IntroductionDIESEL Program
Status Report
1.3 Deliverables........................................................................................................................ 7 1.4 Pilot Schedule..................................................................................................................... 8 1.5 Organizational Structure..................................................................................................... 9 1.6 Pilot Financial Arrangements............................................................................................ 10
Program Plans for the Coming Six-Months ........................................................................25 3.1 Stratified Survey Completion ............................................................................................ 25 3.2 Emission Tests and Driving Cycles .................................................................................. 26
3.2.1 Work Flow ..................................................................................................................... 27 3.2.2. Short and Simple Dynamometer Test ......................................................................... 27
List of Technologies and Policy Measures to be Tested ........................................................... 27 Policy ...................................................................................................................................... 29 Administrative......................................................................................................................... 30
Integrated Diesel Emission Analysis System (IDEAS) .............................................................. 30 Objective .................................................................................................................................... 30 Current Status............................................................................................................................ 30 Next Steps.................................................................................................................................. 31
Annex B - Monitoring Network.............................................................................................1
Annex D - Public Health Impacts .........................................................................................4
Annex E - Bangkok Transport...............................................................................................7
Annex H – Stratified Vehicle Survey Form .........................................................................14
Annex J - Diesel Fuel Specifications in Thailand ................................................................16
Annex K. Description of PCD Automotive Emission Laboratory .....................................17
Annex L. Vehicle Emission Test Plan for DIESEL Pilot........................................................19
Annex M. Integrated Development of Emission Analysis System (IDEAS)........................20
Annex N. Useful Thai websites on air quality management...............................................31
Annex O. Selected References............................................................................................32
DIESEL : Developing Integrated Emission Strategies for Existing Land Transport
AIT : Asian Institute of Technology, Bangkok
BMA : Bangkok Metropolitan Authority
BMR : Bangkok Metropolitan Region
CAI-Asia : Clean Air Initiative for Asian Cities
CATF : Clean Air Task Force
DLT : Department of Land Transportation, Government of Thailand
CNG : Compressed Natural Gas
OTP : Office of Traffic Police
PADCO : Planning and development Collaborative International
PCD : Pollution Control Department, Government of Thailand
PM : Particulate Matter
RTG Royal Thai Government, Kingdom of Thailand
USEPA : U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Volvo : Volvo Bus
Introduction
Background Diesel vehicles are the backbone of urban and rural transport systems around the world. The combination of existing vehicle fleet characteristics, robustness of diesel engines, and low tax on diesel fuel will ensure that diesel continues to be the engine of choice for a large fraction of vehicles for the coming decades. Unfortunately, diesel vehicles are responsible for considerable local and global emissions and associated environmental and health impacts that disproportionately affect the poor. The scale of these emissions increases with poor vehicle maintenance, improper vehicle repair, use of older vehicle technology, low fuel quality, fuel adulteration, lack of monitoring and enforcement of standards, and poor institutional capacity. Several technical and policy options exist to control diesel emissions, ranging from improved transport management and driver behavior to new technologies based on cleaner diesel or alternative fuels. Many cities have already taken some significant steps to improve urban air quality – particularly with regard to two-stroke engines across Asia, and occasionally replacing diesel buses with CNG buses – but few have addressed the issue of emissions from diesel vehicles in a comprehensive manner. There is very limited real-world information and data on the local and global emission reductions of a combination of policies and technologies in the context of developing countries. These crucial information gaps hamper the selection and implementation of effective measures and programs to reduce diesel emissions in urban transport. Diesel is also a popular fuel in the industrial/power sectors and its management would need to be viewed in a multi-sectoral context. The “Developing Integrated Emission Strategies for Existing Land Transport” (DIESEL) Program aims at developing a comprehensive understanding of the in-use diesel vehicles, their emissions and emission control options and decision making for better urban air quality in Asian cities. Bangkok, Thailand, has been chosen the Pilot city for implementing the DIESEL Program. This progress report covers the first six month period of the Diesel pilot (from August 2003 to January 2004).
1.1 Objectives The DIESEL Program aims to develop knowledge-based reference tools, and to propose strategic policy options in order to help policymakers implement effective measures for diesel vehicle pollution reduction. The Program places emphasis on applying the findings to actual attempts to promote sustainable development, instead of leaving them simply as a database or policy recommendations. Thus, providing policymakers with capacity building opportunities is an important aspect of DIESEL Program activities. The overall objective of this program is to develop a better understanding of factors affecting vehicular emissions and to propose cost-effective control options for developing countries. To achieve the overall objectives, the program was formulated according to five principal tasks:
1. Enhance the capacity of local stakeholders in Bangkok and other cities to understand the factors affecting local and global emissions of their in-use diesel vehicle fleet.
2. Analyze the potential to reduce local emissions, focusing on Particulate Matter (PM), and improve fuel or energy efficiency of selected technical alternatives of interest to major cities.
3. Assess the effectiveness of a select number of viable and affordable policies and technical measures to reduce diesel vehicle emissions that maintain or improve overall accessibility of the poor to the transport system.
4. Prepare tools to assist decision makers in developing urban diesel emission action plans that reflect the political, social, and economic implementation realities of developing countries.
5. Disseminate research findings through the Clean Air Initiative networks in Africa, Asia and Latin America.
1.2 Scope of the Program A draft task description for the DIESEL Program in Bangkok (the pilot) is presented in Figure 1.1. Components 1, 2 and 3 are part of the DIESEL Pilot in Bangkok, while dissemination activities will be part of the overall DIESEL Program, directly coordinated by the CAI-Asia and its partners.
1.2.1 Component 1: City-Specific Database
The first component of the program focuses on gathering existing information and relevant data for the assessment of policies and measures to reduce diesel emissions in Bangkok. The program will collect the following information:
Data on ambient fine particulate matter (PM2.5). Factors that affect mass PM emissions from diesel vehicles, with the data to be used
later to develop an emission inventory. Assessment of current transport, environment and energy policy frameworks that affect
diesel vehicle emissions in the selected city.
1.2.2 Component 2: Analysis of Policy and Technical Options
The second component of the program will study the emission reduction potential of a number of policy and technical options. Case studies which would be useful to decision makers will be identified. A few policy options will be analyzed in detail for their implementability and their emission reduction potential. In addition, in consultation with local stakeholders, a few technical options will be selected for emission testing, to the extent possible. The tests will quantify the costs and scope for emission reduction, and assess the operational challenges under real-world conditions. Although technical options are important, experience in industrial countries shows that reforming the regulatory structure for transport and energy may be the most effective approach. Options that will be analyzed include: overall regulatory regime; in-use vehicle options; new vehicle options; fuel and lubricant options; training and awareness programs; and supplementing other on-going studies. The information gathered by the analysis and testing of options will support the development of a city-specific decision support system to evaluate and compare the cost-effectiveness of different options. Such an analytical toolkit, if it can be developed, would enable evaluation of scenarios and help develop action plans as discussed in the next component.
1.2.3 Component 3: Development of Action Plans and Stakeholder Consultation
The program will only achieve its intended results if the pollution reduction options identified under Component 2 are broadly accepted by the stakeholders involved. The selected options will be analyzed and discussed from economic, environmental, technical, stakeholder, social, and sustainability perspectives. Only those options that are widely accepted have a real chance to succeed and an action plan around those options will be implemented, after due consideration, by decision makers in other studies. To accomplish this, the following tasks will be undertaken:
Engage in policy dialogues among stakeholders to discuss selected options using the analytical and informational tools developed.
Discuss social, economic, and political difficulties vs. environmental benefits of different options and decide on options to be implemented.
Develop action plans for options to be implemented.
1.2.4 Regional Dissemination
The outcomes of the DIESEL Pilot (and outputs including the knowledge base and analytical tools) will be discussed in expert panels and disseminated through the Clean Air Initiative to partner cities and stakeholders in developing countries. Throughout the Pilot, city-specific workshops and thematic discussion groups and relevant stakeholders will be organized to raise awareness and to discuss different policy and technical options and the social, political, and institutional requirements for the successful implementation of the measures proposed. At the end of the DIESEL Pilot, a major event will be organized to bring together leading experts, key companies, and decision makers to communicate the outcomes of this Pilot. Furthermore, a section of the Clean Air Initiative’s website will be dedicated to the pilot, and the Clean Air Initiative’s distance learning courses will be used to disseminate the information worldwide.
