The issue is
not whether they are better than they used to be; they are better.
The question is whether they are good enough for the critical and
demanding times in which we live and for the times that lie ahead.
A sober appraisal of the Commonwealth's need for improved high schools
today and tomorrow should convince all of us, educators and laymen,
of the necessity to use wisely and effectively the material resources,
the ideas, and the personnel essential to produce the best possible
schools. This is no easy road. Focus on change, as Lloyd Trump has
said, requires focus on courage.
You and I need to be conscious of the fact that we are giving
responses to needed improvements in education each day by what we
do and how we do it. I am convinced that the genesis of change and
innovation lies within each of us. The inspiration must be a young
man or a young woman whom we have helped to motivate and C.rect to
higher purposes, who senses in the words of Alfred North Whitehead -
"a vision of greatness." I am assured that the stakes are high. The
results can bring high rewards. The satisfactions both personal and
professional ale immeasurable.
- 202
Doing Better with What You Have- -NASSP Model Schools Project
by
J. Lloyd Trump
My purpose today is to help anyone in any place to improve thequality of teaching and learning. Your school, old or new, in ghettoor suburb, poorly supported or richly endowed, can be better than itis. How to do it is our mission. The basic requirement is that youknow where you are going, that your educational goals are clear.
The NASSP has developed a model to help you. tell youabout that model and, in the process, suggest some alternatives foryou to consider in making changes in the right direction in yourschooldoing MUELtintn1nattma.
Some persons argue that any change is better than no changeat all--but that is a useless controversy. The directives from pupilsand teachers are too clear these days. Schools will change.
The NASSP Model is being implemented in a project, supportedpartly by the Danforth Foundation--with 34 schools participating. Howwill these schools be different? What should we call them--morehumane schools because each individual gets more attention? Somepeople in one of the model schools, a junior high school in southeastWashington, D. C., call it the NOW School.
The National Association of Secondary School Principals has theModel for the NOW School. No one else has such a comprehensiveprogram. We have been working a long time with some very old ideas.The roots of our Model are deep,
Quintilian stated the philosophy almost 1900 years ago:
Moreover, by far the larger proportion of the learner'stime ought to be devoted to private study. The teacherdoes not stand over him while he is writing or thinkingor learning by heart. While he is so occupied, theintervention of anyone, be he who he may, is a hindrance.
The foundations also are in pronouncements of Plato, Socrates,the Humanists, in Herbart, Rousseau, Morrison, William Wirt, CarlRogers, and thousands of others, past and present.
Doing Better with What You Have
- 203 -
Our contribution in the NASSP is to put a lot of those old
ideas, and some new ones, into a total commitment for a Model--or
system--where changes in all aspects of schools have to occur. we
have been working on quite a number of school improvement projects,
for a long time. A few examples, are the work experience project
with the NYA in the late 1930's; Planning for American Youth in the
1940's; the staff utilization studies in the 1950's and 1960's; and the
Administrative Internship as a means for better schools, also in the
1960's. I am sure that many of you know that Dr. Lloyd S. Michael,
Director of your Study of the Comprehensive High School in Massachusetts,
served as Chairman of the Committee that developed the NASSP staff
utilization studies. My privilege was to direct that project.
The NASSP staff utilization studies developed several publications
that attracted world-wide attention. The first, New Horizons for
Secondary School Teachers, suggested a broad spectrum of studies while
indicating some important choices that principals had to make. The
second publication, Images of the Future, attracted even more attention.
We put new ideas from the staff utilization studies, supported by the
Ford Foundation, into a frame of reference and described our teaching
and learning system. The report at the end of the project, Focus on
Change - -Guide to Better Schools, still sells a lot of copies with
translations into several foreign languages.
We tell you these things that you may understand better the
origin and development of our NASSP Model. A lot of so-called new
ideas today need the model because a failure to change all aspects of
the school program limits the possible gains of such innovations as
television, programmed instruction, flexible scheduling, micro-teaching,
use of varied learning strategies, including educational games, total
environment education, various curriculum projects, the school-within-
a-school, year-round school, and many more. These innovations fail in
most cases to produce pupil gains and to help teachers because they
try to function in self-contained classrooms, or with poor staff
utilization, and with principals who sometimes have the wrong priori-
ties.
Now I want to give you a more detailed explanation of the NASSP
Model. Later I will suggest some ways for you to take steps toward
it in your school to do better with what you have.
Outline of THE MODEL of the NASSP Model Schools Project
1. BASIC GOALS:
a. To provide a program with varied strategies and environments
for learning through which all pupils, regardless of difference'.
in individual talents and interests, may proceed with gains.
12.4.
Doing Better with What You Have
- 204 -
b. To provide conditions for teaching that recognize differencesamong teachers and capitalize on the special talents andinterests of each person.
c. To define clearly the role of the professional teacher asseparate from the roles of clerks, instruction assistants,and general aides.
d. To separate the principal's role in instructional improve-ment and general supervision from management tasks that canbe done by other persons.
e. To emphasize in curriculum revision the distinction betweenthose learnings that are essential for all pupils, and thoselearnings which are specially relevant for some of them.
f. To reduce required learnings in all subjects to provide moretime for pupils to follow their own interests and talents.
g. To develop better methods and materials for evaluating changesin conditions for learning, teaching, and supervising, as wellas changes in the use of the things of education;-also forevaluating the effects of the program on pupils, teachers,and principals.
h. To utilize school funds, supplies and equipment, and otherschool facilities differently to produce better results asdescribed under Item "f" without necessarily having more ofthe things of education.
i. To discover better ways of utilizing outside consultant helpnot only within a given school but also through audiovisualdevices to spread the consultants' talents among other schools.
j. To analyze the process and the progress of change among schools.
2. BASIC CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PROGRAM:
a. The principal spends three-fourths of his time working directlywith teachers to improve instruction and learning.
1) He organizes learning for teachers according to the samegeneral principles that he expects teachers to follow withtheir pupils.
2) He selects assistants qualified to handle the school'smanagerial and other tasks only indirectly related toinstructional improvement.
b. Differentiated staffing and other arrangements produce changedroles for teachers.
Doing Better with What You Have
2(:5 -
1) Instruction Assistants (average of 20 hours per week per
teacher) oversee pupils' independent study, etc.; Clerks
(average of 10 hours per week per teacher) keep records,
etc.; General Aides (average of 5 hours per week per
teacher) perform tasks not requiring competence in subject
areas or clerical skills.
2) Teachers are scheduled an average of not more than 10 hours
per week with pupils groups (2 hours with large groups, 8
hours with small); the balance of 20 hours, mostly on school
premises, are for keeping up-to-date, developing materials,
evaluating, conferring, and supervising.
3) Most teachers serve a new role as teacher-counselor (helping
about 35 pupils indilidually to plan, schedule, and change
their independent study time and collecting information
about each pupil's progress and difficulties).
4) Teachers work individually in offices rr in groups organized
by departments or on some other basis.
c. Individualized learning methoLls emphasize motivation, continuous
progress, self-direction, individual scheduling, personalized
evaluation, and attention to personal needs and interests, while
maintaining pupil accountability.
1) Pupils are required, all the years they are in school, to
attend 8 hours of motivational presentations and discussions
each week in all 8 areas of human knowledge (30 minutes in a
large group and 30 minutes in a- -small group per week in each
area). These groups are scheduled by the school office.
2) Pupils have 22 hours per week for scheduling independent study
in the school oe community (distribution decided by pupils
and their teacher-counselors,changeable by them at will with
joint approval). A professional counselor or the principal
resolves disagreements, if any, between a pupil and his
teacher-counselor. These pupils schedules are made, changed,
and recorded by teacher-counselors and their secretaries.
3) Each pupil covers required content at his own pace, using
specially prepared materials. Much of this work may be done
cooperatively in various-sized groups, as established by
students themselves.
4) Evaluation for each pupil is in relation to his own past
achievement in a variety of educational goals. Since teachers
cannot evaluate every aspect of learning, priorities are
established.
5) Attendance of pupils is regularly checked and the amount of
each pupil's progress systematically reported by the instruc-
tion assistants who supervise independent study.
2'1
Doing Better with What You Have
- 206
d. Curriculum revision sepzrates basic, essential learningsfrom other learnings that mainly are appropriate for pupilswith special talents and interests.
1) Materials are organized to provide self-direction, self-motivation, self-pacing, and self-evaluation by pupilsthemselves.
2) The amount of depth and creative studies in relation torequired, basic studies increases with the age maturityof individual pupils.
e. Improvement of teaching and learning requires that money andfacilities tie utilized differently.
1) Financial input is analyzed in terms of gains (productoutput) in the foregoing items "a," "b," "c," and "d"(principal's role, teaching roles, individualized learning,and curriculum revision), Improvements in those areasdo not necessarily cost more.
2) Most conventional classrooms b.!come learning centers(both kinds: study and work) for independent study; afew rooms are divided for small-group meetings and forteacher offices and workrooms; a few spaces are neededfor large-group instruction (motivational presentations).
3) Priorities for new construction or for purchase ofsupplies and equipment are based on what will produce themost good for the most pupils, in terms of the goals ofthe teaching-learning methods .a the Model.
f. Increased emphasis on evaluation is essential to provide feedback for directing further improvements, and to produce con-fidence in the changes.
1) The emphasis is on behavioral changes when evaluatingindividual pupil progress.
2) Analyses will reval changes made in conditions for learn-ing, teaching, supervision, curriculum development, anduse of funds and facilities in school and community.
3) The effects of the changes on pupils and teachers en masse,on principal and assistant., and financial efficiency willbe measured.
.1-
Doing Better with What You Have
Some transitional steps Toward Achieving the model--11,'n,)
Better with What You Have
A. Liae2142tiatterltiontay therillis224/212...12:f role of working with
teachers to its rove instruction.
1. Keep a log for two creeks or a month to show what the pr.ncipal
does. Then summarize the data in a report to the super'nten-
dent, calling attention to the time the principal now spends
on routine management and other duties that persons with less
professional training but more specific preparation might do.
Show how the school district cannot afford to have principals
spend their time on sub-professional activities. Conclude the
report by making positive recommendations about what the prin-
cipal will do to work with teachers when the changes are made.
2. Set up an "instructional system- to help teachers learn about
the concepts in the NASSP Model Schools Project. Here are,'
the three basic parts of any instructional system:
a) Make a motivational presentation (30-40 minutes) at a
general faculty meetingthat is, large-group instruction,
the purpose being to encourage independent study.
b) Organize a faculty study center with materials for reading
and reviewing. The other aspect of independent study- -
going beyond reading, listening, viewing, and thinking- -
is doing. Help teadiers-toplan, emery o411-and evaluate_
minor projects as described later in this fitatement.
c) Plan a systematic program of small-group discussion with
teachers, some groups tieing departmental and others cut-
ting across those lines.
B. Teacher Role in the MSP
1. Reduce scheduled class meetings per week to give teachers time
for independent study, including the development of materials
for pupils' continuous progress. Classes may meet ?, 3, or 4
times per week (same length of time as before) instead of S.
Someone will have to supervise the pupils. flse some teachers
while others are free. Setter still, use some instructinn
assistants.
2. Help teachers to develop continuous progress materials for
pupils to use.
a) Use the present, basic textbook--the author(s) provide a
sequence, content, and suggested activities. Teachers
doubtless will want to supplement the textbook with re-
corded explanations and tests for pupils to use to help
their own self-appraisal.
tvr
Add "guidesheet, thA! te::
qupposed tn leArn %nddr_reAd, wr.ti v!ew,
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ly what each pupil knows or can do in one or two basic goals
of instruction; this procedure re-quires thAf those qoals Are
defined in behavtoial terms.
Evaluate some *necial project, using as mane affective goals
as you wish,,And indicate where the pupil's achievement fall-
on a continuum from nne of the hest the teacher has fever
observed to one of the worst. Sow: illtotrative goals are:creativity, pervkistence, use of human resou a, use of
material resources. value to others, and Facr.
term is defined and a *Ark placed on a ttek_ cmntInwAli:
S
CONFEPENCL
A ';';_;t!V ht COrhOnSIV** tai it -;chnnl -n MAssAchusott-,
ALWNWIN 0U;IONAL HI ,ti SCHOOLNorthbnrouoh, Massachusett,,
Friday, April 10, 1Q7;)
AGENDA
Coffee and Reorstration
10:,*, D :3, Report of Study - Dr. Will:am . :rye andDr. Lloyd S. Michael
10:30 - 11:1c _)iscussion about the Study
11:15 - : =S Pos:tion Paper - Dr. Kevin Ryan
1:
M. A. Colunbia University; Ph.D. Stanford University;Associate Professor, School of Education, Universityof Chicago; Director, Triple 7" Program; Rpripient,Alfred North Whitehead Fellowship, Harvard University1970-71. publications - contributor to numerouseducational journals and oeriodals; co-author withDwight Allen, Micro-Ictia2; and author of Don'tSmile Until Christmas (soon to he published).
