distance learners 1 running head: barriers and challenges of distance...

Distance Learners 1

Running head: Barriers and Challenges of Distance Learners

The Barriers and Challenges of

Adult Distance Learners

Kärin Renner

University of South Dakota

Distance Learners 2

The Barriers and Challenges of Adult Distance Learners

Statement of Purpose

This research proposal is based on the understanding that male and female distance

learners bring different ideas, expectations and experiences to a distance education class.

Researchers continue to focus on the learning styles, motivations, obstacles and other

characteristics of distance education students to determine who is more likely to succeed and

how best to meet their needs. But a growing awareness of the role that gender plays in an online

environment is becoming an important research topic. Much of the research conducted in this

field involves students in mixed-gender classes. However, not as much research has been done

on issues relating specifically to women’s experiences with distance education. The purpose of

this research is to determine whether the barriers and challenges perceived by women in an

online masters program are different or similar to those perceived by men.

Research question

The intent of this study is to answer the following question: Are the barriers and

challenges identified by women in distance education different than or similar to those of men?

Importance of knowledge to be gained

Post-secondary distance education courses and enrollment in them continues to grow

exponentially. A 1995 report by Lewis, Alexander & Farris (1997) found that one-third of

higher education institutions provided distance education. By 2000-2001, 56% of two and four-

year institutions offered distance learning (Waits & Lewis, 2003).

Enrollment in distance courses in the United States grew from 1.3 million in 1997-98 to

2.9 million in 2001-2002 (Loughlin, 2004, ¶ 5). For the time period 1997-98 to 2000-01, the

American Council on Education reported a 38% increase in distance course offerings and an

Distance Learners 3

85% increase in enrollment. The ACE study also cited 3.1 million students enrolled in 2000-01

(ACE, 2004, ¶ 8).

More recent research supports the apparent proliferation of distance education. A Sloan

Foundation study, Growing by Degrees: Online Education in the United States, 2005, reports

that 65% of higher education institutions that offer face-to-face graduate programs now also

offer online graduate programs; 63% also offer undergraduate work online (Allen & Seaman,

2005, ¶ 4). The Sloan Foundation’s 2004 study reported an increase from 1.6 to 1.98 million

students taking online courses (a 22.9% increase), while the 2005 report indicates growth from

1.98 million to 2.35 million in 2004, or an increase of 18.2% (Allen & Seaman, 2005, ¶ 17-20).

A report published in March 2005 by the National Center for Education Statistics was the

first to provide statistics on distance education offerings and enrollment in US elementary and

secondary schools based on the 2002-03 academic year. The study found that 36% of public

school districts had students enrolled in distance education courses (Setzer & Lewis, 2005, p. 4).

That percentage represented an enrollment of approximately 328,000 (Setzer & Lewis, 2005, p.

7). Because distance education is now expanding to include elementary and secondary students,

it will become increasingly important for researchers to understand how gender influences

success or lack of it in an online environment. It will also mean that educators, who are

predominantly women, will need to keep abreast of the impact of technology in their classrooms.

Literature Review

Statistics on Women in Distance Education

The National Center for Education Statistics’ 1999-2000 profile on distance education

reported that students both male and female with greater work and family responsibilities

participated in distance education at higher rates than those males and females with few work

Distance Learners 4

and family responsibilities (Sikora, 2003, par. 6). Richardson (2000) cites studies that establish a

composite of individuals most likely to participate in distance education. The individuals are

largely highly motivated middle class well-educated women between the ages of 25-45, whose

participation in distance education is mostly related to employment issues (Grill, 1999; Hanna,

2000; Moore, 1998; Thompson, 1998; Young, 2000; as cited in Brown, 2002, p. 64).