1.3 Deliverables The following are the expected outputs from the DIESEL Pilot: Quarterly progress reports Database and information for Bangkok DIESEL IDEAS to analyze technical and policy options Action plans for Bangkok to address diesel emissions Assessment of potential for follow-up or scale-up with indicative funding requirements Draft final and final report
The expected outputs of the DIESEL Program are: Website/CD-ROM Strategy for replication to other cities in Asia and Latin America Thematic and city specific workshops Distance learning course to disseminate lessons learned
1.4 Pilot Schedule The DIESEL pilot is a two-year study (August 2003 – July 2005), and the priorities in each stage are as follows:
First year: developing an overall research framework to identify themes and sub-themes in collaboration with participating government organizations, research institutes, private sector and policymakers, and to launch initiatives for understanding vehicular fleet and emission characteristics and air pollution in Bangkok.
Second year: technical and policy analysis of measures to reduce emissions from in-use diesel vehicles.
Second half of second year: preparation and evaluation of control actions and dissemination.
The tasks undertaken in the first six months are shown in Figure 1.2.
Month Activities
Aug 03 Sep 03 Oct 03 Nov 03 Dec 03 Jan 04
1. Ambient PM2.5
1.1 PM2.5 data
1.2 Meteorological Data
1.3 Monitoring Methods
3.2 Taxation
3.3 Fuel
Figure 1.2 - Activities for First Six Months of Diesel Pilot Figure 1.3 describes activities that will be undertaken over the next 6 months of the pilot.
Month Activities
Feb 04 Mar 04 Apr 04 May 04 Jun 04 July 04
1. Developing Test Protocol
1.1 Driving cycle development
1.2 Vehicle sample frame
2. Emission Factor Development
Figure 1.3 - Activities for Second Six Months of Diesel Pilot
1.5 Organizational Structure The DIESEL Pilot and the overall Program is designed to be collaboratively implemented by government agencies with assistance from key international organizations, private companies and research institutes. The DIESEL Pilot and Program are receiving support from a wide-range of stakeholders. Thai government partners for the pilot include the PCD and the Department of Land Transport (DLT). The CAI-Asia is coordinating the inputs of international partners, which include the World Bank, the US-Asia Environmental Partnership (US-AEP), Volvo, Lubrizol, US Environmental Protection Agency, the Manufacturers of Environmental Controls Association (MECA), the Clean Air Task Force (CATF), and a number of local private partners. Figure 1.6 illustrates the organizational structure. The Clean Air Initiative for Asian Cities (CAI-Asia) is providing strategic guidance and supervision of the program activities. The CAI-Asia also ensures the regional dissemination of lessons learned and coordinates regional capacity building activities of the program. The CAI-Asia will draw on the expertise of the Technical Advisory Group for specific technical issues. A number of experts from international agencies, research institutes, local agencies, and the private sector involved in development of improved diesel technologies and transport emission reduction policies is providing technical advice to the Program Management Team. The City Pilot Management Team (CPMT), coordinated by PCD, is responsible for the actual implementation of the pilot in Bangkok. It consists of a Project Manager and representatives of local stakeholders. The Project Manager coordinates the different program activities and ensures timely implementation and reporting. Monthly progress briefs have been prepared and distributed. Teams to undertake Component 1 and Component 2 have been established and consist of local representatives and consultants hired to conduct specific activities. These teams work closely with CPMT and provide regular updates to the CPMT.
1.6 Pilot Financial Arrangements A number of agencies are funding the pilot and a number of others have shown interest in getting involved. The proposed budget for the DIESEL pilot is estimated at US$1.5 to US$2 million. The Energy Sector Management Assistance Program (ESMAP) and the Norwegian and Finish Trust Fund (TFESSD) have agreed to finance US$500,000. The World Bank is supporting the program with staff time for a total amount of US$ 100,000. Thai government agencies are funding $400,000 and have already started their studies. USAEP/USAID has committed substantial resources (~US$100,000) and is seeking additional funding.
12.5%
12.5%
12.5%
Potential bilateral funders include: Australian, Canadian, Dutch, Norwegian. and US aide agencies along with private sector partners like vehicle manufacturers and fuel refining companies such as Shell, BP, ExxonMobil, Lubrizol, DaimlerChrysler, Volvo, Scania, WRI/EMBARQ, and others. Initial indications from potential funding partners are positive and encouraging. National and international organizations already involved in similar activities will be consulted for collaboration.
Figure 1.6. Organizatio
Technical Advisory Group (TAG)
Bangkok Air Quality and Transport Database
1. Air Quality Data 2. Vehicle Inventory 3. Diesel Emissions Inventory 4. Fuels Inventory 5. Policies Inventory
- Traffic & Transport Mgt. - Vehicle taxation - Fuel composition & taxation
Analysis of Policy and Technology Options
1. In-Use Vehicles - Operations & Maintenan - Upgrading & Retrofitting - Policy and Enforcement
2. New Vehicles - Alternative Technologies - Policies
3. Traffic Mgt. - Traffic Regs. & Flows - Inter-modal Planning
DIESEL Pilot in Bangk
a
1. In-Use Vehicles - Operations & Maintenance - Upgrading & Retrofitting - Policy and Enforcement
2. New Vehicles - Alternative Technologies - Policies
3. Traffic Mgt. - Traffic Regs. & Flows - Inter-modal Planning
Supporting Partners
- CAI-Asia Network - US-AEP Network
3. Nat’l Program & Alliance Development
DIESEL Program Outreachok
Component 3
Chapter 2
Air Quality and Transport in Bangkok: Current Status This Chapter summarizes the transport and environment data and information that has been gathered in Bangkok. Transport policies and technical options that affect diesel vehicle emissions are presented in Chapter 3. Diesel vehicles count for only 28% of the in-use vehicle fleet registered in Bangkok, but are estimated to emit 89% of the inhalable (PM10 or finer) emissions from the fleet (See Table 2.1). Data from other cities shows a similar pattern.
Table 2-1 - PM10 from Vehicles in Bangkok, 2000
Diesel vehicles (89%) Light duty trucks (31%) City buses (30%) City trucks (23%) Long haul trucks and buses (5%) Gasoline vehicles (11%) Motorcycles (10%) Passenger cars (1%)
Source: Derived from Parsons (2000) Final Report for the Air Quality Management Project Note: Total emissions from mobile sources are estimated to be 10,000 t/y.
Very fine PM is believed to be largely attributable to vehicles which operate in close proximity to human activity. The bulk of particulate matter emissions of diesel engines are either unburnt hydrocarbons or soot. The soot is also visible as smoke. Hence, measures aimed at reducing smoke will generally reduce particulates. Further particulate matter is added by the oxidation of sulphur in the fuel to form SO2 and SO4
which binds with water to form particles. These can make up as much as 15% of the total particulates produced when sulphur levels in fuel are very high. Another major source of particulates is lube oil, which finds its way into the combustion chamber and is partially burnt. The proportion of the particulate matter attributable to this source primarily depends on the effectiveness of the piston ring pack and, to a lesser degree, on valve stem sealing. Also important are the minimization of oil entrainment in the blowby gases, which are recycled into the inlet, and the elimination of oil leaks from the turbocharger bearings. Particulates from the lube oil can make up as much as 30% of the total. Parsons (2000) studied and made recommendations on the control of non-mobile sources as summarized in Annex A.