StrIAJKCT: -AFTER THF SLOGANS, ,THAT ""
- 1. Poact.r)n, Audlen-c
Lunch.?nn
- t> Pr,;:t1pn PA:wr - Pr. Leon M. Less -oer
d-d. D. Univer;ity of (_alifornia at Lo, Anoeles;f:allaway Professor of Education, Georgia %,,ite Uni-versity; Associate U. S. Commissioner of the Bureauof Elementary and Secondary Education, 1968-70;superintendent of Schools, San Mateo, 1964-68;formerly Chief Researrh Consultant for the CaliforniaState Department of Education; served as a member ofthe Advisory Council of the President's Youth Oppor-tunity Campaign and the Advisory Commi;tee on theEducation Professions Development Act; Author ofnumerous articles for professional journals.
"ACCOUNrASILITY: A CHALLENrE FOR OUP SCHOOLS"
ic - Reactions - Panel, audience
i -IummAry
- :n3 -
After the Slogans, what')
by
Kevin Ryan
The writer's Introduction
The opportunity to address such an important diverse group as
this is quite rare. It is an event I've been contemplating and
looking forward to for several weeks now. An audience of concerned
high school principals, superintendents, teachers, parents, and school
committee membersis a broad and demanding audience. And, I will
take as a measure of my success whether or not I've been able to
articulate one statement that is offensive to each of the assembled
groups. Right off, you should be offended, having to listen to some-
one's speech while he is lolling around in sunny Mexico. However,
this is a picadillo compared to what I've foisted on the person I've
asked to read the speech, Mr. Cooper. I've asked a good friend, the
Godfather isf my daughter, not only to read this to you, but also to
standup afterward to your questions and intellectual hand grenades.
********As our society gets itself into deeper and more disturbing
trouble, more and more people are turning their attentions to the
schools. Although many of the worse problems of the society are
reflected in the schools, there is the growing hope that schools
will provide solutions and a way out of our myriad troubles. when
the Russians shot into space a steel basketball called Sputnik, the
high schools wse expected to turn themselves into MITs and Cal Techs.
We are confronted with a frightening drug problem at all levels in
the society, and the schools are being asked to teach the problem nut
of existence. Racism is the American original sin. It is buoyed by
almost every aspect in th2 culture. Instead of going to the economic
roots of the problem or even to the second level prohlem of residen-
tial living patterns, the problem is handed on to the schools. The
schools have been asked to bus the problem out of existence. what
all-these people, who are asking the school to take on all these
extra jobs, do not seem to realize is that the school is a very
fragile institution. The school's mission is of the highest impor-
tance, but it is not firmly grounded. There is little consensus
about what should actually go on in a school. The school has wide,
but very thin support. And, it has plenty of critics just waiting
to sandbag it. Perhaps it is because the school is so near at hand
and so much a °art of everyone's experience, that it is being asked
to respond to so many social conditions and ills.
Dr. Ryan's pap was presented by Dr. James Cooper, Assistant
Professor of Edution, University of Massachusetts.
After the Slogans, What?
- 214 -
To say that the school is a fragile institution is not toimply, however, that it should not change very fundamentally.Recently I read tWo provocative statements which bezr heavily onthe future of the public schools. The first reads, "What thefuture holds is a recasting of the entire educational system inthe United States." The second statement deals more with theproblem. "We sense intuitively that the first thoroughly televisedgeneration in the history of the world cannot simply be passed intoand through the same rigid institutional structure that its parentsand even grandparents traveled." I find these sentences provoca-tive not so much because of what they say, but who has said them.We have been hearing this kind of rhetoric for the lest ten years.However, before it came from critics on the left like Paul Goodmanor your own Jonathan Kozol or on the right from Admiral Rickoveror 7+T^ angry academician convinced that the young can be savedfrom mediocrity by a good stiff course in literary criticism.Not this time! The authors of these two statements pre the nation'stwo top. school officers, part of an administration elected by theForgotten Americans from middle America. James Allen, the U. S.Commissioner of Education spoke to the recasting of the entire edu-cational system. Secretary Robert Finch of Health, Education andWelfare addressed the stresses and strains of a new generation incontact with the rigid instifttional structures of our currentschool system. Whst all of this says to me is that not only arethe schools not doing very well, but thatthrd is out. The
*baverage American is aware of the problems. *bile this is frighten-ing to some, we would realize that this is, also, a great opportun-ity for the schools. It is very difficult to reform the schoolswhen the great majority of the people are rather satisfied withwhat is going on. The present discontent can become the impetusfor a new leap forward in education.
To say that any fundamental change and schooling is inti-mately linked with in-service training is perhaps to betray amagnificient grasp of the obvious. Massive training and re-train-ing efforts for teachers are needed if we are to reform the curricu-lum and renew the school. But one hesitates to even use the word'in-service." The term has tired blood. It has been tied too longto empty slogans like "the teacher as continuous learner." Hearingthe term "in-service" conjures in the minds of teachers the annualSeptember pep talk by the viperintendent before they go into thecombat year for yet another battle with the children. It bringsback the echoes of a conversation right before the beginning teachersigns her contract, when sh-, was told about all the friendly,supportive supervision she would receive during her all-importantfirst year of teaching, a promise that would soon dissolve. Or itbrings back memories of in-service days which were devoted to"professional growth," but ended up in a weird activity called"buzz groups." In-service training has such a poor record of
49 1 I )A, .
After the Slogans, What?
- 215 -
unfulfilled hopes that it is hard for educators to continuously
believe in it. This condition reminds me of G. K. Chesterton's
comment on Christianity. "It is not that Christianity has failed,
it is simply that no one has really ever tried it." We have
never really tried in-service training.
In-service training, then, is a broad and elusive term.
A way to get at our topic is to ask some questions of it. For
instance, do teachers really need in-service? What are the prob-
lems with the way it is presently being conducted? Are there any
promising approaches into in-service training? And, lastly, what
can we here today -- this group -- do to improve in-service train-
ing in our schools?
The first question: "Do we need in-service training? Is
it a very real question in a society that isgruggling to meet
malgy priorities? Or put another way, the question is, can we
get along without in-service training?" Can we have quality
education without attending to the training and education of our
teachers? My answer to this is a resounding "No!"
First of all, high schools are confronted with a new student.
He's better educated, but not necessarily because of the schools.
The new student is what. Secretary Finch calls thoroughly televised.
He comes to school smarter. Or as Marshall McLuhan put it, "He
interrupts his education to come to school." But I'm not at all
sure that much of this apparent brightness stems from the fact
that he knows more facts. I don't think he has any more systematic
command of knowledge or that he a better problem-solver. However,
the gap between what he knows about life and what the teacher
knows is much smaller than it was even a decade ago. In some
areas like drugs, the high school student probably knc.:-.5 much more
than his teachers. It is estimated that between one-third to one-
half of high school students have used drugs. I cannot imagine
tLe percentage is any where near that among teachers. The same
student and his peers are much less willing to passively accept
authority. I don't think that it is because they are particularly
anti-authority. Rather, they want to question the legitimacy of
the authority that impinges on them. Those of us who for years
hammered away at high school students about the importance of the
question "why" are beginning to rue those days. This new student
will not passively accept things he doesn't like. Last year, there
were over 6,000 "incidents" -- ranging from arson attempts to
political protests -- in the nation's high schools. All of these
incidents are not simply the actions of "spoiled kids." Much can
be attributed to young people who are deeply disappointed and bored
by school. The implications of tills for in-service training are
profound. Most of us learned our profession in quieter times with
more docile students. We need to catch up here. We need to learn
in a very fundamental way who our new students are.
2"1
After the Slogans, What?
- 216 -
S?.cond, we are moving into a new world, and whether we'rebrave enough for it is yet to be seen. Since World War II, we haveseen profound changes in our society, and we have barely kept ourcollective heads above the water. But the pace of change ispicking up. Experts tell us that by the year 2,000, the populationof the world will have increased three-fold. Voyages to the moonwill be normal and many will live in space in artificial satellite.Knowledge will be accumulated in electronic banks and transmitteddirectly into the human nervous system by means of coded electronicmessages. Geneticists predict the scientific planning and shapingof personalities. Families will own computer-robots to do allmenial household work. There will be extensive use of mechanicalaids and substitutes for human organs, senses, and limbs. Therewill be substantial increase in life's expectancy and the post-ponement of aging. We will have some control of weather and cli-mate. Hereditary and congenital defects will be greatly reduced.This is not the world of Buck Rogers. It is the world our childrenwill inherit. Our hest estimate is that-the children who enteredkindergarten this year will be about 35 when all of this is areality. But they and we have staggering problems to face alongthe way. Poverty is expanding at the same time that expectationsfor a better life are arising. This augers for more war, revolu-tions and general international instability. At home we have thecancer of racism that eats at our souls. Unrestrained privateenterprise and public apathy are on the verge of upsetting thedelicate ecological balance and sending us into a spiral of famineand pestilence. Then there are the second-order problems ofadjusting to the sexual revolution, providing massive job retrain-ing as we enter an era of automation and cybernetics. And whatwill be the affect of all this on the human spirit? After tran-quilizers, what? Already mental illness is our major healthproblem. But the question we must answer is what will be theschool's response to this new world? Are our schools preparingchildren for the future? Or are we ignoring the future and makingminor adjustments on a sterile, outmoded curriculum?
A third issue that is related to our question of "Do we NeedIn-Service Training?" is our present system of teacher preparation.While there have been some promising developments in the lastdecade, pre-service teacher education is a national embarrassment.It is understaffed, under-financed, and under-conceptualized. Ifa teacher succeeds in a classroom today, 90% of the credit goes tohim rather than the program that trains him. But this is notsurprising in a culture that spends S or 6 times more on profession-al preparation of a doctor, who ministers to the body, than on ateacher, who ministers to the human mind and spirit. Even if pre-service training improves dramatically, and I think it will, muchof the advanced training of the beginning teacher must be done inthe schools with the strong support of experienced professionals.In brief, then, the present state compels us to provide effectiveon-the-job training for the beginner.
tf)I, 1r
After the Slogans, What?
- 217 -
Fourth, there are new ideas in education and we need the
means to bring these ideas before teachers. For all our discontent
and the public criticism of the schools during the last decade,
the sixties have been years of great creativity in education. It
has been a time of daring innovation and experimentation. However,
these ideas and programs have not been widely disseminated. And,
certainly, they are not widely practiced. I'm thinking of such
things as flexible or modular scheduling which is an attempt to
break us out of the rigid, lock-step pattern which is so evident
in our schools. Or individualized instruction with its emphasis
on independent study and the student moving at his own rate. And
programs like the Parkway Project which takes education out of
the narrow confines of the school building and makes an entire
city into an environment for learning. Or the non-graded schnr,1
movement. Or teaching by television which we've seen done with
such flare on Sesame Street. Or the emphasis in the new curricula
on the inquiry technique. Some of these are old ideas but they
have come back to us with new vitality. We need to find ways to
expose teachers to these new approaches to teaching and learning.
They have to have the opportunity to work through them, become
familiar with them and, therefore, be in a position to truly judge
their value. Right now, to most of us, these exciting ideas are
like the term "in-service training." They're little more than
catch words and slogans.
Fifth, teachers need in-service training if they're going to
stay alive intellectually. This is particularly true of secondary
school teachers who are teaching a discipline. We continually
underestimate the physical and psychic drain of teaching. Most
high school teachers spend more hours teaching in one day than the
majority of professors at my university spend before classes in a
week. Further, high school teachers have more extracurricular
and clerical duties than universit, professors. It seems, too,
that a very good case could be made that teaching on the high
school level with its ever-present problems of motivation is much
more demanding than on the university level. Given all this, we
make few provisions for the teacher to stay on top of his field,
and to be continually thinking of new ways to engage his students
in the study of his discipline. We've given high school teachers
the staggering job and provided them with fewer resources to grow
and develop intellectually. It is no wonder that there are pock-
ets of anti-intellectualism on our faculties. The very people
who should be exemptors of the life of the mind have no opportunity
to attend to their minds.
After the Slogans, What?
- 218 -
In-Service Training as It Is
Our second major question is "What are the problems in theway in-service training is presently being conducted?" Severalyears ago, as a graduate student at Stanford University, I was ina seminar with Robert Bush in which we studied this question ofin-service training. We canvassed many teachers and principals toget a sense of what was going on in in-service training. One imageprovided by a classroom teacher really seemed to summarize whatwe found. This teacher stated, "When I think of in-service educa-tion, I have the impression of mosquitoes nibbling at billiardballs." I read this to mean that we have hard, tough problemsconfronting us in the schools and our attempts at solution throughin-service training are rather harmless and flitty. Many may beannoyed with this rather cavalier dismissal of our in-servicetraining efforts. They think of teachers having summers off tostudy and refresh themselves. Then there are the in-servicetraining days. And the special late afternoon and evening coursesoffered by colleges and universities especially for teachers. Andthe free time during the teaching day. And the curriculum-speci-alist and supervisors provided by the schools for the on-goingtraining of teachers. What about all of this! While not for amoment questionning the potential value of any of these means ofincreasing the effectiveness of teachers, they are either notworking or they are not enough. Few men could afford not to workin the summer. Evening courses are frequently irrelevant to thereal needs of teachers or the teachers themselves are too tired atthe,end of a working day to seriously engage in sustained study.Free periods are consumed in frantic efforts to stay on top ofteaching responsibilities. Often, the curricula and supervisoryhelp never get to the people -- the people who need it most.
