distributed generation - wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

4/3/2015 DistributedgenerationWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributed_generation 1/11

Localwindgenerator,Spain,2010

DistributedgenerationFromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Distributedenergy,alsodistrictordecentralizedenergyisgeneratedorstoredbyavarietyofsmall,gridconnecteddevicesreferredtoasdistributedenergyresources(DER)ordistributedenergyresourcesystems.

Conventionalpowerstations,suchascoalfired,gasandnuclearpoweredplants,aswellashydroelectricdamsandlargescalesolarpowerstations,arecentralizedandoftenrequireelectricitytobetransmittedoverlongdistances.Bycontrast,DERsystemsaredecentralized,modularandmoreflexibletechnologies,thatarelocatedclosetotheloadtheyserve,albeithavingcapacitiesofonly10megawatts(MW)orless.

DERsystemstypicallyuserenewableenergysources,including,butnotlimitedto,smallhydro,biomass,biogas,solarpower,windpower,geothermalpowerandincreasinglyplayanimportantrolefortheelectricpowerdistributionsystem.AgridconnecteddeviceforelectricitystoragecanalsobeclassifiedasaDERsystem,andisoftencalledadistributedenergystoragesystem(DESS).Bymeansofaninterface,DERsystemscanbemanagedandcoordinatedwithinasmartgrid.Distributedgenerationandstorageenablescollectionofenergyfrommanysourcesandmaylowerenvironmentalimpactsandimprovesecurityofsupply.

Contents

1Economiesofscale1.1Gridparity

2TypesofDERsystems2.1Cogeneration2.2Solarpower2.3Windpower2.4Hydropower2.5Wastetoenergy2.6Energystorage

3Integrationwiththegrid4Costfactors5Microgrid6Modesofpowergeneration7CommunicationinDERsystems



8Legalrequirementsfordistributedgeneration9Seealso10References11Furtherreading12Externallinks

Economiesofscale

Historically,centralplantshavebeenanintegralpartoftheelectricgrid,inwhichlargegeneratingfacilitiesarespecificallylocatedeitherclosetoresourcesorotherwiselocatedfarfrompopulatedloadcenters.These,inturn,supplythetraditionaltransmissionanddistribution(T&D)gridthatdistributesbulkpowertoloadcentersandfromtheretoconsumers.TheseweredevelopedwhenthecostsoftransportingfuelandintegratinggeneratingtechnologiesintopopulatedareasfarexceededthecostofdevelopingT&Dfacilitiesandtariffs.Centralplantsareusuallydesignedtotakeadvantageofavailableeconomiesofscaleinasitespecificmanner,andarebuiltas"oneoff,"customprojects.

Theseeconomiesofscalebegantofailinthelate1960sand,bythestartofthe21stcentury,CentralPlantscouldarguablynolongerdelivercompetitivelycheapandreliableelectricitytomoreremotecustomersthroughthegrid,becausetheplantshadcometocostlessthanthegridandhadbecomesoreliablethatnearlyallpowerfailuresoriginatedinthegrid.Thus,thegridhadbecomethemaindriverofremotecustomerspowercostsandpowerqualityproblems,whichbecamemoreacuteasdigitalequipmentrequiredextremelyreliableelectricity.[1][2]Efficiencygainsnolongercomefromincreasinggeneratingcapacity,butfromsmallerunitslocatedclosertositesofdemand.[3][4]

Forexample,coalpowerplantsarebuiltawayfromcitiestopreventtheirheavyairpollutionfromaffectingthepopulace.Inaddition,suchplantsareoftenbuiltnearcollieriestominimizethecostoftransportingcoal.Hydroelectricplantsarebytheirnaturelimitedtooperatingatsiteswithsufficientwaterflow.

Lowpollutionisacrucialadvantageofcombinedcycleplantsthatburnnaturalgas.Thelowpollutionpermitstheplantstobenearenoughtoacitytoprovidedistrictheatingandcooling.

