diversity of trace elements and toxic metal ions in ... · • trace elements deficiency or excess...
TRANSCRIPT
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Diversity of Trace Elements and Toxic Diversity of Trace Elements and Toxic Metal Ions in Environmental Health and Metal Ions in Environmental Health and
Human DiseasesHuman Diseases
JosJoséé A. CentenoA. CentenoU.S. ARMED FORCES INSTITUTE OF PATHOLOGYU.S. ARMED FORCES INSTITUTE OF PATHOLOGY
Washington, DCWashington, DC
Email: [email protected]: [email protected]
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OutlineOutline
•• Introduction to Trace Elements, Metals and Introduction to Trace Elements, Metals and MetalloidsMetalloids
•• Trace Elements and Known Trace Elements and Known Biological/Toxicological ReactionsBiological/Toxicological Reactions
•• Environmental Health and Diseases Environmental Health and Diseases
•• Concluding RemarksConcluding Remarks
Suggested Reading: Essentials of Medical Geology (Selinus et al. 2005). Chapters on Nutrition (GeraldT. Combs), Biology of Trace Elements (Ulf Lindh)).
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Naturaldeposits
Drinking waterFood
Non-industrial
AgricultureMining/smelting
Coal burningMicro-electronics
Industrial
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Science, Vol 300, May 2003
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From Harold H. Sandstead, MD collectionUniversity of Texas
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From Harold H. Sandstead, MD collectionUniversity of Texas
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Geochemistry of Some Essential Geochemistry of Some Essential Elements Affects Human HealthElements Affects Human Health
•• Some essential elements whose geography is, or is Some essential elements whose geography is, or is presumed, directly related to human health:presumed, directly related to human health:
•• I, Se, F, Cr, Mo, BI, Se, F, Cr, Mo, B
•• Some essential elements whose geography is Some essential elements whose geography is apparently not directly related to human health:apparently not directly related to human health:
•• Fe, Zn, Cu, Ca, MgFe, Zn, Cu, Ca, Mg
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Criteria for EssentialityCriteria for Essentiality
•• Withdrawal or absence of the metal from the diet Withdrawal or absence of the metal from the diet produces either functional or structural produces either functional or structural abnormalities, and that the abnormalities are related abnormalities, and that the abnormalities are related to or are a consequence of specific biochemical to or are a consequence of specific biochemical changes that can be reversed by the presence of the changes that can be reversed by the presence of the essential metal.essential metal.
•• RoleRole: As catalyst in cellular functions.: As catalyst in cellular functions.
•• Sources:Sources: Must be obtained from air(oxygen), water Must be obtained from air(oxygen), water an dietan diet
•• Concentration:Concentration: needed on mcg to mgneeded on mcg to mg
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•• bone and membrane structurebone and membrane structure
•• water and electrolyte balancewater and electrolyte balance
•• metabolic catalysismetabolic catalysis
•• oxygen binding and transportoxygen binding and transport
•• hormone effectshormone effects
Sixteen trace elements are established Sixteen trace elements are established as being essential for good health. as being essential for good health. These, collectively, have five general These, collectively, have five general physiological roles:physiological roles:
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•• bone and membrane structurebone and membrane structure
•• water and electrolyte balancewater and electrolyte balance
•• metabolic catalysismetabolic catalysis
•• oxygen binding and transportoxygen binding and transport
•• hormone effectshormone effects
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•• bone and membrane structurebone and membrane structure
•• water and electrolyte balancewater and electrolyte balance
•• metabolic catalysismetabolic catalysis
•• oxygen binding and transportoxygen binding and transport
•• hormone effectshormone effects
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•• bone and membrane structurebone and membrane structure
•• water and electrolyte balancewater and electrolyte balance
•• metabolic catalysismetabolic catalysis
•• oxygen binding and transportoxygen binding and transport
•• hormone effectshormone effects
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•• bone and membrane structurebone and membrane structure
•• water and electrolyte balancewater and electrolyte balance
•• metabolic catalysismetabolic catalysis
•• oxygen binding and transportoxygen binding and transport
•• hormone effectshormone effects
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•• bone and membrane structurebone and membrane structure
•• water and electrolyte balancewater and electrolyte balance
•• metabolic catalysismetabolic catalysis
•• oxygen binding and transportoxygen binding and transport
•• hormone effectshormone effects
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OutlineOutline
•• Introduction to Trace Elements, Metals and Introduction to Trace Elements, Metals and MetalloidsMetalloids
•• Trace Elements and Known Trace Elements and Known Biological/Toxicological ReactionsBiological/Toxicological Reactions
•• Environmental Health and Diseases Environmental Health and Diseases
•• Concluding RemarksConcluding Remarks
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ACTION OF MACRONUTRIENTSACTION OF MACRONUTRIENTS
Bone constituent as apatite; participates in most body chemical Bone constituent as apatite; participates in most body chemical reactions. Excess reactions. Excess turns hair and bones brittle. turns hair and bones brittle.