2.1 PM Concentration and Health Impacts Atmospheric particles originate from a variety of sources and possess a range of physical and chemical properties. Collectively, particulate pollution is often referred to as total suspended particulates (TSP). Fine particulates less than 10 and 2.5 microns in size are referred to as PM10 and PM2.5, respectively. These have the most significant impact on human health because they
can penetrate deep into the lungs. PM emissions are a key health concern with estimated economic damage costs much higher than for other pollutants. Ambient PM10 and PM2.5 concentration and meteorological data were collected from PCD’s monitoring stations in Bangkok (described in Annex B). A summary of recent data and trends in PM10 is described in Annex C. Generally speaking, PM emissions are declining in Bangkok through improved mobile and other source control measures. The exceedances in PM10, as measured by the number of observations exceeding the standard, are more likely to occur from November to April. Toward the end of the year, temperature inversions that trap pollutants close to the ground commonly occur due to the onset of the cool season. From February to April, the burning of rice paddy residues results in higher variability in TSP concentrations in Bangkok and other urban areas. Maximum recorded concentrations, although lower than before, still exceed standards in many places. Longer-term trends in Bangkok’s TSP concentrations (measured at the roadside) show that TSP spiked in the early 1990s, declined, and spiked again around 1996. After 1997, levels declined further, mirroring trends in ambient PM10. The negative health impacts of PM emission remain large as shown in Annex D and currently estimated to be around Bht 20 billion in 2004.
2.2 Institutional Arrangements for Air Quality Management Table 2.2 sets out current responsibilities for various aspects of air quality management in Bangkok. A wide variety of agencies are involved reflecting the multi-sectoral nature of air quality management.
Table 2.2 - Agencies Involved in Air Quality Management in Bangkok
Component Main Agencies Involved
Transport Source Control • Pollution Control Department (PCD), under Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (MNRE)
• Department of Land Transport (DLT), under Ministry of Transport & Communications (MOTC)
• Bangkok Metropolitan Administration (BMA) • Energy Policy and Planning Office (EPPO), under the Department of Energy • Thai Industrial Standards Institute (TISI), under Ministry of Industry (MOI) • Bangkok Mass Transit Authority (BMTA), under Ministry of Transport (MOT) • Department of Commercial Registration, under Ministry of Commerce • Royal Thai Police (RTP), under Ministry of Energy Road Dust and Other Sources Control
• Bangkok Metropolitan Administration
• PCD, under MNRE • Department of Industrial Works (DIW) under MOI Air Quality Monitoring and Public Awareness Raising
• PCD, under MNRE
Table 2.2 - Agencies Involved in Air Quality Management in Bangkok
Component Main Agencies Involved
under MNRE • Bangkok Metropolitan Administration • Bureau of Environmental Health, under Ministry of Public Health (MOPH) • Non-profit Organizations (NGOs) Transport Management • Bangkok Metropolitan Administration • Office of Transport and Traffic Policy and Planning (OTP), under the Minister
of Transport • Metropolitan Rapid Transit Authority (MRTA), a State Owned Enterprise,
under Ministry of Transport & Communications (MOTC) • Express and Rapid Transit Authority (ETA), a State-owned Enterprise, under
Ministry of Transport & Communications (MOTC) • Department of Highway (DOH), under Ministry of Transport &
Communications (MOTC) • State Railway of Thailand (SRT), under under Ministry of Transport &
Communications (MOTC) • Department of Land Transport (LTD), under Ministry of Transport &
Communications (MOTC) • Bangkok Mass Transit Authority, under Ministry of Transport &
Communications (MOTC)
2.3 Bangkok Transport The Bangkok Metropolitan Region (BMR) includes the City of Bangkok, the nation’s capital, and five neighboring provinces. In 2000, the BMR’s population was estimated as 11.4M. Per capita Gross Regional Product (GRP) in the BMR is 240% greater than that for the whole country. The City of Bangkok is governed by the BMA but the main central agencies described above may undertake projects in Bangkok and neighboring provinces. Bangkok has grown rapidly from a small compact city located on the eastern bank of the Chao Praya River to a large sprawling urban area covering over 2,000 sq km. Growth was originally to the north and the east. Since the early 1970s there has been an extensive program of bridge and road building that has accelerated urban development to the west. Development is following the major road corridors and the neighboring provinces (within the BMR) are rapidly suburbanizing. As shown in Appendix D, daily travel demand in Bangkok in the mid to late 1990s had the following features:
21.6 million person trips1 per day; 43% of all person trips including walk trips are made by private modes with the rest by
bus, rail; walking and other modes; and 44.5% of all households had no private vehicle.
1 These person trips are “unlinked” – unlinked trips are the trips for individual stages of a journey between origin and destination. Hence, data on ticket sales for each mode are also the equivalent of unlinked trips.
The road network is characterized by the presence of very wide primary roads and small local side streets roads (known as “soi”) that run off them. There are few medium-width distributor roads effectively connecting the primary roads. The primary roads, which are extremely congested, thus carry local, medium and long distance traffic. The average speed of vehicles no major roads during rush hour in the morning and evening is summarized in Table 2.3. The average speed on major roads is 15.5 km/hr during the morning rush hour and 22.6 km/hr in the evening rush hour. Improving traffic flows and giving priority to buses along these routes could provide considerable emission reductions and fuel efficiency improvements.
Table 2.3 - Average speed for private cars on major road in Bangkok in July 2003
Average Speed (km/hr) Direction Distance (km)
06:00-09:00 16:00-19:00
Viphavadee Rungsit Rd. 14.315 30.6 54.4
Prachachun Rd. - Rama 5 Rd. 15.590 16.5 19.4
RamRamkhamhaeng Rd. - Rama 9 Rd. 12.695 18.1 18.9
Srinakarin Rd. - Petchburi Rd. 13.130 19.6 43.0
Rama 4 Rd. 08.890 15.1 15.1
Sukumvit Rd. - Rama 1 Rd. 14.070 15.5 14.6
Ladphao Rd. 11.000 17.8 14.8
Sirintorn Rd. - Rachavitee Rd. 16.230 19.7 27.9
Boromrachchonnanee Rd. - Rachadumnun Glang Rd. 06.840 17.3 23.9
Pechkasem Rd. - Charansanitwong Rd. 16.190 15.3 24.0
Taksin Rd. - Rama 2 Rd. 05.020 14.0 28.5
Sathorn Rd. - Krung Thonburi Rd. 05.870 15.0 29.1
Mahisawan Rd. - Chareon Krung Rd. 05.380 07.1 10.2
Overall Average: 15.5 22.6
Source: OTP, 2003
Buses are the backbone of the passenger transportation system in Bangkok, accounting for more than 50% of all passenger trips, and 75% of trips during the peak period. Urban bus services are managed by Bangkok Mass Transit Authority (BMTA), which controls a fleet of 12,200 buses - 3,600 buses are operated by BMTA, with the rest operated by private sector sub-contractors. Since the 1997 financial crisis, there has been a growth in the use of air-conditioned vans for point to point commuter services – at first they functioned illegally but now are regulated by the BMTA. In July 2002, there were 5,330 of these vans. BMTA is not permitted to operate buses older than 10 years. These are sold on to the private sector. Much of BMTA’s maintenance is handled by bus manufacturers – there are a variety of contract types whereby the manufacturers supply buses, operate them and maintain them with maintenance being paid on daily rate per bus. Various studies have looked at reforms to make the bus system more efficient. The 1999 World Bank study recommended the phased privatization of the system around BMTA’s various zones
and associated depots and the introduction of modern, more commercial management practices. The recent 2003 study by the German Agency for Technical Cooperation (GTZ) made similar recommendations. GTZ is presently proposing major bus lanes and/or busway development in Bangkok to provide a more economical way of satisfying some of Bangkok’s mass transit needs in future. The rail network serving Bangkok is not extensive. It is primarily comprised of an at-grade railway with double track on most alignments. The railway system serves freight, inter-city (and regional) and urban passenger traffic. Water transport services are operated in the Chao Phraya River and two major canals. Mass Rapid Transit (MRT) has been recommended as part of a suitable transportation system for many years. A subsequent MRT masterplan update called the “Urban Rail Transportation Master Plan (URMAP)” was completed in early 2001. It provides a framework for subsequent studies and implementation of individual projects and programs particularly for urban rail transit developments in the BMR. URMAP’s work on developing an optimum MRT network for Bangkok depends critically on the use of existing rail lines and facilities. In 2003, the URMAP masterplan was updated and is now called the Development Plan for Bangkok Mass Rapid Transit (BMRT). Bangkok’s first MRT, the US$ 1.7B Bangkok Transit System (BTS), was officially opened on December 5, 1999 by Thailand’s King Bhumibol Adulyadej at his 72nd birthday. BTS consists of two lines totaling 23.5 km, has 23 stations and traverses some of Bangkok’s busiest streets and activity centers. Present patronage is around 350,000 passengers a day or about 70% of the original forecast. The second MRT system – the Blue Line subway - is the 20 km subway system is being constructed by a private consortium under a concession to the Mass Rapid Transit Authority (MRTA). The system will be open in August 2004. Annex E provides a more detailed description of the transport system and demand characteristics.