Distributedenergyresourcesaremassproduced,small,andlesssitespecific.Theirdevelopmentaroseoutof:

1. concernsoverperceivedexternalizedcostsofcentralplantgeneration,particularlyenvironmentalconcerns,

2. theincreasingage,deterioration,andcapacityconstraintsuponT&Dforbulkpower3. theincreasingrelativeeconomyofmassproductionofsmallerappliancesoverheavy

manufacturingoflargerunitsandonsiteconstruction4. Alongwithhigherrelativepricesforenergy,higheroverallcomplexityandtotalcostsfor

regulatoryoversight,tariffadministration,andmeteringandbilling.

Capitalmarketshavecometorealizethatrightsizedresources,forindividualcustomers,distributionsubstations,ormicrogrids,areabletoofferimportantbutlittleknowneconomicadvantagesovercentralplants.Smallerunitsofferedgreatereconomiesfrommassproductionthanbigonescouldgainthrough



unitsize.Theseincreasedvalueduetoimprovementsinfinancialrisk,engineeringflexibility,security,andenvironmentalqualityoftheseresourcescanoftenmorethanoffsettheirapparentcostdisadvantages.[5]DG,visviscentralplants,mustbejustifiedonalifecyclebasis.[6]Unfortunately,manyofthedirect,andvirtuallyalloftheindirect,benefitsofDGarenotcapturedwithintraditionalutilitycashflowaccounting.[1]

Whilethelevelizedgenerationcostofdistributedgeneration(DG)ismoreexpensivethanconventionalsourcesonakWhbasis,thisdoesnotconsidernegativeaspectsofconventionalfuels.TheadditionalpremiumforDGisrapidlydecliningasdemandincreasesandtechnologyprogresses,andsufficientandreliabledemandmaybringeconomiesofscale,innovation,competition,andmoreflexiblefinancing,thatcouldmakeDGcleanenergypartofamorediversifiedfuture.

Distributedgenerationreducestheamountofenergylostintransmittingelectricitybecausetheelectricityisgeneratedverynearwhereitisused,perhapseveninthesamebuilding.Thisalsoreducesthesizeandnumberofpowerlinesthatmustbeconstructed.

TypicalDERsystemsinafeedintariff(FIT)schemehavelowmaintenance,lowpollutionandhighefficiencies.Inthepast,thesetraitsrequireddedicatedoperatingengineersandlargecomplexplantstoreducepollution.However,modernembeddedsystemscanprovidethesetraitswithautomatedoperationandrenewables,suchassunlight,windandgeothermal.Thisreducesthesizeofpowerplantthatcanshowaprofit.

Gridparity

Gridparityoccurswhenanalternativeenergysourcecangenerateelectricityatalevelizedcost(LCOE)thatislessthanorequaltotheendconsumer'sretailprice.Reachinggridparityisconsideredtobethepointatwhichanenergysourcebecomesacontenderforwidespreaddevelopmentwithoutsubsidiesorgovernmentsupport.Sincethe2010s,gridparityforsolarandwindhasbecomearealityinagrowingnumberofmarkets,includingAustralia,severalEuropeancountries,andsomestatesintheU.S.[7]

TypesofDERsystems

Distributedenergyresource(DER)systemsaresmallscalepowergenerationorstoragetechnologies(typicallyintherangeof1kWto10,000kW)[8]usedtoprovideanalternativetooranenhancementofthetraditionalelectricpowersystem.DERsystemstypicallyarecharacterizedbyhighinitialcapitalcostsperkilowatt.[9]DERsystemsalsoserveasstoragedeviceandareoftencalledDistributedenergystoragesystems(DESS).[10]

Cogeneration

Distributedcogenerationsourcesusesteamturbines,naturalgasfiredfuelcells,microturbinesorreciprocatingengines[11]toturngenerators.Thehotexhaustisthenusedforspaceorwaterheating,ortodriveanabsorptivechiller[12][13]forcoolingsuchasairconditioning.Inadditiontonaturalgasbasedschemes,distributedenergyprojectscanalsoincludeotherrenewableorlowcarbonfuelsincludingbiofuels,biogas,landfillgas,sewagegas,coalbedmethane,syngasandassociatedpetroleumgas.[14]

Deltaeeconsultantsstatedin2013thatwith64%ofglobalsalesthefuelcellmicrocombinedheatandpowerpassedtheconventionalsystemsinsalesin2012.[15]20.000unitswheresoldinJapanin2012overallwithintheEneFarmproject.WithaLifetimeofaround60,000hours.ForPEMfuelcellunits,



whichshutdownatnight,thisequatestoanestimatedlifetimeofbetweentenandfifteenyears.[16]Forapriceof$22,600beforeinstallation.[17]For2013astatesubsidyfor50,000unitsisinplace.[16]

Inaddition,moltencarbonatefuelcellandsolidoxidefuelcellsusingnaturalgas,suchastheonesfromFuelCellEnergyandtheBloomenergyserver,orwastetoenergyprocessessuchastheGate5EnergySystemareusedasadistributedenergyresource.