PP
Active in hydrosaline equilibrium; transmission of nervous impulActive in hydrosaline equilibrium; transmission of nervous impulses and ses and transport of metabolites.transport of metabolites.
NaNa
In bones, together with Ca; activation of muscular contractions;In bones, together with Ca; activation of muscular contractions; body body temperature control; component of several enzymes.temperature control; component of several enzymes.
MgMg
Maintenance of corporeal fluids; muscular contractions and nervoMaintenance of corporeal fluids; muscular contractions and nervous impulses.us impulses.KK
Maintenance of blood pressure; vital as acid constituent during Maintenance of blood pressure; vital as acid constituent during digestion. digestion. ClCl
Strengthening of bones and teeth; muscular activity; blood coaguStrengthening of bones and teeth; muscular activity; blood coagulation; cellular lation; cellular permeability. Excess may originate liver and bladder stones and permeability. Excess may originate liver and bladder stones and renal renal insufficiency.insufficiency.
CaCa
Scarpeli, William (personal communication)
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ACTION OF MICRONUTRIENTSACTION OF MICRONUTRIENTS
Required by thyroidal hormones, temperature control, body growthRequired by thyroidal hormones, temperature control, body growth, reproduction , reproduction etc. Deficiency causes abnormal growth of the thyroid.etc. Deficiency causes abnormal growth of the thyroid.
II
Give strength to teeth and bones, avoiding dental caries and ostGive strength to teeth and bones, avoiding dental caries and osteoporosis. Excess eoporosis. Excess causes fluorosis of teeth and bones.causes fluorosis of teeth and bones.
FF
Component of oxidizing enzymes during metabolism of energy sourcComponent of oxidizing enzymes during metabolism of energy sources; active in es; active in the synthesis of hemoglobin, in keratization and in skin and haithe synthesis of hemoglobin, in keratization and in skin and hair pigments. r pigments. Deficiency leads to osteoporosis and low number of white blood cDeficiency leads to osteoporosis and low number of white blood cells.ells.
CuCu
Needed for metabolism of sugar. Deficiency may cause diabetes, iNeeded for metabolism of sugar. Deficiency may cause diabetes, intolerance to ntolerance to glucose etc. Excess may result in renal failures. Excess of Crglucose etc. Excess may result in renal failures. Excess of Cr+6 +6 is carcinogenic.is carcinogenic.
CrCr
Active in vitamin BActive in vitamin B1212 and in chemical reactions. Deficiency causes anemia. and in chemical reactions. Deficiency causes anemia. Excess causes hearth failures.Excess causes hearth failures.