2.4 Diesel Vehicle Fleet Thailand’s in-use2 national motor vehicle fleet was about 11.5M in 2001 as shown in Table 2.4 below. Bangkok accounts for about 24% of the nation’s registered motor vehicles including 61% of the private car fleet, but only 13% of national motorcycles and 38% of the combined truck and bus registrations. Pick-ups, almost all diesel engine powered, are widely used as a personal vehicles particularly in urban areas. Approximately 28% of all in-use vehicles registered in Bangkok are diesel vehicles. Over 1991 to 2001, the national vehicle fleet grew at a rate of 6.2% per annum – that is, the national motor vehicle fleet almost doubled. A high proportion of this growth was due to motorcycles. Private car registrations increased at a rate of 10% per annum in the same period. Designed to boost domestic production, expand regional vehicle exports and cut foreign trade deficits (vehicles accounted for almost 20% of the dollar value of Thailand’s imports in 1992),
2 Through existing manually developed records held by DLT’s Statistics section and DLT’s records of vehicle taxation payments, it is possible to make reasonable estimates of total in-use vehicles by vehicle type. These estimates differ significantly from reported vehicle registrations which do not deduct vehicles no longer in-use, but not officially de- registered. Estimates of in-use vehicles are about half of the cumulative vehicle registration figures.
Thailand had an exhaustive range of vehicle import tariffs and duties that prevailed until the late 1990s. These have been substantially cut.
The one-ton pick-up, Thailand’s “national vehicle,” represents 21% of the total vehicle market. These vehicles are lightly taxed, are rugged and offer flexibility in passenger and goods transport. Attractive government incentives, introduced in the early 1990s, have led to the establishment of more than a dozen vehicle assemblers by 1996, with a domestic output in excess of one million vehicles. SThe Japanese dominate both imports and domestic production joint ventures, accounting for nearly 100% of the commercial vehicle market – although this dominance is now being challenged through new ventures by GM and Ford and other firms.
Table 2.4 – Number of in-use Vehicles by Type, Thailand, 1991 and 2001
Type 1991 2001 % of overall fleet
% growth rate pa
Taxi 14,338 53,022 0.5% 14.0 100%
Tuk-Tuk 15,171 15,627 0.1% NS 46%
M/C 3,947,017 6,257,156 54.4% 4.7 13%
Bus 89,193 95,750 0.8% 1.0 21%
Truck 334,724 465,639 4.1% 3.3 17%
Other* 94,968 86,830 0.8% NC 14%
Total 6,306,644 11,497,194 100.0% 6.2 24% Source: DLT * Other includes vehicles such as tractors. Non motorized vehicles excluded. NC means not calculated.
The in-use truck fleet consisted of 465,000 vehicles nationally in 2001 having grown by 4.1% pa since 1991. Bangkok accounted for 17% of the national truck fleet. Overall the national truck fleet is old and largely uses rebuilt 10 wheel trucks that are not fuel efficient nor environmentally sound. At present, less than 10% of the total fleet makes use of articulated or other modern technology vehicles. Although there are economies in operating larger, modern vehicles there are numerous barriers to the introduction of these vehicles including: high capital costs; fragmented ownership (average fleet size per owner is two vehicles); high duties on vehicles and parts; the pattern of road development and congestion in Bangkok; and the truck ban which restricts large truck movement during peak periods. Thailand’s truck fleet is quite inefficient and if there were no barriers to the use of modern, high payload vehicles then the total vehicle fleet might be reduced by considerably and still perform the same transport task. During the DIESEL pilot an investigation of the current tax and import duties regime is being made. Annex G provides some initial information on vehicle taxes applied by DLT.
2.5 Vehicle Registration and Inspection In Thailand, the Department of Land Transport (DLT) administers two relevant pieces of legislation:
Motor Vehicle Act (MVA): smaller vehicles, including cars, pick ups, and motorcycles, taxis and so on.
Land Transport Act (LTA): heavy-duty diesel vehicles, including buses and trucks.
Responsibilities for periodic inspection of in-use vehicles are divided as follows:
DLT inspect vehicles regulated under the LTA; and Private inspection stations authorized by DLT carry out inspection of motorcycles and
taxis i.e. vehicles registered under the MVA. DLT established the privately operated system of inspection stations in 1994. There are at present 225 centers in the Bangkok Metropolitan Region (BMR). The distribution of centers is as follows: 169 centers in Bangkok with a further 56 in the surrounding provinces that make up the balance of the BMR. About 70% of the centers also do repair. Table 2.5 sets out details of vehicles that may be inspected by inspection stations in the BMR. The inspection covers safety and emissions of vehicles.
Table 2.5 - Private Inspection Centers and Authorized Vehicle Types
Type of Inspection Bangkok Non- thaburi
Pathum Thani
Nakon Pathom
Samut Prakan
Motorcycle 25 4 1 1 6 37
Vehicle Weight up to 1,600 Kg 46 5 4 2 7 64
Vehicle Weight more than 1,600 Kg
- - - - - -
44 1 4 2 5 56
Motorcycle and Vehicle Weight up to 1,600 Kg
28
- - - - - -
Motorcycle Vehicle Weight up to 1,600 kg and more than 1,600 kg
26 - - 6 3 35
Total 169 13 9 13 21 225 Source: DLT
At present motorcycles and cars aged more than 5 and 7 years respectively must be inspected before their motorcycle registration can be renewed. The registration system relies on a log book is tied to the vehicle or motorcycle. DLT have 13 staff in Bangkok who are responsible for monitoring the quality of inspections but each station is only monitored on average three times per year. There is no centralized reporting of inspection results on a timely basis. The following summary provides the performance of the inspection system in Thailand (Parsons, 2000). “The Action Plan Coordinating Unit (APCU) established on a project basis in the Ministry of Transport and Communications conducted a performance review of this system (SweRoad, 2000) and concluded that:
Inspections at both the centralized and private inspections stations are hampered by the lack of operable equipment.
In practice, inspections are limited to identification and a rather rudimentary visual examination of the vehicle components.
Both the centralized and private inspection garages lack efficient inspection equipment. There is no quality assurance program for the private garages.
There are no maintenance or calibration programs for the measurement instruments
used at the centralized inspection stations. Passenger cars are not inspected until they are seven years old and motorcycles are not
inspected until they are five years old. Very few roadside inspections are made; and There is an absence of technical specifications. The test records are manually created and processed resulting in delays in monitoring
program performance.3
These existing I/M program and enforcement activities inefficiencies were also reflected in the Radian report (Radian, 1998). More recently, the LTD conducted random sampling of 43 private inspection centers using a single passenger vehicle and two motorcycles (Chulalongkorn University, 2000). The passenger vehicle correctly passed the inspection performed by 20 of the 22 stations the vehicle was submitted to. The remaining 2 stations made inspection minor inspection errors, which did not affect the “pass” result. The two motorcycles were failed by 12 of the 21 stations they were submitted to, and passed by the remaining 9 stations. The motorcycles failed when examined by LTD. Noppaporn also reported (Noppaporn, 1999) that approximately 13% or less of the vehicles submitted to private inspection stations fail for either safety of emissions standard. This failure rate has been declining since 1994, and was only at 6.5% in 1997. A study commissioned by the BMA, which formed part of the Bangkok Air Quality Management Project, showed that with the exception of private buses, less than 1% of vehicles fail for emissions (approximately 3% of private buses fail for emissions)4. These emissions failure rates are exceptionally low in comparison with failure rates observed in other comparable I/M programs. Historically, between 10% and 25% of vehicles would be expected to fail the emissions test, depending on the stringency of the standards, the degree of administrative oversight, and the maturity of the program (failure rates tend to decrease over time). The BMA and BAQMP Project Team recently conducted two workshops on the effectiveness of the existing I/M program and potential changes. During those workshops, both the TSAE and the LTD confirmed the existence of inspection equipment problems. The LTD stating that more than 90% of the equipment at LTD’s centralized lanes is under standard and that there is no maintenance policy in place. They also stated similar deficiencies with equipment used by the private inspection garages and that used for roadside enforcement.