There are two problems which vitiate tlie efforts mentionedabove. First is the transient nature of the teaching profession.Ours is a swinging door profession. Half of the teachers whoentered the profession last September will have left teaching bya year from June. There is a fifty percent dropout in a two-yearperiod. Obviously, many teachers entered the profession with arelatively low level of commitment. Teaching is an easy occupationto get into and an easy occupation to drop out of. This conditiondissipates the trained resources which are available. Also, itis difficult to get much enthusiasm to support in-service trainingfor such a transient group. The second problem deals with thenature of in-service training. Simply stated, we put too much faithin words. We think that simply talking at people about new in-structional techniques and methods is enough to change their be-havior. The little we know about modifying human behavior shouldmake us realize that talking alone rarely brings about change.People have to be motivated to change. They have to have a very
After the Slogans, What?
- 219 -
clear idea of what is entailed in the change. They need opportuni-
ties tr' tryout newly discovered skills and strategies. They need
encouragement and support. However, our normal approach -- and
we university professors are the worse offenders here -- is to
announce how something should be done and then step back, waiting
for the magnificient change.
What Can We Do?
What then can we do to break into this circle of ineffective-
ness and inefficiency? Or put another way, what can we do to
overcome the teacher obsolescence problem? I am reminded of Samuel
Gompers', the pioneer labor leader's statement when asked by the
frustrated industralists, "What do you want, Mr. Gompers? What do
you really want?" Gompers replied "More!" However, our answer to
in-service needs should be "More and better!" I believe our great-
est orcblem is that we, as a profession, settle. for crumbs. Teach-
ers and the communities that support them are trapped in a cycle
by low expectations. Education can learn a.great deal from the
military and industry. The armed forces ife continually retrain-
ing their personnel, not only through combat exercises, but gall,
through a vast network of service schools. The major industrigs,
too, are allocating large portions of their annual budgets for the
education of their personnel. IBM is said to be presently devoting.
30% of the time of its employees, from executives to technicians,
to training and re-training. And, again, they're only in the
business of making machines.
More specifically, we need to give much more attention to
the educational and training needs of the career teacher, those
who have demonstrated that they will be staying in the classroom.
These experienced teachers are frequently the forgotten men and
women of education. Given the present demand for highly qualified
teachers, it does not seem unreasonable that every four or five
years teachers return to the universities or special centers for
a semester or perhaps a full year of advanced work. Also, the
Summer Institute Programs should be expanded for many more teachers
and for teachers of all subjects. It is imperative that teachers
should be able to attend without having to make any more financial
sacrifices. We can learn from the recent experience in Japan that
has helped revolutionize the teaching of science there. To keep
teachers abreast of the developments in the teaching of science,
the Japanese have formed local science education centers that draw
teachers out of the schools and retrain them for periods from as
short as one week or for as long as a semester. While they're
sway at the centers, they are replaced by special teams of travelling
teachers who have been previously trained at the centers. All of
what the regular teachers study at the center is immediately appli-
cable when they return to their classroom.
After the Slogans, What?
- 220 -
This idea of training centers or complexes is beginning toattract a great deal of attention in this country. The AmericanAssociation of Colleges for Teacher Education and the Office ofEducation are in the process of putting together three prototypetraining centers. Their long-range plans are to have over a1,000 centers scattered around the country. The plan is describedin a recently published book entitled Teachers for the Real World,which B. 0. Smith and Dean Saul Cohen of Clark University had amajor hand in writing. A training complex will be an institutionthat stands, somewhat as neutral ground, between the public schooland the university. Based on the premise that teacher training isdifficult to do effectively in a university where children aresuch a scarity and that the public schools are too absolved intheir primary job of educating the children, the training complexwill draw on the strengths cf both institutions. It would alsoinvolve that missing ingredient in teacher training, the community.Its function will be to do advanced teacher training. It woulddraw heavily on the new technological equipment, such as video-taping equipment, and kinescopes. The staffs and training complexparticipants will develop courses, seminars and workshops in subjectmatter fields and in new instructional approaches. A function ofthe training complex will be to provide specialized training forteacher aides and other auxiliary teaching personnel.
Perhaps, the most crucial in-service training, though isthe introduction of new teachers to the classroom. Earlier, Ibrought up the disturbing problem of the high turnover and drop-out rates in teaching. Given the fact that so many leave so fast,we might be tempted to try to get as much as we can out of thebeginning teachers and not waste precious resources on them, Butthis is exactly the way to keep this malady going. While I'maware that there are many reasons for teachers leaving the pro-fession, I am personally convinced that large numbers of peopleleave after the first and second year because they feel they havefailed. They receive no sense of satisfaction, no sense that theyhave accomplished anything, so they move on. We should take anentirely different tack, one that attempts to insure the successof the beginning teacher. Specifically, we should make sure thatthe beginning teacher has no more than two preparations, that hisclasses are not filled with what we euphemistically call disciplineproblems, that he has not more than four classes. Experiencedteachers that are particularly skillful in working with youngercolleagues should given time off to work very closely and sys-tematically with a group of four or five beginning teachers.These experienced teacher-team leaders should observe their classes,frequently videotaping them for replay-discussion conferences.Further, community people should take a more active role in intro-ducing beginning teachers to the community. I'm not talking abouta one-shot luncheon by the Rotary Club, but a planned program sothat by the end of the first year the new teacher not only knows
After the Slogans, What?
- 221 -
the local community but feels like a part of the very fabric of
the community. This kind of special attention and training should
go on for at least two years. If this were a regular part of our
in-service training, not only would we have better and more respon-
sive teachers, but they would be staying in the profession longer.
At the University of Chicago we are presently engaged in an
experimental program to train in-service leaders. It is part of a
new Office of Education project entitled "TTT" for Trainers of
Teacher Trainers. Teachers from two districts in the Chicago Public
Schools have been selected by their fellow teachers to function in
a role we call Resource Colleagues. Their function is described by
their title. They're simply to be teaching resources for their
colleagues. After a year of training in new curricula ideas, in-
structional skills and teacher training approaches, they go back
to their schools to provide a variety of services to teachers. One
of their main functions is to work with beginning teachers and
make sure they have a successful introduction. They also work with
the principal and faculty committee to put on in-service programs.
Another part of their job is to scour the university, the Board of
Education staff and the community for people who have something
important to say to teachers or children. Another role of growing
importance is to act as a mediator between teachers, who are be-
coming more threatened by community people and angry community
people who feel immense dissatisfaction with what is going on in
schools. Resource Colleagues will not have classroom responsibili-
ties, but they will do a good deal of demonstration teaching. In
essence, they are teacher trainers in residence. I might add, ton,
that having these successful, experienced teachers available to
our pre-service teachers at the University has greatly enhanced our
pre-service program.
I have been able only to touch on a few ideas and movements.
These examples are meant to be suggestive of some of the things
presently being done. I have stated them not as instant solutions,
but as appetite whetters.
What can we do ab alt it?
One of the questions we started with is, "What can we do
about in-service training?" I mus'. change that question to "What
can you do about your in-service situation?" My reason for the
change is simple. I can do nothing for the in-service problems
in your schools. I could waste our remaining moments with elabo-
rate sets of prescriptions which may or may not he solutions to
the problems in the school with which I work in Chicago. Or, I
could try the buckshot approach of shooting at you two dozen
dubious panaceas in three minutes. I believe, however, that it
would be more beneficial if I made some suggestions which you
might translate into action.Irv",
After the Slogans, What?
2.12
First, we all need a new set of_expectatxur4 strut what ittakes to train'a teacher and what a teacher needs to sustain himduring his professional life. Presently, we are trying to do thiscrucial task on the cheap. We must spend much more of our timeand energy and money on this problem or it will continue to eataway at our effectiveness with children. Instead of tte presentcondition where we are spending something in the neighborhood ofone percent or less on in-service training, you should tie askingfor five percent of the school budget.
Next, you need to realize how important ma are to a solutionof this problem in your own school. As I understand it, groups offour from several schools have been sent here to think about in-service training. You represent, in a sense, different constitu-ents -- all of whom I presume hop.: soaae good comes out of thismeeting. What I am suggesting is the obvious, that the four ofyou take this on as your special problem, not )ust for today butuntil you have reached some goals. One thing you could do is be-come a question-asking group. Superintendents can start askingquestions of their staff. Teachers of tl-eir colleagues and prin-cipals. School committeemen of their constituents. Parents ofother parents._ You might ask, What exactly are we doing in thename of in-service?' "Are our in-service efforts having a positiveeffect on classroom instruction and the lives of our children?''Are our teachers satisfied with the in-service program ?' Arethey involved in its planning?" "What are parents and the communitygenerally contributing to the in-service program?' If thesequestions get little reaction, I suggest you read a marvelous paperentitled "Education for Survival," by Michael Scriven, of thePhilosophy Department at the University of California at Berkeley.I am sure if you wrote him there he would send you a copy. In hispaper, Scriven poses to the American high school one tellingquestion after another. The questions deal with what students andthe total society need to know and be at le to do in order to survive.The questions are the right ones and the very fact they are raisedwill force people to think hard abon their fiqh schools. Whilethe questions relate to what should h, taught in schools, it is aneasy step to "How do we help teachers treat tit se Issues effectively
Question-as and fact-gathering are necessary first stops,but they are not enough. If you want action, you need to plan, youneed to he strategists. We should r),)t kid ourselves: getting basicchange in an in-service program will not be easy. Good ideas andgood intentions are not enough. Anyone who is serious about makin=gchange in an in -ser vice program can benefit immensely by a finearticle by Hubert Coffey and William Golden. It is the classic inthe area, and it appears in the National Societyf2rthe Study ofEducation's (NSSE) Yearbook for 10057. The entire yearbook is devotedto in-service training, and while there may be much of value to you
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Accountab. i :ty- A Challenle r rr Our Sono '1s
- 22r- -
IT. Why is Accountability an impoitant new notion in education'
Our survival and enhancement as individuals and as a nation isco intricately bound up with services and competences of organizations,impersonal bureaucracies and strangers that the subject of keepingpromises has become a central issue of life in a free society. In theearly days of our republic popular custom recognized simpler ways ofoledgino faith than contracts and extensive negotiations. With strongreliolous sanctions against breaking one's word, a handshake was enoughto bind a bargain. The delivery of promises was a relatively easything to monitor and failure to deliver could be redressed in a ratherdirect manner. Things are different now. Many young people todayallege hypocrisy when they match ideals -- promises -- against rea 'ty. ,
Accountability an education is a response to the general duty of keepromises in a complex yet freedom-loving society. Its quick spread andgeneral acceptance in principle may be explained by both the felt needAild the sense that the concept can successfully address that need intue critical area of delieering intended educational benefits to children.
The American education system today is experiencing the most.411sta:fled, diverse, widespread, and persistent challenge ever to confrontit. The criticisms no longer center solely an alleged lack of responsiveness, middle class bias and the like but on competence. This is amortal challenge, For if it can be established that schools lack thecompetence to achieve results with any other than those from certainhomes and areas where the family is the most critical element then thesystem like the emperor stands naked. Both critic and suppo #ter whenanalyzing the performance of many city school systems for example andthe problems of strikes and student unrest, agrees that something hasgone wrong and that corrective action is needed. Nor does this implyby all that the school is responsible. Over the past half-decade,Congress and State legislatures have responded to this growing publicconcern by providing additional funds, but are increasingly dismayedthat puzzling problems persist. Recently, this dismay has cry:tallizedinto refusals to vote additional monies until we learn "what works" orsee to it that the money produces results.
In principle, the American educational commitment has been thatevery child s 3uld have an adequate education. This commitment has beenstated in terms of resources such as teachers, books, space, and equip-ment. When a child has failed to learn, school personnel have assignedhim a label -- "slow", or "unmotivated", or "retarded". To move towardaccountability, our schools must assume a revised commitment -- thatevery child shall learn. Such a commitment includes the willingness tocnangi' 4 system which does not work, and find one which does; to seekcauses of failure in the system and its personnel instead of focusingsolely on students; in short, to hold themselves accountable for results1-1 ter:rig nt student leArnino rather than solely in the use of resources.
e-
Accountability: A Challenge for Our Schools
- 227 -
If schools are to be accountable for results, a new approach tothe basic mission of the schools is necessary. In the first place,the focus must shift from teaching to learning. Second, the schoolswill cease to merit credit solely for their ability to screen and sortin a rutted roadbed toward college or the discard pile. Third, atechnology of instruction based on specific learning objectives willstart to build. Fourth, striking changes will be made in the curricu-lum. Finally, a rational relationship may be established betweencosts and benefits.
III. Engineering Accountability into Public Education
Accountability is the product of a process. At its most basiclevel, it means that an agent, public or private, entering into anagreement to perform a service, will be held answerable for per2crmingaccording to agreed upon terms, within an established time period andwith a stipulated use of resources and performancefatandards. Thisdefinition of accountability requires that the part-i-OS to the agreementkeep clear and complete records and that this information be availablefor outside review. It also suggests penalties and rewards; accounta-bility without redress or incentive is mere rhetoric.