CoCo
Scarpeli, William (personal communication)
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elements related to cardiac healthelements related to cardiac health
antioxidant protection; regulation of thymulin and IL-2insulin insulin potentiationpotentiation
antioxidant protection
antioxidant protection
antioxidant protection, regulation of PG metabolism
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Trace Elements in Trace Elements in Environmental HealthEnvironmental Health
•• Exposure Routes:Exposure Routes:–– Direct AbsorptionDirect Absorption–– Air (inhaling)Air (inhaling)–– Drinking waterDrinking water–– Diet (food chain)Diet (food chain)
•• MetalMetal--Induced Disease:Induced Disease:–– Carcinogenic Carcinogenic –– TeratogenicTeratogenic–– MutagenicMutagenic
Inhalation Ingestion
Dermal contact
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Cancer and Site Specific Effects Associated Cancer and Site Specific Effects Associated with Exposure to Toxic Trace Metalswith Exposure to Toxic Trace Metals
Examples:Examples:ElementElement Target Organ and/or SitesTarget Organ and/or Sites
→→ CrCr Lung, Liver, KidneyLung, Liver, Kidney
→→ AsAs Bladder, Liver, Lung, Skin, Bladder, Liver, Lung, Skin, Vascular, Neurological changesVascular, Neurological changes
→→ CdCd Lung, Kidney, Bladder, Vascular, Lung, Kidney, Bladder, Vascular, Hypertension, Neurological changesHypertension, Neurological changes
→→ HgHg Neurological, lung, kidney, BrainNeurological, lung, kidney, Brain
→→ PbPb Neurological, IQ(children), AnemiaNeurological, IQ(children), Anemia
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OutlineOutline
•• Introduction to Trace Elements, Metals and Introduction to Trace Elements, Metals and MetalloidsMetalloids
•• Trace Elements and Known Trace Elements and Known Biological/Toxicological ReactionsBiological/Toxicological Reactions
•• Environmental Health and DiseasesEnvironmental Health and Diseases
•• Concluding RemarksConcluding Remarks
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Trace Element Malnutrition in Developing Countries
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
mill
ions
of p
eopl
e
anemia, womengoiter, all agesZn deficientSe deficient
Courtesy from Dr. Gerald T. Combs
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TRACE ELEMENTS AND TOXIC TRACE ELEMENTS AND TOXIC METAL IONSMETAL IONS
HEALTH EFFECTSHEALTH EFFECTS
DeficienciesDeficiencies
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Iron (Fe): The most widely abundant Iron (Fe): The most widely abundant micronutrientmicronutrient
•• Essential constituent of: Hemoglobin, myoglobin, eEssential constituent of: Hemoglobin, myoglobin, e--transport transport enzymes, oxidases;enzymes, oxidases;
•• Human Body: 2Human Body: 2--6 g or iron ; metabolic function is to transport 6 g or iron ; metabolic function is to transport oxygen and electrons (redox agent);oxygen and electrons (redox agent);
•• Iron Deficiency (ID):Iron Deficiency (ID): Anemia, fatigue, susceptibility to infection Anemia, fatigue, susceptibility to infection and impairment of cognitive development, increased risk of and impairment of cognitive development, increased risk of PbPbpoisoning;poisoning;•• PregnancyPregnancy: increases the risk of premature delivery, low birth weight and: increases the risk of premature delivery, low birth weight and
infant and maternal mortality infant and maternal mortality
•• Iron Toxicity:Iron Toxicity: Liver and increase risk of coronary heart diseases Liver and increase risk of coronary heart diseases (adults), Iron(adults), Iron--overload (children)overload (children)•• Clinical SignsClinical Signs (Fe > 10(Fe > 10--fold excess): cirrhosis, diabetes, heart failure, fold excess): cirrhosis, diabetes, heart failure,
arthritis, and sexual dysfunction.arthritis, and sexual dysfunction.
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GlobalGlobal PrevalencePrevalence of Anemiaof Anemia
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
%
Afr LAm Asia NAm
•• >2.1 B affected>2.1 B affected–– 43% of women, 34% of men in 43% of women, 34% of men in
developing countriesdeveloping countries
•• multiple causes: multiple causes: –– malaria, intestinal parasitesmalaria, intestinal parasites–– deficiencies of Fe, deficiencies of Fe, vitvit A, A, folatefolate, , vitvit BB1212
•• reduced work capacityreduced work capacity•• 20% of maternal deaths20% of maternal deaths
–– hemorrhage, heart failurehemorrhage, heart failure
•• 1/3 of child deaths1/3 of child deaths•• impaired cognitive learningimpaired cognitive learning
Courtesy from Dr. Gerald T. Combs
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Zn Deficiency (ZD)Zn Deficiency (ZD)Global PrevalenceGlobal Prevalence
•• Similar to ID; likely widespread, but not well documented.Similar to ID; likely widespread, but not well documented.
•• Infants, children, pregnant and Infants, children, pregnant and premenopausalpremenopausal women, and women, and elderly at higher risk.elderly at higher risk.