However, a number of independent studies have confirmed that a key contributing factor is that both the centralized (LTD) and decentralized (privately operated) elements of the existing hybrid vehicle inspection program are inhibited by a chronic shortage of operational and maintenance funding, which severely limits its capacity to adequately and consistently inspect vehicles. In essence, it can be concluded that many of the problems appear to stem from one or more of the following factors: inoperative, missing or improperly calibrated inspection equipment; inadequate levels of monitoring and audit; lack of operator training; or insufficient financial incentive to do a thorough inspection.
In addition, the existing program does not have the capability to measure particulate (PM) emissions from diesel vehicles, and lacks crucial quality assurance measures. LTD suggested many of these problems are due to budget constraints and internal purchasing policies that
3 Noppaporn, 1999. 4 Chula Unisearch, Bangkok Air Quality Management Project, supplement Report Volume 1, Component 1, prepared by Chulalongkorn University, November, 1999.
require equipment be purchased on the basis of lowest price rather than quality or reliability, and the lack of an ongoing maintenance budget. During these same workshops, PCD indicted that they were addressing the lack of technical specifications by developing new inspection procedures for the roadworthiness and on-road inspections, and are in the process of promulgating new certification standards for new vehicles. All agencies that spoke at the workshops agreed that costs were an overriding consideration in all retrofit and inspection programs, and that few recommendations would be implemented unless funding was made available”
2.5.1 On road enforcement of emissions
Three organizations exercise responsibility for on-road enforcement of vehicle emissions standards. These are: the Police, under the Ministry of Interior; DLT under the MOTC; and PCD. The authorizing legislation is different in each case, resulting in inconsistencies between the three agencies
2.6 In-use Diesel Vehicle Population Information on the existing in-use diesel vehicle fleet in Bangkok covering vehicle brand/ model, and other characteristics is being collected through the computerized vehicle registration records held by DLT’s Database Section. These data are being supplemented by data vehicle manufacturers on models of vehicle and their engine/ technology5 characteristics sold in Thailand over the past 20 years. To date, some manufacturers have provided this information in complete form while others have yet to supply this information.
Table 2.6 – Comparison of Estimated In-Use Diesel Vehicles from Two Sources at DLT
Type No Type of vehicle (A) Statistics
Section (B) Database
2&3 Van & Pick up 502,166 693,244 38%
4 Microbus & Passenger Van 161,167 230,797 43%
Vehicles under Land Transport Act
Bus
6 Non fixed route bus 5,418 8,690 60%
7 Private bus 2,320 4,320 86%
Truck
9 Private truck 50,387 44,046 -13%
Source: Department of Land Transport, 2003
5 These data included gross weight, number of axles, engine model, number of cylinders, engine displacement, engine power, engine air induction system, engine fuel system, transmission type and emission certification.
Preliminary analysis of the computerized data show there are significant differences with the estimates of in-use vehicles derived from data from the Statistics Section (of DLT). Table 2.6 shows this comparison. Detailed examination of the records shows that in general the estimates by vehicle type derived from the data from the Database Section are overstated significantly compared to estimates derived from data held by the Statistics Section (and other sources in DLT). The reason for this difference has not been fully established. A more significant issue is that the Database Section’s data on in-use buses and trucks appears to be missing buses and trucks newly registered in the past five years. Further work on developing a reliable data base on in-use diesel vehicles and their characteristics is required.
2.7 Stratified In-use Diesel Vehicle Survey A stratified survey of in-use diesel vehicles in Bangkok is currently being conducted to obtain independent information to compare and validate the vehicle registration records. Additional data is being gathered to provide some basic data on vehicle kilometers driven and maintenance practices. The main objectives of the survey are to obtain the information on an estimate of diesel vehicles operated in Bangkok categorized by type, age, mileage, maintenance practice, and use (commercial or private). The stratified survey is being conducted by a local company, Project Evaluation Co., Ltd. (PECO). The survey is being conducted in three phases:
Pilot Survey (completed): Pilot survey of approximately 100 drivers/owners of diesel vehicles spread across all of the selected vehicle types. The survey was conducted entirely at the DLT central office and review showed the necessity to adapt the questionnaire and to prepare an additional fleet operator survey was to capture heavy- duty vehicle fleet owners
Main Survey: Currently, PECO is conducting surveys of approximately 1,800 drivers/owners of diesel vehicles (half of the main survey will be conducted outside the DLT office) and a special survey is being prepared for large vehicle fleet owners, including BMTA; and
Final Survey: After reviewing the results of the first 1,900 surveys, some additional parameters might be changed (for example focus on certain vehicle categories because of the large variations in their characteristics or their importance, or change the place of interviews, etc.) and an additional 600 final surveys might be conducted.
The questionnaire used in interview drivers/ owners at DLT office during the Pilot Phase is presented in Annex H.
2.8 Vehicle Emission Data
This section describes the existing vehicle emission regulations from mobile sources and emission factors based on some existing information. Emission regulations for diesel vehicles are divided into emission standards for Light Duty Diesel Vehicle (LDDV) and emission standard for Heavy Duty Diesel Vehicle (HDDV).
New diesel vehicle regulations are based on European standards and emission test procedures, as summarized in the following Table 2.7 for light- and heavy-duty diesel vehicles.
Table 2.7 - Light and Heavy Duty Diesel Vehicle emission standards
Type Level Reference Standards Standard No. Enforced
4 94/12/EC - for Direct Injection
TIS1435-1997 Jan 1, 1999 Sep 30, 2001
Light Duty Diesel Engine
5 96/69/EC - Ref. Weight not more than 1,250 kg. - Ref. Weight more than 1,250 kg. - Direct Injection Engine
TIS1875-1999 Oct 1, 1999 Oct 1, 2000
Sep 30, 2001
2 95/542(A)/EEC (EURO 1) TIS.1290-1995 May 12, 1998 Heavy Duty Diesel Engine 3 95/542(A)/EEC (EURO 2) TIS.1295-1998 May 23, 2003
Source: PCD, 2003
In recent months, PCD has conducted a number of diesel vehicle emission tests using the New York Bus Cycle for heavy-duty diesel vehicles and the Thailand Industrial Standard Institute (TISI) Cycle for light-duty diesel vehicles. A summary of the results from PCD’s emission tests are given in Table 2.8. The detailed emission data and testing procedures are provided in Annex L. A new Bangkok-specific driving cycle for diesel vehicles has been recently developed by the Japan Transport Cooperation Association (JTCA) as part of a global emission testing program, and will be used in this program. The experience and data collected from the Japanese project will be used by this study. The first results from their project will be available in March 2004.
Table 2.8 - Summary of diesel vehicles emission tests performed by PCD laboratory
Emission (g/km)
Fuel Efficiency
(km/l)
LDDV DI 228 Cold NYBC 0.105 1.224 0.562 261.072 0.090 10.787
LDDV IDI 375 Cold NYBC 0.065 1.020 0.502 270.000 0.085 10.116
HDDV DI 176 Hot TISI 4.189 17.427 30.239 1671.548 4.633 1.628
More detailed information on PCD’s Emission Laboratories are provided in the Annexes.
2.9 Fuel Characteristics For over a decade, Thailand has been very pro-active in developing fuel specifications. Lead in gasoline was phased out by January 1996. Maximum sulfur content in diesel fuel is being lowered in the following years: 500 ppm sulfur was enacted on July 1998; 350 ppm sulfur was enacted on January 2004; and 50 ppm sulfur is currently proposed for 2010. Information is being collected on the fuel consumption and price structure of gasoline, diesel, kerosene and natural gas, and current policies on alternative fuels. The consumption of different
fuels in Bangkok and in Thailand in 2002 are shown in Table 2.9, and shows that around 45% of the fuel consumed is diesel.