Solarpower

Photovoltaics,byfarthemostimportantsolartechnologyfordistributedgenerationofsolarpower,usessolarcellsassembledintosolarpanelstoconvertsunlightintoelectricity.Itisafastgrowingtechnologydoublingitsworldwideinstalledcapacityeverycoupleofyears.PVsystemsrangefromdistributed,residentialandcommercialrooftoporbuildingintegratedinstallations,tolarge,centralizedutilityscalephotovoltaicpowerstations.

ThepredominantPVtechnologyiscrystallinesilicon,whilethinfilmsolarcelltechnologyaccountsforabout10percentofglobalphotovoltaicdeployment.[18]:18,19Inrecentyears,PVtechnologyhasimproveditssunlighttoelectricityconversionefficiency,reducedtheinstallationcostperwattaswellasitsenergypaybacktime(EPBT)andlevelisedcostofelectricity(LCOE),andhasreachedgridparityinatleast19differentmarketsin2014.[19]

Asmostrenewableenergysourcesandunlikecoalandnuclear,solarPVisvariableandnondispatchable,buthasnofuelcosts,operatingpollution,miningsafetyoroperatingsafetyissues.Itproducespeakpoweraroundlocalnooneachdayanditscapacityfactorisaround20percent.[20]

Windpower

Anothersourceissmallwindturbines.Thesehavelowmaintenance,andlowpollution,howeveraswithsolar,windenergyisvariableandnondispatchable.Constructioncostsarehigher($0.80/W,2007)perwattthanlargepowerplants,exceptinverywindyareas.Windtowersandgeneratorshavesubstantialinsurableliabilitiescausedbyhighwinds,butgoodoperatingsafety.InsomeareasoftheUStheremayalsobePropertyTaxcostsinvolvedwithwindturbinesthatarenotoffsetbyincentivesoraccelerateddepreciation.[21]Windalsotendstocomplementsolar.Dayswithoutsuntendtobewindy,andviceversa.ManydistributedgenerationsitescombinewindpowerandsolarpowersuchasSlipperyRockUniversity,whichcanbemonitoredonline(http://view2.fatspaniel.net/FST/Portal/NorthCoastEnergySys/macoskey/HostedAdminView.html).

Hydropower

Hydroelectricityisthemostwidelyusedformofrenewableenergyanditspotentialhasalreadybeenexploredtoalargeextendoriscompromisedduetoissuessuchasenvironmentalimpactsonfisheries,andincreaseddemandforrecreationalaccess.However,usingmodern21stcenturytechnology,suchaswavepower,canmakelargeamountsofnewhydropowercapacityavailable,withminorenvironmentalimpact.

ModularandscalableNextgenerationkineticenergyturbinescanbedeployedinarraystoservetheneedsonaresidential,commercial,industrial,municipalorevenregionalscale.Microhydrokineticgeneratorsneitherrequiredamsnorimpoundments,astheyutilizethekineticenergyofwatermotion,eitherwavesorflow.Noconstructionisneededontheshorelineorseabed,whichminimizes



environmentalimpactstohabitatsandsimplifiesthepermittingprocess.Suchpowergenerationalsohasminimalenvironmentalimpactandnontraditionalmicrohydroapplicationscanbetetheredtoexistingconstructionsuchasdocks,piers,bridgeabutments,orsimilarstructures.[22]

Wastetoenergy

Municipalsolidwaste(MSW)andnaturalwaste,suchassewagesludge,foodwasteandanimalmanurewilldecomposeanddischargemethanecontaininggasthatcanbecollectedandusedasfuelingasturbinesormicroturbinestoproduceelectricityasadistributedenergyresource.Additionally,aCaliforniabasedcompany,Gate5EnergyPartners,Inc.hasdevelopedaprocessthattransformsnaturalwastematerials,suchassewagesludge,intobiofuelthatcanbecombustedtopowerasteamturbinethatproducespower.Thispowercanbeusedinlieuofgridpoweratthewastesource(suchasatreatmentplant,farmordairy).