Performance cont acting is the process for which accountabilityis the product. The idekof contracting is older than free enterprise.Its appeal to both liberals and conservatives revolves around itsattention to two things that leaders agree are desperately needed ineducation -- quality assurance and knowledge of results.
Seen from the federal level the process works like this: Apublic authority grants money to a local educational agency to contractwith private enterprise to achieve specific goals within specificperiods for specific costs. The money is targeted at pressing needswhich are not being adequately met, such as: drop-out prevention amongdisadvantaged groups, bringing the underprivileged and undereducatedup to competitive educationallevels, helping the students whose mothertongue Is not ringlish perform as well in regular school subjects usingtheir "native" language as those whose mother tongue is English, pro-viding vocational, adult and remedial schooling, et cetera.
From this vantage point accountability appears to be merely apassionate embrace by education of a private enterprise methodology forgetting things done, a methodology, incidentally, already in use byschool systems fol. years. Any superintendent of schools or businessagent for example, can quickly show that performance contracts havelong been a critical element in school operation and maintenance. The
use of performance contracts to achieve accountability is not new to
education. It is the extension of this idea into the realm of learningthrough a particular process called here "educational engineering"which represents what some in Congress are calling the "coming revolu-tion in American education".
Accountability: A Challenge for Our Schools
- 228 -
Since World War II several fields have been developed to enablemanagers of very complex enterprises to operate efficiently and effec-tively. These emerging fields of knowledge and practice are commonlyknown as: systems analysis, management by objectives, contract engineer-ing (including bids, warrant :s, penalties and incentives), logistics,quality assurance, value engineering and human factors engineering, to_name a few of the more important. If to these are added instructionaltechnelogy and modern educational management theory a new and valuableinterdisciplinary field emerges. This body of knowledge, skill andprocedure can be called educational engineering. It is the insightsfrom educational engineering that make possible contractingto achieve accountability for results in education.
The question might well be asked, "Why the tern engineering tocouple with education? Why more apparent dehumanization?" It is notappropriate here to treat this question at great length. But it may behelpful to note that engineering has traditionally been a problem-solving activity, a profession dedicated to bringing the ideas and re-sources of technology to the resolution of real world difficulties andopportunities. While it is true that the teaching/learning'environmentdiffers from the world of business and industry, some rationalizationof the two sub-cultures may be beneficial. A major objective of edu-cational engineering may very well be to arm educational practitionerswith both the technological competence of essential engineering gener-alizations, strategies and tools, and the prbfessional practice of asuccessful instructor or educational manager. From this point of vieweducational engineering can be a symbibtic art -- a marriage of humanismand technology. It is this possible symbiosis that makes performancecontracting for learning accomplishient feasible. The concept ofaccountability may appear more sharply at this point by" illustratingthe application of one educational engineering process to achieveresults in the basic academic skills.
(1)
This accountability process can be engineered as follows:
The local educational agency employs a management support groupwhose members have competency to assist them in political,social, /economic, managerial and educational matters. The re-lationship between the management support group and the localschool leadership resembles that of long-term consultants ona retainer account.
(2) The management support group works with staff, community (orother groups as required by a particular local situation) toproduce a Request for Proposal (RFP) which is a set of speci-fications indicating as clearly as possible, the service tobe performed, the approximate amount of money to be invested,the constraints to be observed, the standards acceptable andrelated matters. The RFP is the local education agency'sblueprint for action to meet pressing priorities.
Ar.
Accountability: A Challenge for Our Schools
(3)
- 229 /-
The next stage of the educational engineering process occurs whenthe RFP is set out to bid. The pre-bidding ,conference becomesthe forum for educational exchange. Here a rich and varied com-munication through competition occurs between elements of theprivate and public sector. The bidding process is flexible tothe extent that allowance is made by local education agencyofficials for new insights and better elements to be incorporatedinto a revised RFP.
(4) Following the bidding conference a revised RFP is issued andactual bids are entertained. The management support groupassists the Local Education Agency in operating the conferenceand reviewing the bids. The local board "hears" the top bids ina manner similar to the process used in the employment of anarchitect.
(5) The local school board selects what it considers to be the bestbid and enters into negotiation for a performance contract withthe successful bidder. The management support group assists atthis stage.
(6) Concurrently with the signing of the performance contract anindependent educational accomplishment audit team is employedby the local education agency both to monitor execution of theperformance contract and to provide feed-back to the LEA tocertify results for purposes of payment.
The "physiology" of an educational engineering process has beendescribed. Its "anatomy" may now be useful.
The Performance Contract is the managerial tool to assure theachievement of results, while encouraging responsible innovation. Theapproach is simple in concept although complex in actualization. Withtechnical assistance, the learning problem is analyzed, and a delinea-tion of achievement outcomes to be expected is specified. A request forproposals (RFP) is developed and sent by the Local Education Agency(LEA) to potential contractors who have demonstrated competent andcreative activity in the specific and related fields. The RFP does notprescribe now the job must be done but does establish the performance,financial, administrative, and legal parameters of the operation. TheRFP requires that the bidder guarantee specific results for specificcosts. The confidence that the bidder has in his approach is reflectedin the level of the guarantee, the social practicability, the time, andthe costs indicated in the bid he presents.
The program to be bid is described in the contract including the
specified number of students. Incentives are provided for the contrac-tor to bring each child up to specified levels of performance, at least
cost. Provision is made in the performance contract to develop aprogram fnr which the contractor will guarantee results.
Accountability: A Challenge for Our Schools
-230-
After the demonstration period is completed and all relevantcosts, procedures, achievements, and performance data have beenvalidated, the contract requires of the contractor that he, willguarantee an equivalent level of effective, fiscally responsibleprogram and then, on a "turnkey" basis, the LEA incorporates theinstructional program into the school after it has been provenfeasible. Thus performance contracting is a capability-creating-resource for public education!
The Manamfnt Support Group (MSG) is the catalytic and buffer,agency which provides not only technical assistance to the school, buta communication link between those determining priorities and the schoolsystem which is developing program proposals. The group has access tonew developments in the field, especially those in industrial and gov-ernmental sectors', and assists the LEA in developing the RFP to assurethat conditions and constraints in the RFP d' not preclude but actuallyencourage the opportunity for these new developments to be demonstrated.Furthermore, it plays the role of a buffer between the LEA and communitygroups, as well as between the LIRA and potential bidders. It alsoprovides assistance to the LEA during the proposal evaluation and oper-ational stages on an "as-needed" basis.
As operational results during the initial stages are determined,the group provides program planning assistance to the LEA so that theinstructional programs are effectively and efficiently "turnkeyed" intothe school. In this way, the school can achieve the potential benefitswhich will have been demonstrated. Too often school systems eitheradopt programs not proven or acquire techniques proven in pilot programsonly. Later they may discover that the results in terms of costs andperformance increases, erode over time. The MSG can provide criticaltechnical assistance to the school officials during the adoption of"turnkey" process, ranging from projecting administrative costs requiredwithin the system to the implementation of performance budgeting tech-niques which will insure continuing quality assurance.
The Independent Education Accomplishment Audit is a managerialtool to assist quality control of the program. By reporting on results,this procedure encourages responsibility, creating a need for clearlystated performance objectives and an accounting for the costs incurredin achieving results. Just as the performance contract allows theschool to monitor the contractor, the IEAA is designed to assure thelay board and the community they represent that the school leaders andthe contractors are doing their work. The independent accomplishmentaudit, first introduced through ESEA Title VIII by the Ti. S. Office ofEducation is the first, practical recognition that education is animportant investment in human capital. Just as fiscal audits adopteduniversally in public education virtually from the beginning of themodern school period certified that public school resources and expendi-tures were in balance, the IEAA certifies that investments in humanbeings have been successful according to stated goals o.d demonstratedaccomplishment. 239
Accountability: A Challenge for Our Schools
- 231 -
The patterns of funding the educational engineering process arecritical for the flow of Federal, State, and local funds must encouragethe creation and responsible control of the process components. Budget-
ing mast be based on clearly defined criteria for "go" or "no go"decisions to be made at the end of each discrete stage. Three-stagefunding as a facilitating deilice consists of resources and the timelyfreeing of previously "ear-marked" funds for other new starts or opera-tional programs.
The Texarkana Model
The August 13, 1969, Congressional Record included remarks byCongressman Roman C. Pucinski, Chairman of the House Subcommittee onGeneral Education, about an educational experiment launched in Texarkana,
U.S.A., described in an article by Jonathan Spivak, of the Wall Street
Journal. Under the heading, "The Coming Revolution in American Educa-tion", the Congressman states, "The unique aspect of the Texarkana
experiment is 'guaranteed performance'." The contractor must promiseto bring educationally deficient Texarkana students up to normal grades
for their age levels at a given cost and in a given time -- or else pay
a money penalty.
Advantages of Performance Contracting
The advantages of performance contracting are inherent in the
nature of the serious problems that confront education today.
First, it facilitates the targeting and evaluation of educational
programs. Many good instructional programs have not been given the
opportunity to demonstrate their potential due to the lack of an effective
delivery system at the school level. The recent critical evaluation of
Title I of ESEA notes this operational inadequacy. The performancecontract approach, which utilizes a separately managed and operated centerwith separate accounting proceduies, fosters the objective evaluation of
educational results and also the managerial processes by which these
results were achieved.
Second, performance contracting for instructional services could
introduce greater resources and variability into the public school
sector. Now, new programs are being offered to the public outside the
school system; the process of fragmentation and competition has begun.
Several large corporations are establishing franchise learning centers
across this country. One company, for example, has at least forty centers
operational in the major cities of this country; ten others are establish-
ing centers in other cities. Performance-type contracts to improve stu-
dent achievement in compensatory education are usually enacted between
the parents and the franchisee. The dollars which they pay for schools'
operations. As these franchised centers expand, it is conceivable that
parents will begin to refuse to pay property taxes through continuing
to defeat tax and bond issues. The performance contract approach, on
the other hand, would allow the school system to utilize the services
and products of a particular firm or firms so that the public schools
22.9
Accountability: A Challer,ge for Our Schools
- 232 -
can be renewed through a "turnkey" process. Performance contracting canbe looked upon as a means to foster and catalyze institutional reformwithin a school system, allowing school systems to continue operationsand to become competitive with private schools and franchised learningcenters.
Third, the performance contract approach allows a school systemto experiment in a responsible manner with low costs and low politicaland social risks. Both school officials and critics have expressed theneed to determine the relative cost - effectiveness of various instruc-tional methods in contractor-operated centers, as well as upon incorpor-ation into the particular schools. The performance contract approachnot only allows for determination of these costs and benefits but alsoprovides the bases for projecting initial adoption costs as well asoperating cost when the system is implemented into the schools. Inthis sense, the approach allows lay board members to make rationalchoices when choosing new credible techniques for extension into standardclassroom practice.
Fourth, the new "Bill of Rights in Education", giving the right ofevery child to read at his grade level, will undoubtedly place greatburdens upon the schools' resources. If the Nation's schools are tomake this principle a reality, they might want to consider using per-formance contracting for the development and validation of new readingprograms. Upon successful demonstration, the school can then adopt theprogram or portions thereof. The success of these programs, that is,the child's ability to read, will in large measure depend upon theability of the school to skillfully design and execute performance con-tracts and then effectively incorporate the project into its normaloperation.
Fifth, according to the most recent decision rendered by theSupreme Court, school systems across this country will be required todevelop effective desegregation plans which will provide not onlyequal opportunities, but also equity of educational results. One ofthe major fears of the white community (rightly or wrongly) is that"black" or "brown" children, upon integration, will hold back the pro-gress of their children. Through the use of the performance contractapproach, many of the previously segregated children will have theiracademic deficiencies, if any, removed on a guaranteed achievementbasis while they are attending the newly-integrated schools. FIIDM thispoint of view, performance contracting would allow communities to de-segregatein a nondisruptive, educationally effective, and politicallypalatable manner.
Finally, the approach creates dynamic tension and responsibleinstitutional change within the public school system through competi-tion. Leaders will now have alternatives to the traditional instruc-tional methods when negotiating salary increases; performance contract-ing and its variant, performance budgeting, permits the authorities tocouple part of a salary increase on increases in effectiveness. As theDallas Morning News has stated: "Taxpapers can now tie results to tax
Accountability: A Challenge for Our Schools
- 233 -
dollars expended." Boards of Education can establish policy and
choose among alternative instructional programs.
The Management Support Group
"The Catalyst and Buffer Mechanism" first introduced in Texarkana
is the concept of the management support group. The MSG is new to
education. Its precedent was established in the defense-aerospace area
when, in the mid-50's, the Aerospace Corporation was created to act as
a buffer and technical assistance team between the Air Force and weapons
systems suppliers for the Air Force. The Aerospace Corporation's major
functions were to develop programs, design requests for proposals based
on performance specifications, assist in evaluating proposals', and
provide management services to contractors. The major functions of the
management support group (MSG) in education under the concept of educa-
tional engineering would be in the fallowing areas:
Functions provided by MSG
1. Program planning and development assistance. School systems
generally lack such a management capability, or, if such is avail-
able, "day to day" operations prevent effective utilization of
that resource. Moreover, an outside group provides new insights
and a different perspective in analyzing educational and otherproblems and in developing alternative solutions. For these and
other reasons, it is advantageous for the school to have an MSG
develop the RFP. The MSG could assist in the following ways during
program development and planning:
a. Analyze and determine the community's educational needs and
the desired levels of student performance.
b. Conduct program definition phase studies and determine sources
of funding.
c. Develop the RFP and experimental design to be used for "turn-
key" purposes as well as national dissemination.
d. Develop and recommend "program change proposals" on a continuing
basis during the initial stages.
e. Develop means for gathering and maintaining political and
community support for the program during all phases.
f. Contact potential bidders in the education industry and R &
D laboratories to insure that the latest innovative techniques
are considered and are encouraged for application by the direc-tion and flexibility allowed in the RFP.