Table 2.9 - Fuel consumption in Bangkok and Thailand in 2002
Fuel Type Bangkok (million liter) Thailand (million liter)
Octane 91 1,763 4,341
Octane 95 1,516 2,985
Furnace oil 3,063 4,783
Total: 13,425 34,394
Source: DOEB, 2003
The price structure of petroleum products and the taxation of fuels are provided in the Annex I and information on diesel specifications are contained in Appendix J.
Chapter 3
3.1 Stratified Survey Completion The following diesel vehicle categories were identified from the MVA and the LTA databases:
[1] Sedan (only diesel sedan) [2] Microbus & Passenger van [3] Pick up [4] Van6 [5] Fixed route Bus [6] Non-fixed route Bus [7] Private Bus [8] Non-fixed route Truck [9] Private Truck
As mentioned before, the Pilot Survey at DLT’s Chatuchak vehicle registration office helped in the redesign of questionnaire was slightly changed. To ensure data reliability, the interviewers are now checking the actual vehicle registration books and the ‘real’ odometer reading, vehicle type and model. Most diesel vehicles coming to the Chatuchak office are light duty diesel vehicles, and more specifically privately owned pickups (Category 3). Around 400 interviews will be enough to cover this category and an additional 100 interviews will be undertaken at schools and other sites to capture Category 2. The diesel sedans (Category 1) will be dropped from the survey (occasional interviews will be tabulated but not analyzed). The information gathered from these Light Duty Diesel Vehicles categories should be completed by the end of February and tabulated and analyzed by the end of March. In order to capture other categories, especially commercially owned vehicles, an alternative questionnaire (Annex …) and sampling strategy was designed and is going to be implemented in the coming months. The survey team will hire a number of professionals with bus technology and operation experience to survey diesel fleet operators in Bangkok. These surveyors will visit bus fleet operators and gather the information required for the questionnaire. Around 120 companies, including BMTA, will be surveyed. The following guidelines will be used to gather representative samples from each heavy-duty vehicle category:
Fixed route buses: BMT + 22 subcontracted bus companies + 11 DLT licensed companies
Non fixed route buses: 10 companies private buses: 5 companies Non-fixed route trucks: 30 companies Private trucks: 30 companies
The information from the different companies and operators will be gathered over a two month period (March – April) and tabulated and analyzed in ‘real-time’ and finalized no later than mid May.
6 This category could again be recombined with pick-ups, following the original MVA vehicle registration database. The survey has shown that
3.2 Emission Tests and Driving Cycles In the coming months, one of the most important tasks will be to develop and agree on the testing protocols and selection of vehicles to be tested. The selected method to be used to measure and record test data should allow all relevant information (speed, load, emission rates, etc) to be collected not only over the total cycle, but also for segments of the cycle with different average speeds. This will allow a database to be constructed that characterizes emissions related to a number of different traffic conditions. From this we can evaluate the benefits of a number of traffic management scenarios, such as bus lanes, improved traffic signal coordination, etc, as well as adapting the results of the Bangkok testing to traffic patterns in other cities that may not be able to repeat the Bangkok project. The POINT project has development of a series of new Bangkok driving cycles, based on extensive data collection from instrumented in-use vehicles. At present, the only challenge regarding the POINT drive cycles is their extremely long duration (typically 60 to 80 minutes to cover all traffic speeds). Very long cycles have potential to significantly reduce vehicle throughput, and hence increase project costs. At the completion of the testing to be performed under the POINT project, using the new cycles, the second-by-second test data will be analyzed to determine whether there is potential to reduce the cycle time without affecting the value of the data. An ideal test duration would be 15 to 25 minutes. Another challenge is to accumulate sufficient PM data to deliver a reliable result on different pollutant levels. If traditional gravimetric (filter paper) methods are used to measure PM mass emissions, the length of each segment must be sufficient to generate a mass of deposited PM that can be accurately weighed. In practice, five to eight minutes of loaded testing is typically required to collect sufficient PM for a reliable result. Ideally, PCD emission testing laboratories will be equipped with continuously-reading PM instrumentation, such as a tapered element oscillating microbalance (TEOM) or an optical PM measuring system to provide a continuous trace of second-by-second PM emissions over the whole of the testing periods. The cumulative emissions from these instruments should be calibrated against the filter. To maximize the PCD staff need to carefully review their analyzer system management procedures (such as calibration, purging, zero/span and all other "between test" activities) to minimize "dead" time and focus on having the fastest turnaround possible between tests. The aim should be to have vehicles with turning wheels on the dynamometer for the greatest possible portion of each testing day. For instance, if experience has shown that an analyzer typically drifts by (say) 1% over an hour, then PCD might consider an analyzer management regime that will control drift to a limit that is higher than would normally be accepted for scientific or certification testing, but is acceptable for EF work (say 5%). Given that emissions (especially PM) are likely to vary by up to an order of magnitude within any vehicle category/age group, treating every test as a certification-standard procedure will be a waste of time. Instrumentation used for the testing is largely a given - standard gas analyzers and smoke meter plus filters for PM, with a CVS for diluted exhaust sample flow control. We should make every effort to record all gaseous emissions on a real-time, second-by-second basis, on a common time-line with vehicle speed and tractive effort (note this is not the same as
dyno load cell output). The value of this type of data, compared with aggregated bag sample results, is huge as it permits us to explore how a vehicle performs under many combinations of speed and acceleration.
3.2.1 Work Flow
Within the DIESEL Pilot we will maximize opportunities for parallel activities, while ensuring that the supply of vehicles keeps pace with testing rates. This means that a detailed test protocal and proper scheduling of vehicle test is necessary. A draft Vehicle Test Plan can be found in Annex L. which will be updated upon completion of the survey of diesel fleet and operators.
3.2.2. Short and Simple Dynamometer Test
The Bangkok testing program presents a good opportunity to explore, correlate and hopefully validate a short, simple test that can be done using only very basic dynamometer control and simple, inexpensive measurement systems. The PMT will review and discuss and analyze a selected test protocol that can be run on the PCD dynamometer, which hopefully can be run in either a "constant torque" or "propeller law" mode. In the earlier parts of the program, a number of vehicles will be tested on both the full EF drive cycle and the short-test cycle, which will provide enough data for correlation analysis. There is a very good chance this will be quite successful, based on our previous experiences when developing short transient I/M tests for diesel vehicles.
List of Technologies and Policy Measures to be Tested During the coming months the DIESEL Pilot project will assess a number of policy and technical measures for their emission reduction potential. The following basic guidelines will be used for final selection of policy and technology options to be further analyzed and/or tested: Cost and benefits: Which measures are (likely) the most cost-effective (Bath/population
exposure reduced)? Compatibility with other sector objectives: Do the measures reinforce existing sector
objectives and economic incentives? Political feasibility: Is there broad support from public and stakeholders for the measure? Ease of enforcement: How difficult is the implementation and enforcement of the measure?