The bulk of the research on distance learners in higher education in the United States

indicates that more women than men are enrolled. Hezel and Dirr’s research (1991) indicated

that 61% of their students were women; Gibson and Graff (1992) reported that 60% of their

distance education subjects were women; and in a study by Franks (1996), three-fourths of the

distance education students in rural Alaska were female (Thompson, 1998, as cited in Campbell

Gibson, 1998, p. 11). For the 1999-2000 academic year, the National Center for Education

Statistics reported that 55.8% of US undergraduate distance learners were female (Horn, L,

Peter, K, & Rooney, K, 2002). More women than men are enrolled in distance courses and the

percentage of women who complete higher ed distance courses is increasing at a higher rate than

men (Thompson, 1998, p. 11).

What About the Men?

Some research supports the notion that men are better with technology and thus are better

suited for distance learning. The field of technology has been male-dominated since its inception,

and the whole computer culture has been controlled by men. Males use the Internet more than

females, play more games and use more cutting edge online technology (Morahan-Martin, 1998,

par. 3). “To be male is to be technological; to be female is to be ‘technophonic’” (Morahan-

Martin, 1998, par. 6).

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Years of research studies, including a report issued by the American Association of

University Women (2000), reveal that among high school students, boys and girls rate computers

as more masculine and say that computer games are a better match for boys’ learning and

communication styles, so boys learn computer savvy skills that girls do not (AAUW, 2000, p.

ix). A higher percentage of boys than girls use home computers. The study also cited statistics

that show that the computer world is dominated by males at a 5:1 ratio. As female college

students perceived themselves as less equipped to deal with computer technology, the percentage

of women’s undergraduate degrees in computer science was decreasing, and women made up

only 20% of information technology professionals (AAUW, 2000, p. 58). One in four Americans

currently believe that “men do a better job with creating and developing new technology, using

technology, managing other people, and leading groups” (Women are still treated differently in

the workplace, 2006, ¶ 6). In another AAUW study, Kramarae (2001) reported that “women are

the primary users of on-line education yet they are dramatically underrepresented in the high-

tech sectors charged with producing technological solutions and designing technological delivery

systems, software, and educational packages. They are also underrepresented among college and

university faculty and administrators currently shaping distance education” (Kramarae, 2001, p.

5).

While all of these facts and statistics might lead one to conclude that men would

outperform women in the distance education classroom, male domination of the computer

technology field has not translated into success in distance education.

Barriers for Women in Distance Education

Distance education now offers women numerous opportunities to enhance their lives and

increase their earning potential. Unfortunately, women also face significantly more challenges to

Distance Learners 6

learning in a distance education setting than men do. These challenges relate to technology,

learning styles, communication styles, work and family responsibilities.

The Challenge of Technology. The technology required to participate in distance education

can be a substantial barrier for female students. Blum (1998) cites a body of research that

suggests that females have higher technical barriers. In her own study of computer mediated

communication by Blum (1998) found that females asked more technical questions than men

(66% of technical questions were asked by women). The messages expressed concern with the

course software, locating information on the Web, general computer related concerns, and the

fast pace of online courses (¶ 22).

The Challenge of Addressing Learning Styles. In additional to the technology divide, men

and women also have very distinct methods of learning and knowing. Research has shown that

many online environments hinder a woman’s way of learning. Some authors believe that women

benefit more than men from interaction in a learning situation and that this factor puts them at a

disadvantage in distance education (Potter, 1998, p. 61). This need for connectedness in their

learning is an indication of a woman’s different learning style that emphasizes relationships,

empathy, listening, collaboration and cooperation instead of competition. Results of a study by

Burge and Lenksyj (1990) confirmed that “female distance students have specific learning needs

that are most effectively met by woman-centered as well as learner-centered approaches” (¶ 52).

Dr. Cheyenne Bonnell, one among a growing number of scholars examining feminist

pedagogy as it relates to distance education, believes that men and women’s learning styles are

very different and that women react better to certain teaching approaches because they have been

socialized to speak less often than men in class and because they grew up learning to avoid

showing that they are smart. Dr. Bonnell believes that “women tend to learn better in classes

Distance Learners 7

where they are asked to participate more actively” (Blumenstyk, 1997, ¶ 6). Blum (1999)

argues that since a body of research supports the claim that in traditional classroom settings,

females exhibit a learning style that favors group consensus and connectedness while men tend

to learn through argument and individual activity, “it cannot be assumed that online education

provides an equitable learning environment when traditional higher education has been well

documented to have inequitable characteristics for female students” (as cited in Monteith, 2002,

p. 27). Women will struggle in distance education classes where the characteristics of their

learning styles are not taken into consideration.