Energystorage

Adistributedenergyresourceisnotlimitedtothegenerationofelectricitybutmayalsoincludeadevicetostoredistributedenergy(DE).[10]Distributedenergystoragesystems(DESS)applicationsincludeseveraltypesofbattery,pumpedhydro,compressedair,andthermalenergystorage.[23]:42

Flywheels

Anadvancedflywheelenergystorage(FES)storestheelectricitygeneratedfromdistributedressourcesintheformofangularkineticenergybyacceleratingarotor(flywheel)toaveryhighspeedofabout20,000toover50,000rpminavacuumenclosure.Flywheelscanrespondquicklyastheystoreandfeedbackelectricityintothegridinamatterofminutes.[24][25]

Vehicletogrid

Futuregenerationsofelectricvehiclesmayhavetheabilitytodeliverpowerfromthebatteryinavehicletogridintothegridwhenneeded.[26]AnelectricvehiclenetworkhasthepotentialtoserveasaDESS.[23]:44

PVstorage

Commonbatterytechnologiesusedintoday'sPVsystemsinclude,thevalveregulatedleadacidbattery(leadacidbattery),nickelcadmiumandlithiumionbatteries.Comparedtotheothertypes,leadacidbatterieshaveashorterlifetimeandlowerenergydensity.However,duetotheirhighreliability,lowselfdischarge(46%peryear)aswellaslowinvestmentandmaintenancecosts,theyarecurrentlythepredominanttechnologyusedinsmallscale,residentialPVsystems,aslithiumionbatteriesarestillbeingdevelopedandabout3.5timesasexpensiveasleadacidbatteries.Furthermore,asstoragedevicesforPVsystemsareusedstationary,thelowerenergyandpowerdensityandthereforehigherweightofleadacidbatteriesarenotascriticalasforelectricvehicles.[27]:4,9

OtherrechargeablebatteriesthatareconsideredfordistributedPVsystemsinclude,sodiumsulfurandvanadiumredoxbatteries,twoprominenttypesofamoltensaltandaflowbattery,respectively.[27]:4

Integrationwiththegrid



Pictureofalocalmicrogrid,theSendaiMicrogrid,locatedonthecampusofTohokuFukushiUniversityinSendaiCityintheTohokudistrictinJapan

Forreasonsofreliability,distributedgenerationresourceswouldbeinterconnectedtothesametransmissiongridascentralstations.Varioustechnicalandeconomicissuesoccurintheintegrationoftheseresourcesintoagrid.Technicalproblemsariseintheareasofpowerquality,voltagestability,harmonics,reliability,protection,andcontrol.[28]Behaviorofprotectivedevicesonthegridmustbeexaminedforallcombinationsofdistributedandcentralstationgeneration.[29]Alargescaledeploymentofdistributedgenerationmayaffectgridwidefunctionssuchasfrequencycontrolandallocationofreserves.[30]Asaresultsmartgridfunctions,virtualpowerplantsandgridenergystoragesuchaspowertogasstationsareaddedtothegrid.

Costfactors

Cogeneratorsarealsomoreexpensiveperwattthancentralgenerators.Theyfindfavorbecausemostbuildingsalreadyburnfuels,andthecogenerationcanextractmorevaluefromthefuel.LocalproductionhasnoelectricitytransportationlossesonlongdistancepowerlinesorenergylossesfromtheJouleeffectintransformerswhereingeneral815%oftheenergyislost[31](seealsocostofelectricitybysource).

Somelargerinstallationsutilizecombinedcyclegeneration.UsuallythisconsistsofagasturbinewhoseexhaustboilswaterforasteamturbineinaRankinecycle.Thecondenserofthesteamcycleprovidestheheatforspaceheatingoranabsorptivechiller.Combinedcycleplantswithcogenerationhavethehighestknownthermalefficiencies,oftenexceeding85%.