The diagram below shows the process that will be followed to assessing and selecting policy, analyze and test policy and technology measures and prepare an action plan.
s Opti n: - Pol - Re - Technologies - Other
n
s
no
n
lic
Emission Reduction
Emi Testing
Analytical Tools
Actio Pla
Po ie
Emission Testing
Discussions with government agencies and the survey of operators and owners of vehicles will provide information on current incentives and disincentives for proper maintenance (regular service, use of quality spare parts, etc.) and adoption of cleaner technologies (price, availability, service, etc.). In addition, technology are very important, but experience shows that reforming the regulatory structure for transport may be more effective or will facilitate the adoption of cleaner technologies. These reforms and incentives will also help the introduction of cleaner technologies in current transport systems. The DIESEL Pilot will only test technologies that are commercially available and have been assessed in other countries. The pilot tests will quantify the costs and scope for emission reduction, and assess the operational challenges under real-world conditions. Manufacturers interested in testing retrofit options and
Overall Regulatory Regime
Public transport sector reforms (e.g. alternatives for licensing public transport fleets, bus fares, separation of regulating function from operations)
Traffic and demand management. Options for more rigorous enforcement of relevant laws and regulations concerning diesel
vehicles. Emission standards for new and in-use vehicles. This is covered in the following two
sections. Methods to identify gross polluters, and options for dealing with them. This is closely
linked to sub-component 2 of component 1. Fiscal incentives to promote the use of clean vehicle and fuel technology
In-Use Vehicle Options
For reducing emissions from in-use vehicles, consideration must be given to incentive-based programs, as well as the traditional “command and control” inspection and maintenance inspections. Technical solutions, which simply impose a cost on operators, tend to create an adversarial situation, where avoidance or evasion becomes the driver, rather than compliance. Nevertheless, for some sectors of the vehicle population, there are few if any options. To be successful these mandatory inspection programs must be rigorously enforced and designed to minimize the potential them to be undermined by for fraud or petty corruption. For larger fleets, some jurisdictions have successfully introduced incentive-driven programs based on a partnership, as opposed to an adversarial relationship between government and fleet operators. A number of “Green Fleet” projects, where an operator’s commitment to emissions and safety-related maintenance is recognized and rewarded, have proved to be both popular and effective. Accredited participants in such schemes may, for instance, be rewarded through reduced registration charges, waivers from periodic inspections, or granted access / extended operating hours in certain environmentally sensitive regions of a city. In all cases, effective and equitable management of the program is essential for successful outcomes. It is also important not to set a bar too high, especially in the early stages of an emission reduction program. For instance, it is good policy to initially establish emission standards that can realistically be met by about 80% of all diesel vehicles with reasonable efforts, and then gradually increase the standards’ stringency over a period of time. This would require (1) identifying reasonably reproducible procedures for measuring emissions; (2) carrying out a fleet-wide study
to estimate current emission levels, (3) pilot testing to see if the standards were set to enable about 80% to pass, (4) revising the standards after pilot testing as needed. These actions can be readily incorporated into the existing DIESEL project plan.
Some specific issues to be studied may include: Studying the feasibility and cost-effectiveness of establishing a targeted system of
emissions inspection and certification for diesels: include requirements for administrative control, likely test costs, total number of test lanes required, frequency of testing, management of test centers
Vehicle upgrade and scrappage requirement policies (age or emissions based)
Costing corrective measures for operational misuse (e.g. over fuelling, over loading,
wrong lubricants, aggressive driving) and market-based approach to promoting correct operation and maintenance of vehicles
Pilot testing the corrective measures in one or two commercial fleets to identify benefits
and implementation problems
Retrofit programs to meet tighter emission standards (such as addition of oxidation catalysts, and engine upgrade/replacement)
Assessing the direct economic benefits (through improved fuel consumption, extended vehicle life and reduced unscheduled down-time) that flow from good maintenance, improved fuel quality and fuel additives.
New Vehicle Options
Fuel and Lubricant Options
Quality improvement needed to match new vehicle emission standards, as well as delivering PM reductions from existing in-use vehicles.
Training and Awareness Programs
Supplementing Other On-Going Studies
In addition, this program will take the results of on-going studies in related fields, and do a limited amount of desk studies in these additional areas. The information gathered by the analysis and possible pilot testing of options will support the development of a city-specific decision support system to evaluate and compare the cost- effectiveness of different options. Such an analytical toolkit, if it can be developed, would enable evaluation of scenarios and help develop action plans as discussed in the next component.
Policy
Public Transport Enhancement & Fare Reduction
New Vehicle Standards In-use Vehicle Management I&M Programs for in-use vehicles Scrapping by Age/Pollution characteristics
Administrative
Traffic Systems Management Separate Bus Lane Car Pool Lanes Vehicle Plying Restrictions Inspection Programs Bus fleets Other vehicles Maintenance capacity Traffic and Pollution Control Enforcement Improving Driving Behavior Air quality monitoring and management systems strengthening
Technology
Retrofitting in-use Vehicles Oxidation Catalysts Particulate Traps Alternative Fuel Kits
Move to Cleaner Fuels/Lube Low S Diesel Alternative fuels (incl. CNG/LPG) Lube substitution Fuel additives
Integrated Diesel Emission Analysis System (IDEAS)
Objective The objective of the development of tools such as IDEAS is to establish an integrated framework to analyze options for diesel management in the context of overall air quality management. This should help make the best use of the evolving knowledge base, help quantify the linkages among emissions, concentrations, and impacts, evaluate technical and management options to eventually support decisions on the selection and phasing of these options.
Current Status The current status of work on IDEAS includes: 1. Developing a knowledge base is being developed that focuses on:
• Primary diesel sources (with an initial focus on diesel vehicles) in a framework of all key
air pollution sources • Emission characteristics (including laboratory tests) • Air quality (historical and current monitoring data) • Health impacts (epidemiological study results) • Characteristics of technical and policy options/scenarios to be considered
2. Outlining a prototype model tool including a framework for the analysis of:
• Emission inventory for key diesel pollutants • Area-based emission modeling • Dispersion modeling • Environmental and economic assessment of technical and policy options
3. Initiating discussion/brainstorming on development of IDEAS
Next Steps In the important next phase of work, each of these will be further developed.
Specifically, the focus will be on:
• Collating and further developing a knowledge base of diesel sources in Bangkok (including GIS and other databases on roads, in-use vehicles, industrial sources, etc.) and resolve data problems
• Extending the knowledge base by adding emission and strategy effectiveness data from other regions with similar vehicle and fuel characteristics to those in Bangkok
• Developing and refining the emission inventory (with a primary focus on diesel vehicles) • Developing air quality assessment tools • Selecting a few options/scenarios for environmental and economic analysis • Establishing a collaborative working group for IDEAS development and feedback
Annex A – Road Dust and Other Sources
Source: Section 4, Parsons (2000), Final Report
ROAD DUST
Introduction Studies conducted by the Pollution Control Department from 1983 to 1994 have shown particulate matter is the major air pollutant of concern in the BMA. In Bangkok, PM10 has been measured to be 60% by weight of Total Suspended Particulates - TSP (Wangwongwatana, 1998). Through emissions inventory estimates, the contribution of various sources to the total ambient loading was estimated (Radian, 1998). The contributions were divided into major source categories consisting of mobile exhaust, re-entrained dust, construction, and industrial sources to identify those sources with the highest relative impacts per unit of mass emissions. This study also predicted the contributions to the year 2005. While re-entrained dust is by far the most important component of TSP (about 2/3 of the inventory) it is also the largest contributor to the PM10 inventory (about 1/3 of the emissions). The contribution to the TSP fraction is also considered very significant since the larger particles are often a source of potential PM10 if they are ground into finer material with the passing vehicular traffic.
Chemical analyses of samples from selected sites were also performed as part of the Radian study. The results of the analysis concluded that approximately 40% of the ambient PM loading in Bangkok is due to re-entrained road dust, 40% from vehicle exhaust and 20% from other sources. While there was some uncertainty and unexplained results, the overall assessment again focused toward control of road dust as a major control measure. It was therefore concluded in the study that controlling re-entrained dust emissions from roadways, as well as the next largest contributor, mobile sources, are the most important elements in attaining the ambient air quality standards in Bangkok.
Control of road dust at the sources includes control of dust from construction activities, road digging, trucks transporting soil and construction materials, improvement of road surface, shoulders and median to rid of dust emission sources. At the same time there is a need to clean roads by sweeping, vacuuming, and washing in addition to the control at emission sources. The report by Radian showed that road cleaning is the most cost-effective measure in controlling dust.
Chula Unisearch, the Local Consultant to BMA, prepared a study addressing the road dust situation in Bangkok and proposing additional controls. The following discussion is based on the information contained in the Local Consultant’s report (Chula Unisearch, 2001a) and additional information provided by the Local Consultant on costs and benefits (Chula Unisearch, 2001b).
Present Situation The Public Cleansing Department and all 50 districts are responsible for cleaning the roads in Bangkok. The Public Works Department reported that there are 4,076 kilometers of roads in Bangkok, which have a total area of 58 square kilometers.
There are 3 methods used in the cleaning of road dust (1) manual sweeping, (2) by mechanical road sweeping and (3) by washing with water.
Problems and Obstructions Problems in controlling of dust from road surface and construction arise from several sources including (1) pollution emitters, (2) law enforcers, and (3) operation of laws and regulations.