The Challenge of Communication Styles. There are also important differences in

communication styles between men and women in distance education environments that can be

disadvantageous to women. Men in distance education settings are aggressive and want to be in

control while women are more focused on cooperation and positive interaction and are more

supportive of their colleagues (Morahan-Martin, 1998, ¶ 18). Many studies of online discussion

forums found that males monopolize online conversations both in length and frequency of their

postings and that they ignore or trivialize females and are more confrontational (Kramarae, 2001,

p. 40)

Through years of gathering and analyzing data on communication behaviors of men and

women from scores of discussion lists, Herring (1994) found that 68% of men’s messages were

adversarial; they criticized or ridiculed the other participants while promoting their own

importance. Herring observed women apologizing, asking questions, interacting with and

supporting others. Men took over women-centered discussion boards of women-centered topics

and when women tried to participate in male-dominated groups, “they were ignored, trivialized

or criticized by men” (Herring, 1994, ¶ 4-5). Women are also often subject to flaming or “the

Distance Learners 8

expression of strong negative emotion, use of derogatory, obscene or inappropriate language, and

personal insults” (Herring, 1994, ¶ 17).

In her study of graduate and undergraduate students attending a large US distance

education institution, Blum (1999) found that the frequency of male responses to questions and

the large number of postings suggested that males controlled the online environment, almost to

the point of “silencing female students” (¶ 21, 22, 57). Her study also found that male messages

were often arrogant and did not use polite words to reduce negative reaction. Men often abused

women with negative comments related to their technical skills and even forced women to either

stop using the discussion board or quit the class (¶ 23). Other studies report that men sometimes

write angry messages either challenging the structure of the class, questioning the purpose of

assignments or responding to feedback.

However, because men and women have very different communication ethics and

behaviors, while women might think that all of these behaviors are rude, men do not. Neither do

they value the supportive behaviors of women (Herring, 1994, ¶ 18).

The Challenges of Work, Family and Support. The biggest barriers women face to learning

in a distance education setting deal with the other commitments in their already busy lives.

While distance learning provides convenient opportunities for women to learn, it also creates a

“third shift,” a phrase coined by the AAUW’s Cheris Kramarae (2001). When women are done

for the day juggling the demands of being a spouse, a mother, and an employee, they squeeze in

another layer of distance education responsibilities during the “third shift” either very early in the

morning or late at night. At the same time that distance education decreases the barriers related

to distance and time, it also puts an added burden on women. Economic demands require many

women to work outside the home. To elevate their status and/or their pay, they seek higher

Distance Learners 9

education during the “third shift,” which allows them to continue their education without having

to give up other responsibilities. Jacqueline Woods, AAUW’s Executive Director said,

“Technology does not create more hours in a day, but leaves women—who shoulder most of the

family and household responsibilities—improvising to squeeze in education” (The third shift,

2006, ¶ 3). Some studies have even noted that the very elements that attract women to distance

education—convenience and the ability to care for their families—are the same factors that

interfere with the completion of a program.

Compared to their male counterparts, professional women have additional stress to cope

with. Quite often women, in addition to being the primary caretakers, are also full-time

professionals. In fact, women in the 25-45 year age range have the most demanding child care

responsibilities. Cuthbertson, Lauder, Steele, Cleary & Bradshaw (2004) cited financial

difficulties, child and elder care as being the top concerns for distance education students (as

cited in Cragg, Andrusyszyn, Fraser, 2005, ¶ 10).