Incountrieswithhighpressuregasdistribution,smallturbinescanbeusedtobringthegaspressuretodomesticlevelswhilstextractingusefulenergy.IftheUKweretoimplementthiscountrywideanadditional24GWewouldbecomeavailable.(Notethattheenergyisalreadybeinggeneratedelsewheretoprovidethehighinitialgaspressurethismethodsimplydistributestheenergyviaadifferentroute.)

Microgrid

Amicrogridisalocalizedgroupingofelectricitygeneration,energystorage,andloadsthatnormallyoperatesconnectedtoatraditionalcentralizedgrid(macrogrid).Thissinglepointofcommoncouplingwiththemacrogridcanbedisconnected.Themicrogridcanthenfunctionautonomously.[32]Generationandloadsinamicrogridareusuallyinterconnectedatlowvoltage.Fromthepointofviewofthegridoperator,aconnectedmicrogridcanbecontrolledasifitwereoneentity.

Microgridgenerationresourcescanincludefuelcells,wind,solar,orotherenergysources.Themultipledispersedgenerationsourcesand



abilitytoisolatethemicrogridfromalargernetworkwouldprovidehighlyreliableelectricpower.Producedheatfromgenerationsourcessuchasmicroturbinescouldbeusedforlocalprocessheatingorspaceheating,allowingflexibletradeoffbetweentheneedsforheatandelectricpower.

MicrogridswereproposedinthewakeoftheJuly2012Indiablackout:[33]

Smallmicrogridscovering3050kmradius[33]

Smallpowerstationsof510MWtoservethemicrogridsGeneratepowerlocallytoreducedependenceonlongdistancetransmissionlinesandcuttransmissionlosses.

GTMResearchforecastsmicrogridcapacityintheUnitedStateswillexceed1.8gigawattsby2018.[34]

Modesofpowergeneration

DERsystemsmayincludethefollowingdevices/technologies:

Combinedheatpower(CHP)FuelcellsMicrocombinedheatandpower(MicroCHP)MicroturbinesPhotovoltaicSystemsReciprocatingenginesSmallWindpowersystemsStirlingenginesTrigeneration

CommunicationinDERsystems

IEC618507420isunderdevelopmentasapartofIEC61850standards,whichdealswiththecompleteobjectmodelsasrequiredforDERsystems.ItusescommunicationservicesmappedtoMMSasperIEC6185081standard.

OPCisalsousedforthecommunicationbetweendifferententitiesofDERsystem.

Legalrequirementsfordistributedgeneration

In2010Coloradoenactedalawrequiringthatby2020that3%ofthepowergeneratedinColoradoutilizedistributedgenerationofsomesort.[35][36]

Seealso

Autonomousbuilding



References

DemandresponseEnergyharvestingElectricpowertransmissionElectricitygenerationElectricitymarketElectricityretailingEnergydemandmanagementFutureenergydevelopmentGreenpowersuperhighwayGridtiedelectricalsystemHydrogenstationIEEE1547StandardforInterconnectingDistributedResourceswithElectricPowerSystemsIslandingMicrogenerationNetmeteringRelativecostofelectricitygeneratedbydifferentsourcesRenewableenergydevelopmentSmartmeterSmartpowergridSolarGuerrillaStandalonepowersystemSustainablecommunityenergysystemTrigenerationWorldAllianceforDecentralizedEnergy

1. DOEThePotentialBenefitsofDistributedGenerationandRateRelatedIssuesthatMayImpedeTheirExpansion2007.

2. LovinsSmallIsProfitable:TheHiddenEconomicBenefitsofMakingElectricalResourcestheRightSizeRockyMountainInstitute,2002.

3. Takahashi,etalPolicyOptionstoSupportDistributedResourcesU.ofDel.,Ctr.forEnergy&Env.Policy2005.

4. Hirsch1989citedinDOE,2007.5. LovinsSmallIsProfitable:TheHiddenEconomicBenefitsofMakingElectricalResourcestheRightSize

RockyMountainInstitute20026. Michigan(Citationpending)



7. McFarland,Matt(25March2014)."Gridparity:Whyelectricutilitiesshouldstruggletosleepatnight"(http://www.webcitation.org/6SaEzv1eJ).http://www.washingtonpost.com/.Washingtonpost.com.Archivedfromtheoriginal(http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/innovations/wp/2014/03/25/gridparitywhyelectricutilitiesshouldstruggletosleepatnight/)on14September2014.Retrieved14September2014.