Accountability: A Challenge for Our Schools
- 234 -
g. Determine the qualified bidders and send them the RFP.
2. Project management assistance. Too often, proposals are developedby outside groups who curtail relationships with the school oncethe contract has been awarded. The management support group hasto provide extended and sustained services in the areas rangingfrom establishing the project management office to the developmentof evaluation techniques. The project panagenent services would bein the following areas:
a. Develop a multi-year management plan for the conduct of thedemonstration and "turnkey" effort, including an administrativesystem for tl,e LEA's project management office.
b. Conduct, when appropriate, pre - proposal development and bidders'conferences with all interested parties.
c. Establish a proposal evaluation procedure and assist in theevaluation by presenting strengths and weaknesses to the LEA.
d. Continually evaluate the contractor's progress and assist incontract renegotiations as required.
f. Manage pilot programs when specifically requested to do so bythe LEA.
g. Analyze the administrative and managerial changes required whenthe techniques proven in pilot programs are integrated into theschool system. This "turnkey" phase is critical to overallsuccess and requires careful analysis and program planning andbudgeting.
3. Linkages for communications and coordination. As an unofficialadvocate of change and an c'hudsman for the public interest, theMSG can provide an effective disinterested, and politicallypalatable linkage between Federal, State, and local agencies sothat priorities and program directions are coordinated. Becausemany firms of unknown or questionable reliability will be enteringthis newly-created multi-billion dollar market, the MSG is anecessary mediator and "honest broker" between the firms and theschool systems. At the community level, the vested interests ofpowerful groups and important decision-makers must be determined.Here, the MSG, acting as a buffer between the LEA and these interestgrolls, both within and outside the school system, can obtain suchini mation in an effective and politically advantageous manner(e.g. the superintendent could point to the MSG as a scapegoat ifspecific ideas or recommendations are not accepted by the Board).The MSG can provide an on-call, as needed, manpower pool duringplanning and implementation. It can hire potential school employees
0:
._
Accountability: A Challenge for Our Schools
- 235 -
in order to allow officials to see them in action. Moreover,
the MSG has access to consultants around the country, and on
short notice it can provide their service without having to go
through cumbersome bureaucratic procedures.
In short, the politics of experimentation where private
industry, local schools, and the Federal government are all in-
volved creates the need for unofficial "advocates" and "buffer
mechanisms" to protect politically all parties concerned, while
insuring that the project does in fact become a reality. The
success thus far in the Texarkana project, which was the first
to use the MSG is noteworthy;
a. Within nine months, a radically innovative concept acceptable
to three districts in two states was conceived for multi-year
funding and was in operation ten days ahead of schedule with
preliminary results indicating success beyond normal expecta-
tions.
b. A new venture was initiated with private industry, despite
some experts' prediction that no firms would bid. To the
contrary, 42 firms attended the bidders' conference and 10
firms submitted proposals.
c. A cost-effective program (e.g. "a dollar an hour guaranteed
education") run by an outside private firm, yet accepted by
all elements within the school system, promising early and
effective adoption was accepted.
d. A project is operating which has the support of responsible
citizens regardless of their political persuasion and the
interest of media ranging from the Washington Post to the
Dallas Morning News.
Independent Educational Accomplishment Audit Group; "Closing the Loop"
Similar to the earlier demand for fiscal audits, the public is
now demanding an accounting of student accomplishment. Just as the
independent fiscal audit of schools has eliminated most fiscal illegal-
ity and has forced fiscal management changes, the IEAA group can also
be used to create the demand for the necessary instructional reforms.
The concern for results in education among the electorate is a recent
development, but it is gaining momentum. "Equal opportunity" in
education no longer mollifies the majority; "equity of results" is
demanded. This is especially true of the educational benefits conven-
tionally called the "basic skills". Even though Title I language
reflects a traditional concern over inputs such as equipment, teachers,
space and books, the subsequent questions raised by the congress have
3
Accountability: A Challenge for Our Schools
- 23n -
moved beyond how the money was sent to questions concerned withwhether the students have learned, had secured jobs, or are fallingbehind. This is the political from which the independent accomp-lishment audit has grown.
The Auditing Process
The Independent Education Accomplishment Audit is a processsimilar to that used in a fiscal audit. The emphasis, however, is onstudent performance as a result of financial outlays. The IndependentEducational Accomplishment Audit (IEAA) relys upon outside independentjudgment and has six essential parts; the pre-audit; the translationof local goals into demonstrable data; the adoption or creation ofinstrumentation and methodology; the establishmeht of a review calendar;the assessment process; and the public report.
1. The Pre-Audit:
The auditor selected by the school system starts the IEAA processby discussing with the staff, students, and community the objectivesand plans of the particular program to be reviewed. This phaseproduces a list of local objectives and a clear description of theprograms in some order of priority. In performance contracts, hereviews the project's "procedures" manual.
2. The Translation:
In concert with local people, the auditor determines a clearformulation of the evidence indicating that the objectives havebeen net and the methods that will be used to gather the evidence.This phase produces a set of specifications revealing what thestudent will be able to do as a result of the educational experi-ence, the manner in which the evidence will be secured, and thestandards which will be applied in interpreting the success of theprogram in bringing the students to the objectives.
3. Instrumentation:
Along with the translation, the auditor, working with the LEA,determines the audit instruments, such as tests, questionnaires,interview protocols, and unobtrusive measures which will be usedto gather the evidence. The product of this activity is a setof defined techniques and procedures for data gathering.
4. Review Calendar:
An agreement is secured in writing which indicates the nature ofthe reviews, where they will be held, how long they will take,when they will occur, and who is responsible for arrangements,the nature of the arranoements, and other logistical considerations.It is essential that the calendar be determined in advance and thatall concerned by a party to the agreement and have the authority tohonor the agreement.
1
accountability: A Chalienge fnr ()lir _schools
5. The Audit Process:ti
This is a responsibility of the and tor. In this phase, the
auditor carries out the procedures agreed upon in the pre-audit,
translation, and instrumentation phase as codified in the review
calendar.
b. The Public Report:
The auditor files a report at a public mee-ing, giving commenda-
tions and recommendations as they relate tb the local obiectivea.
The report is designed to indicate in specific terms both ac.
complishments and ways in which the program may be made more
efftgtive.
Advantages of the IEAA
The IEAA is a new technique designed to put local school
personnel and the clients they serve in a problem-solving iipsdie of
thinkirg. It is built around a financial core since money is a
common denominator for the heterogeneous elements of inputs, but its
focus is upon student attitudes, skills, and knowledge. Out of the
IEAA, a whole range of useful by-products are anticipated. First, it
may lead to a knowledge of optimum rela.tionshii's between outputs and
inputs, e.g. the "cyitical mass- in funding different typed. of Com-
pensatory programs. Second, it can form a basis for the 81scoverY
and improvement of good practice in education. Third, the 1E:AA
creates the need for performance type contracting/and/or budgeting
in the basic academic and vocational skill areas./ Finally, it can
renew credibility in the educational process by effecting More
responSiveness to the needs of children and supplying the understand-
ing necessary to produce change. The power of the electorate over
public education must be politically, not administratively, derived.
If techniques can be developed to convince the community of the
benefits of responsible leadership through accountability for results
those interested in furtherino education can better support the
educational enterprise.
Developmental Caeltal: Financing Innovation in Education
For too Inng a period of time, the public schools of this Nation
have been funded and operated in such a manner that educators and ad-
ministrators have been discouraged from providing efficient and effec-
tive instructional services. Federal funding, despite a plethora of
regulations and guidelines, proposals and reports, actually supports,
and, in some cases, encourages,inefficiencies and inequities in public:
schools. At all levels of financial support, money has been directed
toward specific problems as they emerge, rather than being systemati-
cally used to reform the institution. Hence, taxpayers And legislators
Acen,intshility ha::ehie
f,nd thematve4 the trA9it pnAtt:,tn ,f tftr-atIn) sie5r*... Aftert-A0' for, while the price they 1,ay has never 1refe lreater. The:,roblemis twergin,; from puhl:c educAl5n ba-.-e never won Oeste nueeto!iw.
The hard lesson to he learned frla to t,. past year, of ma,nrFederal fundtno of educational prr,lrams to thst tv, *ay in which theMO/ley is delivered it as im-.ottAnt as the Allen_int If ThO cycle ofmore money and ever greater problems to to be broken, polltiC41 author.ities should realize thht diecretionory money mu.st be 44#(5 for notonly successful programs, bit also for Sy4tee renewal. siritinl to theFall, 196q, 54sue of The Ptiblic totetest, Wintel Moynihan admontshe(ithat -The Feoeral government suaT7ar7;;Inp and put into iiNictice farUnfit' effective incentive system* than no. rust uhtotOt!1; IttAI:0-4414,governeents, and private interests, tch, ran be led to he.hieve theloals of federal programs.- Properly cJ,riceptualizerd, therefore,Federal aid to education should be vtew(10 as kspital, which, 'hen wadeavailable to a predictable and systermatIC turner, asst provide theenergy for educational enlineerind. The basic purpooe f developmentalcapital is to provide A financial resource to stimulate and sustainre-examination and modernization of the educational system. MO inwvestment of "risk" capital can generhte new educational tradition* byApp4yinq thx developmental sopects of hu.iiness sui_reas to iris puhlicee,-tor.
Lffel-tIn9 necessary chan4s. reuires thAcretionlry funds shirtAre ant now avallatle to local school leaders, in the absence ofAn infusion of now monies for development, dIshem:narooh. and !natalTron of new products and practices, this: f),N; hetftevn the demand for,_hasher ch.laity educa'ion And nerfotmarve 1," widen furthIPX
with developmental CApi!Ai ft0I-A410,1%, tnWirdei LAD b d.rectedthrf)ngt1 Fe4fT01. Stilt*, and channe4, and Activtv can rue stoodAt improving management leaderehip capebilittes. all throe sectorsof ':',overnment can work to conjuniftton with each other 1-, aTtra<'t theb-041 minds and resOurces to the teWuriti of the ty*tottA
runts' at the i-edetal lovel can1" -hiqh t:OK
estments. fur this Ls the only 4overnmentai level that ,:an canesWthe amount of dollars And manpower acc',millsh sese4tch ,v10 dove'went. Another aalor rfassideration of the VAtterAl Zvvel of 4'.1vernikenTuntAd be the identification of su,:ceriefot pract:cel ato:4n0 the nat:an_Wenewal capital can be tiled to determine the tOw-apt managemontAnd operational needs of scho0 admin;strAtors and tfl identify suc.ressful school 114n4qeftent and claatiroce practice-- A nat.fine5desearcA need, to hv organIred to edv4tat.finA: %;-1-4,14ches thatACV elrOCV)VA as Al14 aA scy)(;11 4hlet have r.. 14stnittraL,t!:e and 5nstrqit. v,i1 'ewe.
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Account.a.iitv A Lh.illenrie for Our ',chools
policy als- permitted the set-as:de of funds raised from Federal,State, and private sources around this one percent set-aside. Forthe period 1965-68, with the assistance of an elected teachers'group called the Academy of Instruction and the cooperation of students,administrators, community members, and the Board of Education, thisset-aside account was used to invest in competitive teacher student/adm-nistrator proposals tied to demonstrable objectives.
Significant changes in student accomplishment, teacher effective-ness, and administrator initiative have resulted from this grantsmanagement strategy. Such thIlig as a Know and care Educational Re-iMU.,,t4 Center, a Zero Reject Reading Labutatory, a Physical FitnessTesting Center, a Humanities Center, and the incorporation of voca-tional programs into the fundamental reorganization of an entire schoolare only a few of the results. The one percent set-aside was used asa -rudder" to cause change affectinq the entire budget.
Another developmental effort undertaken with funds from thisinvestment account brought About the production of a fill, designed tofam;liarize students with the da)oerS of 1...!";D and other Bruns, Thefilm proved to be so successful and popular that sales to other schoolsystems earned the produrino district a profit of about 5100,000icalled non-profit income' which was added to the investment accountfor further activities.
In Dallas, TKAS, thy' :auperintendent of schools has obtained one,i.cent of the schol revenue for a developmental account called"Nnnies for Innovation-. leachers submit innovative proposals whichare then ,,udged and approved by a hoard of master teachers. with 75to r:ZA of local budgets tted to salaries and With a salary schedulethat is so mid that the weakest teachers are often the highest paid,
s.mile strategy shows 9r4.at prollsk for stimulating the creativityand flexihl:ty man.; tea.hets.