Being a distance learner requires time and devotion. Kramarae (2001) writes that many

women in her study felt guilty about letting their families down. Many felt their husbands

experienced anxiety because of their perceived lack of neglect of relationships and

responsibilities by their wives in distance education classes. They reported needing to reassure

their families that their studies wouldn’t impact their family life (p. 31-32). Burke (2000) cites

an example of one woman’s experience: “Sometimes I work from home. On these days I usually

put some washing in the machine early on in the day and dry it during coffee breaks or between

tasks. Although my husband is supportive, if he is working from home, then he is WORKING

and would not dream of incorporating domestic tasks in his day” (¶ 43).

Distance Learners 10

A lack of spousal understanding seems to be a common theme in the literature. Although

it is likely that most men are supportive of their spouse’s education, some women involved in

distance education reported that their husbands “refused to accommodate their need for quiet

study time” and hid or “damaged their study materials and assignments in efforts to sabotage

their educational ambitions” (Cragg, Andrusyszyn, Fraser, 2005, ¶ 12). Burke (2000) found that

“the computer pulls and attracts and a partner can experience anxiety owing to the extent to

which they are alienated from this new technological partner in women's lives (¶ 31). Other

women in Burke’s study shared similar experiences: “Although my husband understood why I

was spending so much time in my room comments started to sneak into the conversation” (¶ 31).

“I feel that my time spent at the computer is grudgingly accepted ... I believe that men still see

this machine as their own and there is deep resentment that a woman should be able to use it let

alone understand it” (¶ 33). “I feel that on the whole my wider family (parents, sisters)

disapprove somewhat of my intense use of such equipment, especially if it means that chores are

not done or dinner is not ready for my husband when he returns from work” (¶ 35).

Despite Barriers, Women Excel

Despite all of these challenges unique to women in distance education, research on

student performance suggests that women do better than men in distance education. A 1996-1997

comprehensive study at Old Dominion University of 16,5000 distance learning students from 25

majors showed that women had higher grade point averages than men. Undergraduate women

earned a 3.16 GPA while men averaged 2.87; among graduate students, women earned 3.68

while men averaged 3.54 (Koch, 1998, ¶ 8).

Johnson (2001) compared learner outcomes in face-to-face and distance sections of an

undergraduate required course. Women in the distance section earned higher grades than men on


the exams, discussions and written assignments. Female students performed better than males in

all instances and by a half letter grade or more in most cases. While male and female students

entered the class with similar GPA's, the female students averaged a 3.0 GPA in the distance

class while the males averaged 2.6 (¶ 32). The results support the findings of Powell, et al

(1990) that “female students tend to earn higher grades than males in distance education courses”

(as cited in Johnson, 2001, ¶ 32).

In a four-year study with a total of 654 students, Young and McSporran (2001) found

among their distance education male students lower mean scores on the two major assignments

(research project and webpage project), greater non-submission of a whole assignment, greater

non-completion of all parts of each assignment, lower bulletin-board participation, lower course

website page hits or views, and a lower number of weekly quiz attempts. They found that men

are overconfident, they do not follow instructions, they do not fully utilize the learning materials

provided to them, and they tend to leave assignments until the last minute or do not complete all

parts of them. Women in their study, on the other hand, methodically completed all exercises

and read all course notes and all parts of the assignments. The results led the researchers to

conclude that women are more successful than men in distance education (Sections 4, 4.2, and

4.3).

A study by Gunn, McSporran, Macleod and French (2003) concluded that “women will

often outperform men despite observable differences in interaction style during computer

supported learning” (as cited in Lindner, Dooley and Hynes, 2004, p. 3). Women may perform

better because of their strong motivation to succeed, a greater ability to work both

collaboratively and independently and to multi-task. If men want to make it in distance

education, perhaps they should adopt a more feminine approach to learning.


Since research supports the fact that women outperform men in distance education, one

can not conclude that distance education operates to a woman’s disadvantage.

Because it is clear that gender plays a role in distance learners’ performance, institutions must

find ways to better address the unique challenges of technology, learning styles, communication

styles and work and family obligations that women face. Since women are now the primary

users of distance education, women administrators, teachers and students should be involved in

the design and policy decisions for distance education courses (Kramarae, 2001, p. 57).