•• impairs immunity, impairs immunity, vitvit A utilizationA utilization•• Some clinical effects of ZD:Some clinical effects of ZD:
–– AbortionAbortion–– Growth stunting (children)Growth stunting (children)–– Development delayDevelopment delay–– Decrease immunityDecrease immunity–– DermatitisDermatitis–– Decrease neuropsychological functionsDecrease neuropsychological functions–– Behavior problemsBehavior problems–– DementiaDementia
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Some causes of zinc deficiencySome causes of zinc deficiency
Primary Primary SecondarySecondary
–– Poor food choicesPoor food choices -- Blood lossBlood loss–– Reduced bioavailabilityReduced bioavailability -- GI diseasesGI diseases–– GeophagiaGeophagia MalabsorptionMalabsorption
InflammationInflammation
-- Liver diseasesLiver diseases-- Renal lossesRenal losses
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TRACE ELEMENTS AND SELECTED ENDEMIC TRACE ELEMENTS AND SELECTED ENDEMIC DISEASES OF SIGNIFICANCE IN MEDICAL DISEASES OF SIGNIFICANCE IN MEDICAL
GEOLOGYGEOLOGY
ElementElement DiseaseDiseaseSelenium Selenium KaschinKaschin--Beck DiseaseBeck Disease
Degenerative osteoarthropathic Degenerative osteoarthropathic diseasedisease
Keshan DiseaseKeshan DiseaseChronic heart disease Chronic heart disease (cardiomyopathy)(cardiomyopathy)
IodineIodine Goiter and CretinismGoiter and Cretinism
FluorineFluorine Dental and SkeletalDental and Skeletal
Metalloids:*Metalloids:*ArsenicArsenic Skin lesions, cancerSkin lesions, cancer
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Iodine Deficiency Disorders (IDD)
IDD and multi-causal disease involvingfactors such as:
! trace element deficiencies! goiter-inducing substances in
foodstuffs (known as goitrogens)! genetics
IDD disorders include: goiter (enlargement of the thyroid),cretinism (mental retardation with physical deformities), reduced IQ, miscarriages, birth defects.
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GlobalGlobal PrevalencePrevalence of I Deficiency Diseasesof I Deficiency Diseases
0123456789
%
Afr Med LAm Asia Pac
•• >2 B at risk>2 B at risk•• 740 M with goiter740 M with goiter•• 20 M mentally retarded20 M mentally retarded•• 6 M infants with cretinism 6 M infants with cretinism
(half in SE Asia)(half in SE Asia) each yreach yr
Courtesy from Dr. Gerald T. Combs
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Abnormalities of Selenium Deficiency Abnormalities of Selenium Deficiency ((SeDSeD))
•• From Experimental Animal Studies:From Experimental Animal Studies:–– SeDSeD alonealone: reduce activity of Se: reduce activity of Se--enzymes, but no clinical effects;enzymes, but no clinical effects;–– SeDSeD + vitamin E deficiency+ vitamin E deficiency –– lipid lipid peroxidationperoxidation, liver necrosis, , liver necrosis,
cardiac necrosiscardiac necrosis–– White muscle disease in sheepWhite muscle disease in sheep
•• Humans:Humans:–– KeshanKeshan cardiomyopathycardiomyopathy–– KashinKashin--Beck Beck osteoarthopathyosteoarthopathy
•• Other effects Other effects -- SeDSeD impairs:impairs:–– thyroid hormone metabolismthyroid hormone metabolism–– TT--cell functioncell function–– resistance to RNAresistance to RNA--viral diseaseviral disease
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Global Prevalence of Se DeficiencyGlobal Prevalence of Se Deficiency
•• 400 M people at risk in China400 M people at risk in China–– children: children: cardiomyopathycardiomyopathy ((KeshanKeshan
Disease)Disease)–– adolescents: adolescents: chondrodystrophychondrodystrophy ((KaschinKaschin--
Beck Disease)Beck Disease)
•• 500500--1000 M at risk worldwide1000 M at risk worldwide
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CHINA
low Se (<0,025 ppm) low Se (<0,025 ppm)
Keshan disease Keshan disease
KashinKashin--Beck disease Beck disease Keshan e KashinKeshan e Kashin--Beck diseasesBeck diseases
SELENIUMSELENIUMA belt of lowA belt of low--Se rocks influences millions of people.Se rocks influences millions of people.