3ummary
If WV ACce:, , ")*. -# ACC 471',3t,II_Ty In cur hi ;h schools,we can expec ser.u:s work toward the Accomplishment of basic pro-fess:mal ends. These Inclikie: the lo,-ation and/or design of good
ct;ce, the adaptIon, Adoption and installation of that practice inA cent:wiinl ef:4clent and effect:ve wAy, And the provision of incentivesfnr renews :. we in rzeet tr.a ,_haIleno if We w111 engineer Accountabil-ity :nt" ^ir %L ,,,,1, mAi.n thole mo.d:ticat or- which fit our uniqu.?
, .
't"t st iager r, 1,9 the bed -rock of problem,,,", we need r1-! -e or dispirited, We
(a^ - en ;A L'Ir A:10! 4 014rdless of where .t
Accountability: A Challenge for Our Schools
- 241 -
Our old programs were effective and just within the contextof those eras -- but they cannot and are not meeting new needs.Unlike many Congressmen, we in education cannot run on our record- -on keeping more pupils in school longer or getting more pupils into
college. we cannot run on more of the same. Leadership is no longer
a reward for years of faithful service. The call for accountabilityis a call for review and reform through an emphasis on shared infor-mation, objective reflection, and results. We can meet that challengeif we will define our burdens and build Our capability to meet those
burdens. Out of these troubled times will come a stronger schoolsystem. This is a Can Do nation. American education has been the
most Inventive on earth. The times call for new inventions, new modesof proof, new roles for professional personnel. Of course accountabil-ity is difficult; but then who ever thought setting out to truly edu-
cate each child to his maximum capability was going to be easy?
-. 242 -
REGIONAL CONFERENCE
A Study of the Comprehensive High School in Massachusetts
9:30 - 10:00
ANDOVER HIGH SCHOOLAndover, Massachusetts
Wednesday, April 29, 1970
AGENDA
Coffee and Registration
10:00 - 10:30 Report of Study - Dr. William C. Gaige andDr. Lloyd S. Michael
10:30 - 11:00 Discussion about the Study
11:00 - 11:50 Position Paper - Dr. Harold Gores
Ed.D. Harvard University; President, EducationalFacilities Laboratories since its funding by theFord Foundac.ion in 1958; Superintendent, publicschools, Newton, Massachusetts 1949-58; AssistantSuperintendent, Newton, 1943-49; Council ofEducational Facilities Planners; Building ResearchBoard of National Academies of Sciences; Educa-tional Board of New York Times; U.S.O.E. Commissionon Educational Technology; Honorary Member, Ameri-can Institute of Architects.
SUBJECT: "PHYSICAL,FACILITIES IN THE RELEVANT HIGHSr.:HOOL."
11:50 - 12:35 Reactions - Panel, Audience
12:45 - 1:30 Luncheon
1:30 - 2:20 Position Paper Dr. Dwight W. Allen
Ed.D. Stanford University; Dean, School of Education,University of Massachusetts; Associate Professor,School of Education, Stanford, 1965-67; Director,High School Flexible Scheduling and Curriculum Study,1960-67; Director, Stanford Micro-Teaching Study,1962-67; Coordinator, Secondary Teacher EducationProgram, 1962-67; currently, Chairman, Commission onEducation for the Teaching Profession of the NationalAssociation of State Universities and Land-GrantColleges; author of numerous educational publications.
SUBJECT: "LEVERS FOR CHANGE."
2:20 - 3:10 Reactions - Panel, Audience
3:10 - 3:20 Summary I 11
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Physical Facilities in the Relevant High School*
by
Harold Gores
I get around a lot and, you understand, these days I deal only
with the solids of education -- not with its fluids, the people who
flow in and flow out, nor with its gases, the curriculum. I deal
with those things you can with impunity kick with your foot -- build-
ings and equipment. I also realize that as I report some of these
things that they will not be practical for you. Just let me report
that they exist, and then you try them on for size. Education responds
to subculture, and it is made up of many subcultures; and things
that work beautifully in one community won't work in another or are
politically impossible. Robert Moses saia it best some years ago.
He was the well-known planner here in New York City who said something
to the effect -- "No municipal enterprise is ever perfectly done so
the public administrator gets what he can get when he can get it and
moves on."
For many of these things the time is not right but here are
sow of the things I see. To begin with, education is a recession at
the moment. Taxpapers over the country are in revolt. They can't do
much about Washington. They can't do much about Boston, Albany, or
what's happening at the capital, but they can do something about their
own affairs, and they frequently take out their hostility on the
schoolhouse. Not only are the taxpayers in revolt, but federal cut-
backs are drastic these days. Compare 1969 with, say 1967. Title III
alone that year was bigger than The Ford Foundation. Title III alone
had scmething like $312,000,000 when The Ford Foundation itself had
only some $310,000,000 that year. Of course, you know Title III has
been dispersed to the various states and there has been less of a
federal thrust in (jetting venture capital into education. Corporate
profits are down 7% this quazier and that affects support, and then
the 4th source of help in education, the foundations, are nervous these
days. The foundations have been taxed for the first time. Now the
tax isn't very much. It's 4% on the average which simply means they
have 4% less money to give away. It is much like first surgery. Even
though it's the removal of a wart, you still make out your will the
night before you go. And the foundations are nervous. Some are what
you call "flow through foundations" which means the corporation looks
at its profit and loss sheet at the end of the year, and if they had
a good year, they'll flow a lot of money through their corporate
foundation. If they had a bad year and the stockholders are sullen,
they'll flow less through. So, you add all those four factors together,
and this is a period of recession for us.
*Transcription of a telelecture
Physical Facilities in the Relevant High School
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Now the shape of the emerging high school, as I see it,takes various forms. It's clear that the principals' thrust at themoment is to increase individualization. The old block-booking ofstudents, regulated by bells, moving from box to box, is breakingup. The schools try to increase individualization; they also try toincrease visualization. That is, to appeal to more of the senses inlearning rather than talking to people about what they should belearning.
Secondly, I see the open plan coming increasingly to accom-modate the rearrangement of space and to forestall obsolescence.Now, if any of you are planning a high school, stay loose. Planlarge zones of space which are easily alterable and avoid designingevery little part of it precisely or you will speed the day when thebuilding is declared obsolete. Now this will be difficult, in partbecause architects prefer to detail everything. This is one way theycan show the client how hard they worked and how much skill they had.Whereas if you ask for general space - mutable, malleable, universalspace, the architect has a feeling that he is not practicing archi-tecture but is creating a warehouse. I notice also increasing amenity.Our schools are getting quieter because they are carpeted. They aregetting increasingly comfortable. At long last, the child who alwayshad a right not to be cold (so the earliest schools in New Englandhad stoves) now has won a new right, and that is not to be hot; uo wesee air conditioning now, no longer a matter of public dispute.Indeed, I was told the other day in Florida that when you put a schoolup for bond issue now, unless it is air conditioned, you know you willlose it. The people themselves, because they want year-round use andbecause they want community use, and because the adults are coming inthe schools, insist upon air conditioning.
The furniture lags most of all. The furniture is still slip-pery and plastic, potato chips which make a youngster pay attentionto holding himself upright lest he slip out of the chair. On thegeneral theory that he could learn more if he could focus all of thisattention on what he is learning, rather than having to defend him-self from heat or noise or to keep himself in balance, it seems to areasonable person he might learn more if we did something about thefurniture.
Increasingly, in high schools now, I see adult furniture. wehave dejuvenilized the high schools in many respects. Go in thelibraries now, and they are not filled with that steel, plastic, formica,hard, reverberative, bland, antiseptic furniture that so pleases thecustodians and city hall, but somehow does not make the library anattractive place for a student, if you ever turn him free so he cango there. Another problem is to get the faculty to loosen up oncontrol of children. r
Physical Facilities in the Relevant High School
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Then I see community use coming everywhere. People aren't
building schools for children anymore; they are building schools
for people. Now, to be sure, the schools should serve the children
well when they are there, but set your cap for the general public.
In physical education, for example, a school ought to be as concerned
about the father who is jogging for his life as for his seventh or
eighth or ninth grade boy who is jogginv tround your track in the
daytime, Furthermore, if you get the community in, you have a
broader base of support at the next bond issue.
Than I see decentralization and dispersed locations coming
everywhere. As you know, there is the famous Parkway School in
Philadelphia (I guess that's called the nowhere school) and in New
Haven they've got a dispersed arrangement called the everywhere
school, so that more and more of the school learning takes place
outside the schoolhouse. Increasingly the schoolhouse has become a
base of operations, and the community is increasingly the general
extension of the school as a laboratory.
Another thing that I see coming in the big cities is "joint
occupancy" -- that is, the school and some other compatible enter-
prise, which may be private or public, occupy the same premises.
Evans Clinchy, who is there with you this morning knows a great deal
about the subject.
In general, those are the changes that I see. Now let's talk
about some of the specific parts and pieces of the buildings. To
begin with, I find more and more communities perplexed about demography,
especially in the suburbs. If you have a very desirable town to live
in, and if you have zoning that requires large amounts of land for a
house-and costs are high, you can make a mistake in projecting your
school enrollment if you simply take your kindergarten and first
grade enrollment and extrapolate it in a linear fashion. If you pro-
ject those early grades, it will indicate that your high school is
going to shrink and now grow. But the fact is that in these very
desirable places around central cities where the out-migration cones,
high schools continue to grow. The school system grows at the top
and at the middle and not at the bottom. It is easily understood
because one has to be middle aged before he can afford to buy it, a
house these days, and by that time his youngster is already in high
school. So in many of these posh places (of which there are a
number in greater Boston) the system is going to continue to grow at
the top, and this will mystify people at the town meeting who think
it's so simple to predict how big the high school is going to be ten
years from today by just going back into the second grade and counting
the children.
I notice everywhere I go now, there is concern with so- galled
"systems buildings". A systems building is made up of pre-engineered
components. The parts and pieces are manufactured in factory, off-
lam. 1 )
Physical Facilities in the Relevant High School
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site, then they are assembled on the site. There is less on-sitelabor and more in-factory labor. This doesn't mean that any twoschools need ever look alike. This is not Howard Johnson's orangeroof standardization. The silhouette of the building and theexterior planning can be anything you want it to be, but systemscomponents do guarantee that on the inside the building is flexibleand will give you a second guess. After all, you are just in thestream of change. Your successors are going to have problems because,hopefully, education will change, and when it does, you need a buildingthat will get out of the way. These systems buildings maximize theinterior flexibility so that children, teachers, and the curriculumcan cut their own pathways through the school in future years. Manycommunities have what you might call a sense of trusteeship -- theydon't build the building just to get themselves off the hook. Theyare building this building now as the launching of an enterprise thatwill only be in middle life in the year 2000. They are thinking oftheir successors. They are putting up buildings that are easily andinexpensively alterable.
Be sure to watch the Agassiz School Study at Boston; EvansClinchy knows a lot about that. That's going to be a systems school.It's coming in Boston. In Florida, last year one quarter of all theschools built were systems buildings. Toronto Metropolitan Districtjust bid 2 million square feet of space. Montreal Catholic Schoolsare expanding and will be employing a systems approach for theirbuildings. Detroit is developing additions.
It started out in California originally in this country,transplanted here by EFL from the British. After World War II, theBritish aircraft industry needed a project, since they weren't makingSpitfires anymore. They decided that the schoolhouse was somethingthey could make which was needed. Knowing nothing about anythingexcept making airplanes, they tended to approach the schoolhouse asif it here a plane, so they made everything fit. You never see acarpenter sawing a board to rmt a 707 together on a runway. Thepioneering work was done in Britain. We transplanted it to thiscountry and it's hopeful to observe that Mr. Romney's "OperationBreakthrough" for the housing in this country is going "systems".
Everywhere you see open planning. I know of a school systemin Texas that has partitions for sale. They have $40,000 worth ofpartitions they will sell you for $8,000 if you want to buy partitions.Partitions are the walls that go from the floor all the way to theceiling. They have them in a warehouse. They didn't dare not buythem. This was, you know, three years ago. The partitions arrivedlate so they opened the school without the walls. At the end of theyear, nobody said "Where are the walls?" The teachers were teamedin groups and they had team learning, putting youngsters in six-packs or whatever and the teachers no longer wanted the walls; thewalls stood in the way. And so I'd say watch out. Don't load your- 41)
iCe c
Physical Facilities in the Relevant High School
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building up with any more partitions than you absolutely need for
physical security - a lockable place. Indeed, next year, go down to
North Kingstown, Rhode Island, where there will be what is in effect
a one-room high school. I think the enrollment, as I recall, is
around 500, but it is a great acre of space, air conditioned, of
course, quiet, carpeted, and so forth.
If you ever have reason for being in Colorado, go to Idaho
Springs which is about 50 miles out of Denver and see there another
one-room school of large enrollment. If you are up in Maine, especi-
ally you Colby graduates in Waterville, go over to Coburn Classical
Institute and see a whole school under a geodesic dome -- great space
in which teachers, children, curriculum can run their own pathways.
There are some advantages to this general open space I am told. I
go around and say "so what", other than that maybe you save money onpartitions and doorframes and doors and so forth. I hear that there
is less absenteeism among students. The::e is less friction among
children and among teachers. In the typical eight-grade school made
up of square classrooms (each classroom about the size of a prize
fight ring) you get a confrontation between pupils, pupil and teacher,
teacher and teacher, or whatever, and they are already in the ring.