To address technology barriers that women face, ongoing technical support and computer

training should be provided as part of distance education studies. Since interaction is essential to

women’s learning styles, student interaction should be encouraged through collaborative group

projects. To address barriers to communication in a distance education setting, course design

features should enhance collaboration and cooperation (Care and Udod, 1999, ¶27-30). Palloff

and Pratt (2003) suggest rotating facilitation among male and female students so all voices are

heard, rotating leadership of collaborative groups, communicating privately with male students

who dominate the discussion to help make them aware of how their behavior impacts the women

in their group, and confronting inappropriate use of language or behavior that does not promote

equity (p. 44). To address the burdens of work and family, distance educators must be sensitive

to women’s unique circumstances and help them develop strong support systems. If we want

distance learning to work for people with the time demands of work and family, institutions must

sponsor more research about how distance learning can best address those challenges. Everyone

will benefit from more research and reflection on gender-based learning in distance education

courses.


Research Methodology

Site

The site of this qualitative research study will be the University of South Dakota, a large

public university in Vermillion, SD, that delivers both graduate and undergraduate classes via

distance education. The study will be begin in August 2006 and conclude in August 2007.

Participants

The participants will be selected from a group of 35 male and female educators earning

their masters degrees in 2007 through the Professional Development Center, a 15-month

program developed to match experienced professionals employed by participating schools with

entry level educators who desire a graduate degree in an education related field and who will be

employed professionals at a PDC school site.

Procedure

The first phase will be recruitment and selection of participants. To maximize diversity of

the study sample, participants will be selected utilizing purposive sampling based on a prescribed

set of criteria including age, years of teaching experience, program of study, geographic location

and comfort with technology. It will be important to acknowledge that the homogeneous sample

is primarily white and middle class. This demographic data will be collected via the consent

form (See Appendix A), which will be mailed to all of the potential participants. The informed

consent form will explain that an equal number of male and female subjects (5 of each to begin)

will be selected based on the demographics. The next phase will involve the development of a

structured interview schedule (see Appendix B) that will be reviewed by 2 USD professors of

Adult Education and Technology in Education to establish content validity. Upon receipt of

informed consent, in-depth audio taped face-to-face interviews with all of the selected


participants utilizing the structured interview schedule will begin. With this type of instrument, it

is important that the researcher do nothing to bias or influence the answers and that he/she

establish rapport with each respondent before beginning to ask any questions. Initial interviews

will be conducted in July and August 2006 with participants who are just starting the PDC

program. The interviews will be audio taped for transcription so that they can be replayed for

continued study and analysis. Exit interviews utilizing the same interview schedule will be

conducted in July and August 2007 as the subjects are finishing the PDC program.

Data Analysis

Data analysis for this study will be ongoing and inductive. Data collection and analysis

go hand in hand throughout the process. According to Wallen & Fraenkel (2001), qualitative

data analysis “begins when the researcher has accumulated a subset of data, permitting him or

her to look for patterns, themes, overarching ideas, and the like. The salient aspects of the

phenomena, it is hoped, will begin to emerge, which, in turn, will allow the researcher to pursue

relevant individuals, settings, or documents in greater detail” (p. 434).

In a qualitative study, the researcher needs to establish credibility, transferability,

dependability and confirmability. For the purpose of this study, credibility and dependability will

be established by disaggregating the data from males and females and carefully organizing and

analyzing the interview transcripts to look for patterns, multiple instances and recurring themes

that emerge and by grouping similar words and phrases into categories. Additional interviews

could be conducted throughout the course of the year based on these categories and themes. In

addition, member checks or peer review by participants of the study will be utilized to provide

feedback on the findings. In order to assure transferability, sufficient enough detail will be

provided to allow readers to apply the results to other contexts. To ensure validity and reliability


in this study, the subjects will be interviewed twice (or more). Inconsistencies in what the same

individual reports might suggest that he/she is unreliable. The researcher will record her own

thoughts in a journal as she conducts the interviews so that “responses that seem unusual or

incorrect can be noted and checked later against other remarks or observations” (Wallen &

Fraenkel, 2001, p. 477).