Keshan disease – weakening of the heart muscleKashin-Beck disease – muscular pains, other effects
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Selenium DeficiencyKashin-Beck Disease
Photo: Courtesy of Prof. Wang Zhilun, China
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Worldwide Variation in Se statusWorldwide Variation in Se status
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
plasma Seng/ml
country
USAUSA
ChinaChina
New ZealandNew Zealand
VenezuelaVenezuela
FinlandFinland
nutritional adequacy = 80ng/mLNève, 1995SeP levels: Hill et al, 1996 Courtesy from Dr. Gerald T. Combs
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Mseleni Joint Disease• Multiple epiphyseal displasia (long bones
have malformed growth)
• Polyarticular osteoarthritis (arthritis of several joints)
• Protrusio acetabuli
(hip disorder)
• Dwarfism
Namibia
Botswana
South Africa
Lesotho
Swaziland Mozambique
Maputaland
Maputaland
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MJD ResearchMJD Research
•• MedicalMedical-- Low POLow PO44, F, Ca and Mg, F, Ca and Mg-- AflotoxinsAflotoxins not presentnot present-- Anemia due to parasitesAnemia due to parasites-- Genetics inconclusiveGenetics inconclusive-- Mg and Zn deficiency suspectedMg and Zn deficiency suspected
•• Comparison with other diseasesComparison with other diseases-- KeshanKeshan--Beck and SeBeck and Se
-- Dwarfism and ZnDwarfism and Zn
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Soil PropertiesSoil Properties
•• Near neutral pH 6.9Near neutral pH 6.9
•• < 4% clay (kaolinite and quartz)< 4% clay (kaolinite and quartz)
•• Low organic C ~1.6%Low organic C ~1.6%
•• Trace Element Deficiency: F, I, V, Se ; Trace Element Deficiency: F, I, V, Se ;
Others: Cu, Zn, B, N, P, K, S, CaOthers: Cu, Zn, B, N, P, K, S, Ca
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his kneesPhoto Courtesy: Gerald F Combs, USDA
Rickets:
- Disease of children characterized by under-mineralization of growing bones, leading to physical deformities of the weight bearing bones most notably of the legs, wrists and arms
- A source of permanent disability
- Can be healed but not cured
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Rickets . . . caused by malnutrition . . .Rickets . . . caused by malnutrition . . .
�� deficiencies deficiencies vitamin D (sunlight)vitamin D (sunlight)Ca, P, Mg, B (?)Ca, P, Mg, B (?)
�� imbalances/excessesimbalances/excessesP, Pb, Al, Sr, As(?)P, Pb, Al, Sr, As(?)tachysterols (vit. D analogues)tachysterols (vit. D analogues)fat, oxalates, DDT (?)fat, oxalates, DDT (?)
Photo Courtesy: Dr. Gerald F Combs, USDA
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age and sex age and sex distributiondistributionof casesof cases
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0-1 1-2 2-3 3-4 4-5 5-6 6-7 7-8 8-99-1010-1111-12
age group, yrs.
case
s/HH
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
case
s
<5 y 5-10 y 10-18 y
malefemale
Courtesy from Dr. Gerald T. Combs
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Pt 35A Pt 35A Nov 96 Feb 98Nov 96 Feb 98
Photos: Courtesy of Dr. Gerald F. Combs, USDA
Calcium-supplementation study (Combs et al. personal communication)
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TRACE ELEMENTS AND TOXIC TRACE ELEMENTS AND TOXIC METAL IONSMETAL IONS
HEALTH EFFECTSHEALTH EFFECTS
ExcessExcess
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FLUORINEFLUORINEFluorine is an essential component of phosphates, as the Fluorine is an essential component of phosphates, as the hydroxyhydroxy--fluorfluor--apatiteapatite, a constituent of teeth and bones., a constituent of teeth and bones.
It is essential for healthy and strong teeth It is essential for healthy and strong teeth and bones, and to avoid osteoporosis.and bones, and to avoid osteoporosis.
The excess causes fluorosis, withThe excess causes fluorosis, withmottled and harder teeth and mottled and harder teeth and bone calcification.bone calcification.
Fluorosis is common whereFluorosis is common wheredrainage water is high in fluorine, drainage water is high in fluorine, and is consumed without adequate treatment, as in and is consumed without adequate treatment, as in large areas of China, Ghana, Sri Lanka and other places.large areas of China, Ghana, Sri Lanka and other places.