If they are in a great zone of space, it is possible to back off into
the hills about 40 feet away and reassess one's position and the
reasonableness of the other person's argument. General observation
is that there is less friction, reduction of absenteeism. When daily
substitutes are difficult to procure, it is quite possible that the
team absorbs the missing spot, and there is a trade-off here in the
cost of substitutes.
Let me say something about physical education. The emphasis is
increasingly on the lifetime sports and not just on the inter-scholastic
athletics which tend to set the design of that gymnasium. Especially
if you include community use, that basketball box is not the ideal
or most useful way of providing space. What I see now coming especially
in the Wvst and Midwest is just a great roof, a scoop of the sky, what
you might call an acre of June, and in it you put new surfaces. There
is the artificial turf, rolled down when wanted. Incidentally, in
Texas a study has revealed that even if there is plenty of land, if
you were to put in an artificial field (and the price is coming dawn
drastically as competition comes in) you could-get your higher origin-
al cost back in about six years. So if you are playing for long-range
economy rather than initial cheapness, look at the artificial turf.
For one thing, there are fewer knee and ankle injuries which is why
professional football and professional baseball is putting in the
artificial turf. If you have your eye on cost per square ft. , forget
it; but that's not the criterion. It's cost per use. You can have
so many more uses without having to rest the turf that if you take cost
per use, it's the path to economy. It also saves if you are tight for
site and cannot afford to take those six houses to make a parking lot
and football field or whatever.
Physical Facilities in the Relevant High School
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Plastic ice is just beginning to come. If there is one thingthat kids like to do, it is skate, and general skating is a wonder-ful thing for the typical family. The father, mother, and the littlesix-year-old girl who is sure to become another Tenley Allbright, canskate together; but we don't have skating in many schools because ofthe cost of refrigeration. Some of the private schools spend aquarter of a million dollars for hockey rinks. It won't be long, Iam sure, before the plastic ice (which at the moment isn't quite asslippery as God's own ice and has certain advantages for small childrenlearning to skate) will be cheaper. When you are next in the New Yorkarea, go out to Glen Cove and look at the elementary school there thathas plastic ice put in a gymnasium. Someday it is going to be quitepossible to announce in a typical high school that Friday night isbasketball and Saturday night is skating. The difference is thatSaturday afternoon, someone has put down the plastic ice.
Vocational education is complex. ErL has put out a publicationdescribing six of the best designed vocational school buildings wecan find. If you are interested in receiving this publication, dropus a line. We would be happy to send a delxcription that will saveyou from having to go to Las Vegas, if that could be called saving,because there in Clark County is one of the best technical-vocationalschools in this country. All we did was send out a writer and acamera to try to tell you the story of these six schools.
The facility that is really the liveliest, or most in agony,I guess you would put it, is the library. On our staff here at EFLwe have Mrs. Ruth Weinstock who is just in yesterday from two weeksin California and the West looking at libraries. She put togetherthe publication THE SCHOOL LIBRARY, cares very much about thelibrary, and is a former teacher herself, and, if I get Ruth's eyehere, -- come on over and tell them what you saw in California lastweek as you visited library after high school library after highschool library. This is Mrs. Weinstock, mother of two. I won't getyou weeping at this point.
MRS. WEINSTOCK
Hello. Mr. Gores has pointed out, I have indeed just come backfrom a quick tour of California looking at one library after another.What is very evident is that libraries are growing in leaps andbounds, and they are growing so rapidly that there is a large areastill, of unthought-out approaches to how to use the vast quantitiesof information they are beginning to store. And not the least of howthey are going to use what they've got involves physical facilities.Most libraries are really places of information-zero. That is, youwalk into a library and what do you see? You see tons of bookshelveswith books on them, with their secrets locked between the covers, andif you are an unsophisticated user ol a library, you can he totallylost. We have to assume that large segments of our school populations
Physical Facilities in the Relevant High School
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are unsophisticated library users. We have to assume that they do not
know how to ferret out information, and therefore, the library 'as to
find a way to make its wares available, to make them known, in a
totally new kind of way. Not long ago, I heard John Humphreys, who is
the Assistant Commissioner of Public Libraries in New York State, say
that unless public libraries begin to reach out to their communities
with sensitive programs really designed to meet the needs of the people,
that unless the public libraries take to the streets with their pro -
grams, then there is a strong danger they will be put out of business,
that the new private information industries will be contracted to take
over the job. It seems to me that this is something to which school
libraries ought to be alert. They, too, have to reach out and they
have to do it by using everything known about exhibition techniques,
about the use of graphics, about the use of all kinds of communications
devices to trigger ideas, to confront youngsters with notions, to
juxtapose concepts, so that kids will begin to think about things in
ways they hadn't thought of them before. One sees very, very little
of any attempt to do this as you go from one library to another. When
you see, as I did, a student walk over to another student behind a
desk, say to him "What have you got on culture?", and the student
library worker behind the desk says, "Why don't you try the card
catalogue under C?", then you begin to realize the kind of bewilder-
ment that there is in the use of this ton of information, of locked-
up information.
Another thing that one sees is a good deal of lip service, I
suppose, to media rather than actual incorporation or use of media in
libraries. It seems to me that librarians regard media (or school
people still regard media) a little bit the way the United States
regards China. It recognizes that it is there, but it isn't exactly
crazy about dealing with it, and is going to put it off as long as
possible. Now that's true in a large portion of libraries. It's
beginning to be untrue in a small portion, but even where libraries
are recognizing the enormous power of nonprint devices to communi-
cate, once again, the application of what they know is quite primi-
tive. Librarians report to me, for example, that the largest piece
of media, the largest type of media in their collection, is a little
gadget which is a combination filmstrip viewer and record player.
They say kids get restless just listening to something. That suggests
tnat perhaps they are not listening to the right things, th,tt peLlial.,
if they were listening to tne live voices of the past, which are
otherwise inaccessible, they might not get resAless. It suggests that
perhaps we shouldn't be recording music on inexpensive tape cassettes
because there's poor fidelity and they get rAstless listening. It
suggests that when we take 8mm film clips, extracted from ltmm sound
films intended for a totally other purpose / we distort the integrity of
that medium and we render it lifeless. So, there is still a glod deal
we will have to learn about how to uce me6ia, what distortion of media
`9, And how to get it to people.
Physical Facilities in the Relevant High School
- 250 -
Another thing one sees as one moves through these libraries isthat though libraries are growing larger and larger and seem to runany place from 10,000 feet up to 30,000 square feet, with collectionsranging from 15,000 volumes up to 50,000 volumes, this is an enormouschange from what we had five years ago when most libraries were justa collection of a few thousand books, maybe less than that in an oldclassroom. But even where we see this whole new movement towardinformation centers, we see too that schools continue to cling totheir study halls. The study hall is an administrative device plannedto keep the administrators happy and to keep the kids in a tidy mannerwhere everybody knows where they are. They are not intended for thestudents themselves, and they are not intended as places to move aheadwith inquiry. They are places where kids go with their textbooks.Now, it seems to me that if we are going to be developing large in-formation centers, it is time that we shed the old study hall notionwhere kids go to be supervised and don't have materials to work with.
Another thing we see is the development of scattered resourcecenters throughout the schools. Clearly, departments ought to have apiece of a library very, very close to them so that kids can move froman instructional space immediately into another area where they canfind equipment to work with and where teachers can be close by to givethem a hand as well. But if these sub-centers are not adequatelystaffed, and stocked, then they run the risk of becoming another kindof study hall.
In sum, one has to say that we've come a long way in libraries,but we have an enormously long way yet to go with the refinements tomake them do the job for us that they can do.
MR. GORES:
Thanks very much, Ruth. Let me add a couple of more items tothe library. The last time I heard (this may not be accurate) thetypical high school in this country had Shout 604 of its space devotedto something called the library. I'd predict that if you do rightby those who succeed you, you'll create schools that can give 50% ofthe space to a library-like environment. This doesn't mean that itis all booklined walls or whatever, but all the media, all the carriersof information will be brought together in something that I hope isstill called a library. Parenthetically, I understand the youngsterswould prefer to call it an instructional materials center. The I.M.C.has a certain missile sound to it, and I am told by some students, too,that the image of the library is a pin-drop place presided over by aVictorian character dusting her books; the boys particularly adjust
to other carriers of information, including little black boxesthat can talk, provided they have something to say. And what theyhave to say is getting better all the time, and the dev1,-es are be:nq
-f
tw 0
Physical Facilitlea in th, Relevant High >chool
miniaturized, The old heavy equipment which the audio-visual an
usod to lug around the building is going to be replaced with "hands-
an" materials and miniaturized boxes. I have here in my hand right
now a little projector which costs less than $100. Its about sixinches long and about three inches wide, maybe four inches high,battery operated. You can use it on a bus, with a jack and earphrnes.Listento it. The audio quality is only as good as the telephone, butthat's good enough to get information from. Inexpensive - "hands an".
It won't be long before many a librarian will have a number of these,
or less expensive ones, and youngsters will get their information
privately and without acoustic interference with another youngsterthree feet away reading a took.
Watch the whole microform development. We have here a car`
which looks to he about 4 x b on which 3,000 pages of hocks are
printed, with a reader not much larger than a portable typewriter,increasingly inexpensive. Someday they predict that It will he cheaperto hand the youngster a book on so-called microfiche than to give him
the physical hook itself. All these things threaten the library andthreaten the old formulae as to how big it should be, but someday.
ultimately, I think that a h:9h school :c going to be a 'seat library
surrounded by living rooms. I would call them classrooms except if you
call them classrooms, they tend to he ceramic and like kitchens. What
we need is high quality space with some dignity which praises theoccupant as he sits there and, in the presence of a teacher, hammers
out the values. The student can met_ a lot of his information from
boxes and devices and books tut then the meaning of it All has to be
thrashed out in the presence of the teacher , and we haw on a.4chrie
that can replace the teacher. Therefore, technololy is nest a threat
to the professional teacher. Indeed, we will have to pay the teathers
more because the luestIons are 4o.pr; to let harder. The teacher will
spend less of his time lell_v.) it like it Is and instead w111 he
argeing the cultural values, the meaning, what's right, what's wron;,
what'!" moral, what's tmmcoal, what's amoral. Those are hard (;uestions
that the teachers will ;c' because the yourster will haw ,4utten h.1:acts from thInos and then ,et!, his values !r -m :.en;,l. There are
some upset factors to liat.h out f-,r.
Watch nut ! h.s ar.
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9t.0,work with .fA prem,um is placent on the development of AlternAt:vos. Every dollarof estrA morley, for en:Ample, .s worth fifty dollarn of regular moneyin terms of its impact on a prowm. And those who pr.lpose thehold-est ch,o;e% 70:11 -;vt the t't(V)e%t pot of """Jrc".
r.t s.4.7 .14 10.1 ¶ .re'. e.nrr-'.:wrs_nnel arc !old they will get more resoarreh !-
they change than If they mnintiln trAd't.onal practieen.
:he s-ond lever Is ':zaumat:,t ;nTervent.n For example,the 'achool of iiducat.on AT the ttril-..rer';:ty of Massachusettn discontinuedevery degree, course, and pror effective eighteen months down theroad. The '.choral then put 15e faculty and graduate students on aplane for A wes.4-1-)n,,; retreat in rolorAde, to lo,tiat the pia:in:netprocess for a new educational program. The retreat rost S35,q&C) -
but that : cheap in relation to A several mill:on dollar budget.Twc fAculty e Kampir., 14 a Waste of S35, p` rYear .
A jets it .n ne kinei of traumIt;- Intervention. A secondintrvention !, the ;/rocen,, of vitsJtation, This :s a standard
technlpie wh'ch in over-used and often ars-used tAtcause It tends toInfluence a very small group of poop lo. Awiwthere are always threetypes of visttrs. First, you e.T. those that `relieve beforehand that--hcV are )--1:11 to Mecca, And they go hack arA say everything Iswonderful. Then vna -;et the second kind whn go to see how you havebeen lying Ts= them. And they nee hero ',.ou have heco lying to them,And they come ha,k And they say it .s all A puhl,rity 4ame. The th:rdtype r,f vxster. in 2,14T An interesed 1,,ectator. The reac-t.ohn ofthin person Are mint Ip,rtant.
72-le:e Are VAT: ,1,11 kinit i.nterentd npectatorn - p.e.o; l whotn the v'h,-ol "C, vInT he,nune t WA' In A part n! the couAtry
they wanted tei, vInit, or They wanted to see Aunt y,tlly. There aremore of thole vinttcrn than we care to admit. Secondly, you get the
of spectator wh troughl Along by nomeone who thoaht ahoutthe 'power ntra. tut._ . Th:4 may he -t hoard lieela,-VS or unionwhe-. when %old, cA h- c ;-rea! f-l.fluence on dec:4_;ons. Thatpopular techni;ae. !n Any cal.., the intesented :pectator in thesunlit tmpnr tan': ;_s. tor %'C the r Dn yout he ;Jet sIn lie. I ame ini A , 1y A rc! I of ,t rt he he "1.0An ai-',4Itiv frt 'tt00 new ;31 *),TA9. 71A. f7,1"'n t!)e person wh-c vwen MA' e .1. ) t t. -r :he pclwh r % . t s t he; ti re.i'-:'. p -x 1.1
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Levers
disparlt, **v can move their families for a year or a semester.