8. "UsingDistributedEnergyResources"(http://www.webcitation.org/6SQK0RpAc).http://www.nrel.gov.NREL.2002.p.1.Archivedfromtheoriginal(http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy02osti/31570.pdf)on8September2014.Retrieved8September2014.

9. www.NREL.govDistributedEnergyResourcesInterconnectionSystems:TechnologyReviewandResearchNeeds(http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy02osti/32459.pdf),2002

10. www.smartgrid.govLexiconDistributedEnergyResource(https://www.smartgrid.gov/lexicon/6/letter_d)11. Gasenginecogeneration(http://www.clarkeenergy.com/chpcogeneration/),www.clarkeenergy.com,

retrieved9.12.201312. Cogenerationwithabsorptivechiller

(http://www.buderus.de/Ueber_uns/Presse/Fachpresse/Anlagen_zur_Kraft_Waerme_Kopplung/Heiss_auf_kalt2119341.html)

13. Trigenerationwithgasengines(http://www.clarkeenergy.com/gasengines/trigeneration/),www.clarkeenergy.com,retrieved9.12.2013

14. Gasengineapplications(http://www.clarkeenergy.com/gasengines/),www.clarkeenergy.com,retrieved9thDecember2013

15. Thefuelcellindustryreview2013(http://www.fuelcelltoday.com/media/1889744/fct_review_2013.pdf)16. LatestdevelopmentsintheEneFarmscheme(http://www.fuelcelltoday.com/analysis/analystviews/2013/13

0227latestdevelopmentsintheenefarmscheme)17. Launchofnew'EneFarm'homefuelcellproductmoreaffordableandeasiertoinstall

(http://panasonic.co.jp/corp/news/official.data/data.dir/2013/01/en1301175/en1301175.html)18. "PhotovoltaicsReport"(http://www.ise.fraunhofer.de/en/downloadsenglisch/pdffilesenglisch/photovoltaics

reportslides.pdf).FraunhoferISE.28July2014.Archived(http://www.webcitation.org/6SFRTUaBS)fromtheoriginalon31August2014.Retrieved31August2014.

19. Parkinson,Giles(7January2014)."DeutscheBankpredictssecondsolargoldrush"(http://www.webcitation.org/6SaAGOqkz).http://reneweconomy.com.au/.REnewEconomy.Archivedfromtheoriginal(http://reneweconomy.com.au/2014/deutschebankpredictssecondsolargoldrush40084)on14September2014.Retrieved14September2014.

20. www.academia.edu,JanetMarsdonDistributedGenerationSystems:ANewParadigmforSustainableEnergy(http://www.academia.edu/446324/Distributed_Generation_Systems_A_New_Paradigm_for_Sustainable_Energy)

21. [1](http://www.nrel.gov/docs/legosti/fy97/6980.pdf)Retrievedon20October201022. www.academia.edu,JanetMarsdonDistributedGenerationSystems:ANewParadigmforSustainableEnergy

(http://www.academia.edu/446324/Distributed_Generation_Systems_A_New_Paradigm_for_Sustainable_Energy),pp.8,9

23. www.NREL.govTheRoleofEnergyStoragewithRenewableElectricityGeneration(http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy10osti/47187.pdf)

24. Castelvecchi,Davide(May19,2007)."Spinningintocontrol:Hightechreincarnationsofanancientwayofstoringenergy"(http://sciencewriter.org/flywheelsspinningintocontrol/).ScienceNews171(20):312313.doi:10.1002/scin.2007.5591712010(https://dx.doi.org/10.1002%2Fscin.2007.5591712010).