More than 100,000,000 people have fluorosis.More than 100,000,000 people have fluorosis.Courtesy from Dr. William Scarpeli, Brazil
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Fluorine in Drinking WaterFluorine in Drinking Water
DoseDose--Response Relationship for Fluorine:Response Relationship for Fluorine:
•• < 0.5 mg/L : < 0.5 mg/L : dental cavities may occur (risk)dental cavities may occur (risk)
•• 0.5 0.5 –– 1.5 mg/L: 1.5 mg/L: no adverse effectsno adverse effects
•• > 1.5 mg/L : fluorosis risk> 1.5 mg/L : fluorosis risk
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ARSENIC EXPOSURE : GLOBAL IMPACTARSENIC EXPOSURE : GLOBAL IMPACTPEOPLE AFFECTED BY NATURALLY CONTAMINATED WATER AND SOILSPEOPLE AFFECTED BY NATURALLY CONTAMINATED WATER AND SOILS
Selinus O, Alloway B, Centeno JA et al. “Essentials of Medical Geology” (2005)
Lagunera, Mexico, Lagunera, Mexico, 30,000 affected; 30,000 affected; 0.5 millon at risk0.5 millon at risk
Antofagasta, Chile 0.8 Antofagasta, Chile 0.8 mg/L in water, 20,000 mg/L in water, 20,000 affectedaffected Cordoba, Argentine Cordoba, Argentine
10,000 contaminated10,000 contaminated
Bangladesh up to 2.0 Bangladesh up to 2.0 mg/L, 200,000 affected; mg/L, 200,000 affected; 50 million50 millionat riskat risk
Taiwan Taiwan up to 0.6 mg/L, up to 0.6 mg/L, 20,000 20,000 contaminatedcontaminated
Mongolia Mongolia 50,000 contaminated50,000 contaminatedCornwal, England up to Cornwal, England up to
2% As in soil2% As in soil
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Health Effects Associated with Arsenic Exposure
• Cancer: skin, lung, bladder, liver, kidney• Cardiovascular disease• Peripheral vascular disease• Developmental effects• Neurologic & neurobehavioral effects• Diabetes Mellitus• Hearing loss• Portal fibrosis of the liver• Lung fibrosis• Hematological effects (e.g., anemia)
Tchounwou PB, Patlolla AK, Centeno JA. Toxicologic Pathology 31:575-588 (2003).
Centeno et al. Environ Health Perspect 2002.
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OutlineOutline
•• Introduction to Trace Elements, Metals and Introduction to Trace Elements, Metals and MetalloidsMetalloids
•• An Overview of Tissue Reactions to Toxic Trace An Overview of Tissue Reactions to Toxic Trace Metal ExposuresMetal Exposures
•• Environmental Health and Diseases Environmental Health and Diseases
•• Concluding RemarksConcluding Remarks
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SUMMARYSUMMARY
•• Trace elements deficiency or excess contribute to a wideTrace elements deficiency or excess contribute to a wide--spectrum of spectrum of environmentally healthenvironmentally health--related problems.related problems.
•• Disorders related to trace element deficiency are treatable (dieDisorders related to trace element deficiency are treatable (dietary tary supplements, etc.)supplements, etc.)
•• Toxic metal ions may exhibit different toxicity depending on theToxic metal ions may exhibit different toxicity depending on the chemical chemical and physical form.and physical form.
•• Toxic metal ions may affect more than one organ system.Toxic metal ions may affect more than one organ system.•• Clinical and environmental health assessment (including risk assClinical and environmental health assessment (including risk assessment essment
and risk management) studies of exposures to trace elements, toxand risk management) studies of exposures to trace elements, toxic metals, ic metals, and metalloids, must consider background exposure, natural modesand metalloids, must consider background exposure, natural modes of of exposure, bioavailability, chemical/physical speciation, morpholexposure, bioavailability, chemical/physical speciation, morphological ogical characteristics, as well as dosecharacteristics, as well as dose--response relationships.response relationships.
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Cardiovascular effects of Cu deficiencyCardiovascular effects of Cu deficiency
•• cardiomyopathycardiomyopathy•• ventricular aneurismsventricular aneurisms•• impaired contractile functionimpaired contractile function•• arrhythmiaarrhythmia•• hypertension in older animals; elevated BP in hypertension in older animals; elevated BP in
response to stressorsresponse to stressors•• depressed mitochondrial respirationdepressed mitochondrial respiration•• myocardial apoptosismyocardial apoptosis
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