The results of the study will be reported by means of a narrative rich in detail.

Since the researcher is an English teacher, the narrative inquiry method will be a good fit. The

researcher will keep extensive field notes, a journal and transcripts of the interviews in an

attempt to identify issues that educators need to be aware of as they develop distance learning

programs with women’s needs in mind.


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APPENDIX A

INFORMED CONSENT FORM

TITLE OF PROJECT: The Barriers and Challenges of Adults in Distance Education

PRINCIPLE INVESTIGATOR: Kärin Renner, 46946 254th St., Crooks, SD 57020, 605)543.6320

[email protected]

1. PURPOSE OF THE STUDY: The purpose of this research study is to determine whether the

barriers and challenges identified by women in distance education are different than or

similar to those of men.

2. PROCEDURES TO BE FOLLOWED: You will be asked to participate in two face-to-face audio

taped interviews and respond to a series of questions regarding your experiences with

distance education. The first interview will be held in August 2006 and the second in July or

August 2007.

3. RISKS: There are no risks in participating in this research beyond those experienced in

everyday life. Some of the questions are personal and might cause discomfort.

4. BENEFITS

a. You might learn more about yourself by participating in this study.

b. This research might provide a better understanding of the importance of addressing gender

differences in online learning environments

5. DURATION: It will take approximately two hours of your time.

6. STATEMENT OF CONFIDENTIALITY: The study does not ask for any information that would

identify who the responses belong to. Therefore, your responses are recorded anonymously.

If this research is published, no information that would identify you will be written since

your name is in no way linked to your responses.

7. RIGHT TO ASK QUESTIONS:

The researcher conducting this study is Kärin Renner. You may ask any questions you have

now. If you later have questions, concerns, or complaints about the research, please contact

Kärin Renner at 605.528.6236 during the day and at 605.543.6320.

8. COMPENSATION: There is no compensation provided for participating in this study.

9. VOLUNTARY PARTICIPATION: You do not have to participate in this research. You can stop

your participation at any time. You may refuse to participate or choose to discontinue

participation at any time without losing any benefits to which you are otherwise entitled.

You do not have to answer any questions you do not want to answer.


10. ALTERNATIVE: The alternative is NOT to participate

You must be 18 years of age older to consent to participate in this research study.

To maximize diversity of the study sample, please provide the following information:

Age______

Circle Male/Female

Years of teaching experience____________

Program of study_____________________

Geographic location of your school/home (rural, urban, suburban, etc.)_____________________

Comfort with technology_________________________________________________________

Thank you for your willingness to participate. Please return this form in the enclosed envelope

and keep the 2nd copy for your records or future reference.

Your participation in the study implies that you have read the information in this form and

consent to participate in the research.

Name of Participant_______________________

Signature of Participant____________________

Date___________________________________

Participant Contact Information:

E-mail address:__________________________

Preference for correspondence:_____________


APPENDIX B

Interview Schedule

Name:________________________________

Age:_________________________________

Years of Experience:____________________

Program of Study:_____________________

Comfort with technology:_______________

1. Talk about your reasons for enrolling in an online masters program.

2. What do you perceive as some of the advantages of online learning?

3. What do you perceive as some of the challenges or disadvantages of online learning?

4. Tell me about the challenges you have personally faced in a distance education setting.

5. Do you think that men and women have similar experiences in online classes? Explain.

6. What makes you participate more or less often in online discussions?

7. If you have felt uncomfortable participating in a distance course, what is the environment

like? What makes you comfortable?

8. What can the instructor do to make students in an online class more comfortable?

9. Tell me about a time when things worked well for you in an online class and why.

10. Talk about a time when things didn’t go so well and tell me why.

11. What do you MOST like and dislike about online classes?

If subjects do not raise the following issues in their responses, questions relating to the

challenges of technology, learning styles, communication styles, other employment/work

commitments and family commitments may be asked.

distance learners 1 running head: barriers and challenges of distance...

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