Those wh. ,,.se the exchange idea, even if you are not exchanging
with sr-c,A:led lighthouse experimental places, provide a different
perspectee than was available before. Even if that different,
perspect.,v is mediocrity it is still a different perspective.
Ancther kind of -traumatic intervention" is the community
event. This is where everybody shares something in common which is
important to them, and this communal sharing - this common bond -
can last for a long time. It could be a sharing among parents,students, teachers .nd administrators. A number of colleges havedone this In terms of closing dawn for a day or two to examine the
nature of the college. That is just one example of the communityevent which can be a very useful device.
another obvious lever is the "change agent catalyst". This
catalyst can be a student, for example, A group of high schoolstudents vis.ted Stanford about five years ago. They were so
excited by flexible scheduling that a promise was made to schedule
their schouis free if they could sell their district on flexible
scheduling. The student body president of one high school went
back and solti tne principal, the school hoard, the faculty, and thP
commun:tv they went on flexible scheduling and saved the sum of
S5,40(1. Th, stude^' was the catalyst.
AN !n'llv.dual nt group from outs:de can be an effective "ch.,1;e
agent catalyst". About five years ago a school district in Oregon
hel(1 a conference. The teachers in the system claimed, -Oh, we'd
dice to chance but niir district won't let us." And the administrators
toaid, "We'd love to chnge but our teachers won't let us." The
outside consultants seized the opportunity to it both groups down
together and ,quote each narty's pniltInn to the other. That con-
frontation f ,reed change.
Vin. tu:nction *he catalyst Is tn stir un the waters, to try
ti :re. 1; :tate new r e and encourage new thought. There Are
;laces in American ed,,ctInr-, where there is more desire to change than
we reco4nize. A helpful principle which should he adopted is the
Not;on that everything :s permitted unless it is prohibited. Most
schc.ols operate on ire tInc:nle thdt nothing IA permitted unless
t is endorsed.
Alochec W"l: 1'4 r,e re-set CrIlf!,1: e le(
s 1,ersuade comm:t themselves now for a program in the
.iture. They art 11 no' co,..n!': themselves to change in December of
hut they sIght s)ree to Implement the program in Z,eptember 14-
i you want In lock :n the new program, get A co-=1"r-en! to a ";,re-
%e sc,hedNic T* -a ;roduce change.
Levers for Change
- 256 -
You also have to know the right "psychological moment." Thisis called "striking while the iron is hot." Too many districts loseout on substantial opportunities to change because they talked aboutit too much. Educators always plan things too well. You have adr.osatic moment when everybody wants action, but then someone becomesalarmed and says, "Wait a minute - we have to get the ducks in arow." By the time you get the "ducks in a row," the moment has pLssed.You have to be willing to get under way when you are not completelyorganized. The "psychological moment" is a very good lever for change.
Another important lever is the principle of "juxtaposition."This can be viewed as a group of alien structures. For example,teachers have always had five hours a week at the secondary level forteaching their subject. Teachers might be told they have two hoursa week plus independent study. The teacher has to roll up hissleeves and get to work to figure out how to use independent shady asan alien structure. However, if you tell the teacher, instead offive hours a week he has four hours a week plus independent study,the teacher just nods and smiles. He can see how to get it all donein four hours a week what he used to do in five hour's time. Thenhe will pay no attention tG the independent study and not learn howto use that time. But if it is an alien enough structure, you demandthat people change and that becomes a lever. It has to be a bigenough change so that people have to take it seriously.
You can establish an alien structure or an alien curriculum.Just changing geography from the fourth to the fifth grade is notenough. If you demand a new curriculum of human relations, communi-cations, aesthetics, and technology - that degree of change in the waythings are taught would ptobably be sufficient. The historian in theschool then will be forced to build bridges to the various areas,and will not teach all students as if they were little historians.
You may also introduce alien personnel. A superintendent mighthire someone ,rho is completely off the chart, take him down to theprincipal and say, -Here's ..-,omeone I hired for you to use next year,and I assume you will be able to find a way to use him." Theprincipal suddenly inherits an architect. The principal did not wantAn Architect - he wanted a re,id.n9 teacher. But he must r;od out howto use an architect.
The principal can pia; the same Jame by hir:n-i alien petsonnei.One school near Denver has proiram of independent study opt:rms.Gilt' of the options is modern dance because one of the housewives :nthe Area wanted to teach it. They ,)ave her A room and asked her Tr, domodern dance on independent,r4y t;m.
Levers for Change
- 257 -
Alien technology can also be employed. Today, before you canintroduce technology, you have to justify how you intend to use it
in triplicate. There is another strategy. Take a video-tape machineand give it to the teacher and say, "Here, this is yours to use and
I'll leave it while you use it creatively." In one school they had
two overhead projectors. They were still in their polyethylene film
after three years. But they were all in the audio-visual checkout.Finally, they were assigned at random to two classrooms in theschool. The teacher was told, "Here is an overhead projector for yourfull-time use." One of those projectors at the end of the year wasbeing used daily, and the other was used on the average of three times
a week. At the end of the year something else unique happened - there
were twenty-five requests from other teachers for an overhead pro-
jector in their rooms.
Another lever is the idea of "competing programs." In schools
that is an original idea because everybody has a monopoly. Why not
create two English departments and let them compete with each other
for students, and then provide resources based on their student
enrollment?
A very important lever is "experimental options". The multiple
school concept can be utilized. Establish one experimental school andsay, "We won't let anybody come to that school unless they allow us
to experiment any way we please.'t In fact, in some districts theystate, "We won't bus your kids to school. If you want your kids toget to that school, they have to get there on their own." Then they
say to the teacher, "You can't be in that school unless you promise
to experiment the way we want." The predictable result is you willbe over-subscribed by the teachers trying to get in, and you will be
over-subscribed in terms of the students trying to enroll. However,
if you force the issue say, "Such and such a school is an experimental
school and the kids have to be there," all the problems wh_e:h existed
before will be blamed on the experimental school.
The m'Aitiplc- school concept zs central to the idea =!x;,er,-
mental options" because .t maximizes the opportunity for chr_ es.
"Don't experiment with children" rema:ns a powerful adversary of
change. By developing options, parents can learn that studews whr,
are experimented with are fortunate children. Experimental srhoolr,
have more resources, the prowarn. are ,losely m-in tored, and 1 -e3vdl!
act:on immediate.
another ide.1 1., the ,,,htratl,,n the,,ry- rhan'o ("han;e
Alwa/ appear', zanier tf.,3n 't Is. if you 47 the ,J.le .s spon.,
the new cont.rat:oh, ¶hc plan always enhanced by t!.e rw,e-cr,lored
,;lasses you wet!' as ir.ok at .t. Put for the nl.tmders, the
rnntrAt.' c'_15; _ if 1! ors also n(! a's e "
Levers for Change
- 258 -
contraption is a rocket headed for the moon. They believe that onceyou mount the vehicle you are practically dead if it does not work.experience with education contraptions usually proves, however, thatyou can get on and stay there almost indefinitely with nothing likelyto happen. It is such more likely that the contraption is not goinganywhere than it is going to the moon too quickly. In order toeffect change it is necessary to understand the "contraption theory."
Another notion is the "open-ended commitment." The "open-ended commitment" implies a willingness to "get on the train eventhough we don't know where we're going." Let's start because we wantto start, because we have people in whom we have confidence, becausewe are not satisfied with the status quo." One of the things thatplagues educators is that we are in some instances too goal oriented.We do not recognize that every category of the system is arbitrary.We have big arguments about a category system, and once we adopt one,the future is determined. We do not recognize that the designatedsystem is only pne of many many alternatives. Situations should becreated which are open-ended.
Combining this with an earlier idea, we should propose, "Hereis an experimental school which we are not sure where its going orhow it's going to come out. Come with us." A present example is theParkway Program in Philadelphia. Teachers 4nd students there artusing the resources of the city of Philadelphia. They are stillplanning the program and yet they have several thousand applicantsfor several hundred places. That shows how well satisfied people arenow. We need to overcome the compul4ive need for order and system.Adopting an "open-ended commitment" is one way.
Another lever is the "great cause." People give to greatcauses not needy institutions. Too often schools portray themselvesas needy institutions. If you go to the community and say "ourschools are poor," no help will be forthcoming. Rut if you say our
schools are great," you will get everything - money, the right totake risks, community action and involvement.
"Coalition governance" is an important vehicle for change.Create a faculty council. Involve students and the community in thedecision-making process - in other words, give away the power. Giveaway some power to various kinds of coalitions. Administrators oftensay, -You know, I just can't hold on very long." A reply might be:"Well, if you can't hold on very long you don't have much to lose.Now give away some r)f your power--maybe you can give away enoughper and create a different kind of coalition--maybe you'll he aLleto hold off longer. You certainly won't be in Any worn.? positionthan you are in now.- Slh0(,14 Call develop different rmiltl!rrn
patterns, different y rOreases ',t 1'3( Anfl Uth,t11 c,r nc
.t moan.. !,) affect (!anoe.
Levers for Change
- 259 -
How much of our fear of student participation in governancehas to do with the legitimacy of the lack of perspective of students,and how much has to do with our fear that what we are now toing cannot stand the light of day? Are we really willing to submit our cur-riculum, our organization, our staffing to measures of relevance,performance, and accountability?
An important lever is the "band wagon". In America everybodywants to be instantly second but not first - particularly in educationwhere the first question is always, "Show where it has worked." But
everybody wants to be number two because that is a lot safer andsociety demands we keep up with the others. Band wagons can be gone.
because you can use them to persuade people to join, and band wagonscan be bad because people can climb aboard without knowing where they
are going. It is our friends that kill us, not our enemies - ourfriends that add '100 to somebody's salary and say they have differ-entiated staffing. Or they add seven minutes to the second periodto read the bulletin and call it flexible schedulirv:. But band
wagons can be used in positive ways also.
The 'long -tern comm;tment- :s Also an important lever. When Ar
experimental a.ituAtion in created, a ihenomenon called the 'moraleescalator" :14'.T ear. For example, if A ii.strict aorees to initiate Adifferentiated staffing project, an Ajrvement not to reverse the pro-gram tor at least two years should ht-- secured. You can never see'.: e
that agreement in the middle when the situation becomes difficult,morale is low, the critics aro vocal, And the advocates become fatigu,-d
That is exactly the moment when it is r.i4-i-pullinq time not commitment
t.me. :et the 'Ion;-term rommItmPnt t- bee the prordm
The f.t.,t time A horse And A steAm erniiNe hAO a !Are the h,-.t-
wnh. Along w3th 1h4' 'I .n.)-term coem:Yment and the morale es(alat-r
lb the uPxpectation of difficulty.- shoLid ti told. If Youthink this is going to work, you may L right and You mAv he wrelb.:,
hut If you thank th.nyr Ale g..1n; t" run 1,moothlv, 4/01 are sfsoluTP1-,wrong. one of the pro,.less in educaf. A.1 lc trIAT we promise every-
body that thei Are to win. We .T in advance that kn-gli
the experime,it w:11 work. When T f, as ma:iv tr'3e exporimervg
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Levers for Change
At one college, a department adopted a hold strategy to getnew courses approved. It presented the academic committee with 200courses to certify. They were set up with a mechanism that requiredmonths to approve one course. If the department had presented sixcourses, they would have had difficulty. But the committee, whenconfronted with 200 courses, gave provisional approval to the entireprogram. Sometimes large changes can be effected where small changeswould be thwarted. Educators have beer slow to recogni,:e that prin-ciple.
Another lever is -Job mobility." There can not be an educatortcday who is an educational leader in any sense of the word if heneeds his job. Educators must he completely willing to have the lobblow up and fly away tomorrow. Otherw:se, innovations in educat tonare impossible. Irmically, many educators who act as if they didnot need their ,bs disarm their adversaries and increase theireffectiveness.
The appropr,rte 1.se rf "collect :'.e bargaininl' is An Imvortahtlever. The answer is not that colloct.ve hargain;nq is qt'd or hadIn itself. Put the choice of issues :s crucial. "What do you ba-gain for" is the relevant quests -'n. W:th some leadership on bothiides, the issues of what to harqatn for In a particular instance can
changed. You can hargain for differentiated staff - administratorsoropose to the teachers thrt they harain for a 2S.,'.00
:or classroom teachers, The relit danger is that the various c)rou; 1,11.101N themselves to .het into an AdvocFicy kind of s Itk,44t; -- thelabr management Administrators then have to go nut and getsurvival traln:ho. Teachers And arlministrators should not be adver-saries. The AdMin.Str3lorS Were never in favor '-f lower salaries forteachers. The administrators ha e ne*--er had the lout t-- get !,:;.;Jlur
sclarlys f-r trA,her4. tar-ri:OZrlij ;Ives thef:. whct ;ft
;:eecied ocn-vera ;ogn think iste.Jt ort, ! Af--!low ,44., new 1 or--u ,'Ater t :S; t.' -'e
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