Furtherreading

Brass,J.N.Carley,S.MacLean,L.M.Baldwin,E.(2012)."PowerforDevelopment:AReviewofDistributedGenerationProjectsintheDevelopingWorld".AnnualReviewofEnvironmentandResources37:107.doi:10.1146/annurevenviron051112111930(https://dx.doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurevenviron051112111930).Gies,Erica.MakingtheConsumeranActiveParticipantintheGrid(http://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/29/business/energyenvironment/29ihtrbogferc.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0&gwh=402884C2E19C695EA255CCF207D8BB22),TheNewYorkTimes,November29,2010.DiscussesdistributedgenerationandtheU.S.FederalEnergyRegulatoryCommission.Pahl,Greg(2012).Powerfromthepeople:howtoorganize,finance,andlaunchlocalenergy

25. Willis,Ben(23July2014)."CanadasfirstgridstoragesystemlaunchesinOntario"(http://www.webcitation.org/6SXSRGh4S).http://storage.pvtech.org/.pvtech.org.Archivedfromtheoriginal(http://storage.pvtech.org/news/canadasfirstgridstoragesystemlaunchesinontario)on12September2014.Retrieved12September2014.

26. Howelectricvehiclesareapartofdistributedgeneration(http://www.energydsm.com/distributedgeneration)27. ETHZrich,HarvardUniversityTheEconomicViabilityofBatteryStorageforResidentialSolar

PhotovoltaicSystemsAReviewandaSimulationModel(http://www.sustec.ethz.ch/people/jhoppmann/Hoppmann_et_al__The_Economic_Viability_of_Battery_Storage_for_Residential_Solar_Photovoltaic_Systems__A_Review_and_a_Simulation_Model.pdf)JoernHoppmann,JonasVolland,TobiasS.Schmidt,VolkerH.Hoffmann,July2014

28. Tomoiag,B.Chindri,M.Sumper,A.SudriaAndreu,A.VillafafilaRobles,R.ParetoOptimalReconfigurationofPowerDistributionSystemsUsingaGeneticAlgorithmBasedonNSGAII.(http://www.mdpi.com/19961073/6/3/1439/pdf)Energies2013,6,14391455.

29. P.Mazidi,G.N.SreenivasReliabilityAssessmentofADistributedGenerationConnectedDistributionSystemInternationalJournalofPowerSystemOperationandEnergyManagement(IJPSOEM),Nov.2011

30. MathH.Bollen,FainanHassanIntegrationofDistributedGenerationinthePowerSystem,JohnWiley&Sons,2011ISBN1118029011,pagesvx

31. HowbigarePowerlinelosses?(http://blog.schneiderelectric.com/energymanagementenergyefficiency/2013/03/25/howbigarepowerlinelosses/)

32. StanMarkKaplan,FredSissine,(ed.)Smartgrid:modernizingelectricpowertransmissionanddistribution...TheCapitolNetInc,2009,ISBN1587331624,page217

33. [2](http://www.moneycontrol.com/smementor/mentorade/startingup/powercrisisgridcollapseisittimetothink739976.html)

34. http://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/USMicrogridCapacityWillExceed1.8GWby201835. "GoingSolarIsHarderThanItLooks,aValleyFinds"

(http://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/04/us/04electricity.html)articlebyKirkJohnsoninTheNewYorkTimesJune3,2010

36. "ColoradoIncreasesRenewablesRequirements"(http://green.blogs.nytimes.com/2010/03/22/coloradotoboostrenewablesrequirements/)blogbyKateGalbraithonNYTimes.ComMarch22,2010



projects.SantaRosa,Calif:PostCarbonInstitute.ISBN9781603584098.

Externallinks

TheUKDistrictEnergyAssociationadvocatingtheconstructionoflocallydistributedenergynetworks(http://www.ukdea.org.uk/)DecentralizedPowerasPartofLocalandRegionalPlans(http://www.newrules.org/electricity/planningfordg.html)IEEEP1547DraftStandardforInterconnectingDistributedResourceswithElectricPowerSystems(http://grouper.ieee.org/groups/scc21/1547/1547_index.html)WorldAllianceforDecentralizedEnergy(http://www.localpower.org)TheiDEaSprojectbyUniversityofSouthamptononDecentralisedEnergy(http://www.ideasproject.info)Biofuelsandgaspressureenergyrecovery(http://www.abc.net.au/rn/scienceshow/stories/2007/2010598.htm)MicrogridsprojectsandDEROptimizationModelatBerkeleyLab(http://buildingmicrogrid.lbl.gov/)DERlab(http://www.derlab.net)CenterforEnergyandinnovativeTechnologies(http://www.cet.or.at)DecentralizedPowerSystem(DPS)inPakistan(http://ezine.pk/?DecentralizedPowerSystemDPSinPakistan&id=381)

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