Pollution emitters or construction builders can be separated into government agencies including state enterprises. On the part of government agencies, they may enjoy privileged status and
receive some leniency. On the part of private companies, they may aim for maximum profit and do the minimum on dust control to cut costs.
Law enforcers consist of the city patrol and inspectors from Public Works Department who monitor the construction activities and the police who are responsible for trucks transporting construction materials and soil. Possible problems in some cases include lack of effective oversight, granting of too much leniency, and corrupted inspectors.
Laws and regulations may be a problem when following the regulations cause obstructions construction. Frequent road digging results from independent operation of various utilities companies. BMA has set up a Coordinating Committee for the purpose of coordinating road- digging operations. Although there is multi-level coordination, there is still are large number of nuisance complaints.
Effectiveness of the Present Program Amount of Dust on Road Surface Measurements of dust on road surface were done during 1998 on 19 representative-type roads in Bangkok. It was found that total dust loading was between 1.37-27.90 grams per square meter, averaging 12.87 grams per square meter. Silt loading (particles smaller than 65 microns) was between 0.15-3.59 grams per square meter.
BMA has a total of 110 street sweepers, which are classified as large, medium and small sweepers. The Department of Cleansing Services and the 50 district offices operate them. A private company is contracted to clean the Thonburi side. The working sweepers cleaned an average of 11.64 kilometers per day, working 2.44 hours per day. They collected 1.65 m3of dust per day.
The Department of Cleansing Services reported that BMA routinely cleans only selected streets having total distance of about 800 kilometers. The amount of dust collected was estimated at 27,050 m3 in 1998 and 29,050 m3 in 1999.
Recommendations on Control Strategy The initiative by BMA to privatize road-cleaning operation shows successful results in reducing road dust effectively both in terms of total dust and silt loading, and in a more cost-efficient manner than conducting road cleaning operations itself. Therefore, the Local Consultant recommends that BMA expand the role of private companies in road cleaning, eventually contracting our all road cleaning operations. BMA’s role would then become that of supervising and monitoring the road cleaning operations conducted by the private contractors.
The Local Consultant proposed action plan is shown on Table A.1.
Table A.1 Proposed Local Consultant Road Dust Action Plan
Activities Action and duration Budget (Baht) Based on existing program by BMA, contract with private company(ies) to clean the roads according to the schedule below.
Hire a contractor(s) to clean the roads and flyovers
1. Thonburi area – 76 roads, total length 127,818 meters
2002 21.3 million per year
2. Item 1 plus outer Bangkok area – 138 roads, total length 207,487 meters
2003-2004 55.8 million per year
3. Item 2 plus inner Bangkok area – 330 roads, total length 208,037 meters
2005-2006 90.4 million per year
Total of all areas – 544 roads, total length 543,342 meters
2002-2006
313.7 million for 5 years
Note: Responsible agencies are the Department of Public Cleansing and District offices
Potential Costs and Emissions Reductions Chula Unisearch provided the following alternatives for the action plan, with options ranging from Business as Usual (the current conduct of street sweeping operations), to increasing the length of streets to be swept, to combining both sweeping and washing. It can be seen from Table A.2 on the following page that a program focusing on street sweeping only provides the most favorable cost-effectiveness results, while combining both sweeping and washing achieves the greatest overall emissions reductions.
Other Non-Mobile Emissions Sources
Emission Characteristics
Crematoriums cause both significant nuisance and air quality problems because of incomplete combustion. The majority burn wood chips and charcoal, while the rest primarily burn diesel fuel. Only a few use liquefied propane gas (LPG). Units that burn wood achieve relatively low combustion temperatures in their single combustion chambers. In addition, emission controls are not required and standards have not been set, other than an opacity standard of 10%. Currently, the BMA Department of Health is conducting a study of low emission crematorium designs by installing 20 new units at various temples. These units feature dual-LPG-fueled chambers, high combustion temperatures, multi-point combustion, air injection, and photoelectric opacity sensors to control visible emissions. To date, only six such systems have been installed, and only five operate on a regular basis.
During fiscal year 1997-1998, the latest year for which emissions inventory data are available, about 20,150 cremations were conducted in Bangkok. Data on the emissions from these cremations are shown on Table A.3:
Table A.3 Crematory Emissions, 1997-1998
Parameter NOX SO2 CO PM VOC
Total Yearly Emissions (metric tons) 2.331 1.428 1.938 3.052 0.262
Emissions Factor per Cremation (kg.) 0.116 0.071 0.096 0.151 0.013
Source: PCD, 2000a
In addition to criteria air contaminants, crematoriums are also sources of dioxins. Dioxins are created during the combustion of plastics, and from some synthetic fibers used in clothing. Details on dioxin emissions in Bangkok are unknown at this time, but PCD and other agencies are aware of the potential problem, and are evaluating its significance. In Bangkok, about 165 temples with crematoriums are equipped with a total of about 222 furnaces. Of these, 62 burn diesel, 15 burn LPG, and the remaining 145 burn wood or charcoal. The wood- or charcoal-fired furnaces have a single combustion chamber. The gas- and diesel- fueled facilities typically have dual combustion chambers with automatic burners. Emissions problems from the facilities, particularly the wood burning type, include visible smoke and odors. A majority of relatively short stacks worsens the odor problem.
Table A.2 - Detailed Local Consultant Action Plan for Road Cleaning
Scenario Road Type Road Length Traffic Volume Silt Loading PM10 Emission PM10
Reduction PM10 Reduction
1. Business as
Usual Outer Bangkok 207 81,000 1.0 2,431 - - -
Inner Bangkok 208 81,000 1.0 2,443 - - -
Total 543 81,000 1.0 6,378 - - -
2. Action plan Thonburi area 128 81,000 0.5 958 545 7.99 14,647
Sweeping only
Total 543 81,000 0.5 4,064 2,313 33.88 14,647
3. Action plan Thonburi area 128 81,000 0.2 528 975 21.30 21,840
Sweeping and
Washing Inner Bangkok 208 81,000 0.2 858 1,585 34.61 21,840
Total 543 81,000 0.2 2,240 4,137 90.36 21,840
Main Report – Section 4 4-4 Parsons/COT/TDCI
Emission StandardsThe National Environment Board (NEB) has established the opacity standard for crematory emissions of no more than 10% using the Ringelmann Method. PCD is to prepare technical criteria standards and implementation guidelines for crematories for use by agencies having responsibility in enforcing the crematorium emission standards. In addition, the Ministry of Industry has adopted standards for infectious waste incinerators, which are also being considered in reviewing the crematory standards. These standards differ from one another, as shown on Table A.4.
Table A.4 Comparison of Crematory Standards in Thailand
Parameter BMA Standards National Standards Infectious Waste
Incinerator Standards
Standard O2 (dry) % 11% - -
1,000o C
1 second
Fuel and Emissions Controls Yes
Yes
Opacity Standard - 10% -
HCl Limit - - 200 mg/m3
Source: NEPO, 1999 and BMA, 2000b
Potential Emissions Reductions Estimates of the potential emissions reductions from retrofitting non-conforming equipment to the BMA standards were prepared based on the current levels of emissions and an assumed distribution of future cremations among the various types of equipment. The resulting estimated reductions are shown on the following table.
Table A.5 Estimated Potential Emissions Reductions (Tons per Year)
Pollutant Current Emissions from
Particulate 1.984 84% 1.666 1.377
SO2 0.928 53% 0.492 0.936
NOx 1.515 35% 0.530 1.801
CO 1.260 80% 1.008 0.931
1. Future emissions from 145 converted wood-fired facilities, plus emissions from existing diesel-and gas-fueled equipment. Using the proportion of PM10 to TSP established for non-mobile sources (PM10 constitutes 40% of non-mobile source TSP emissions), the resulting future reduction of PM10 emissions from replacing wood-fired crematoriums with gas units would be approximately 0.666 metric tons per year. More importantly, crematoriums are significant sources of nuisance complaints in the city, severely impacting nearby residences and businesses with smoke and objectionable odors. Conversion to clean-burning units would virtually eliminate the nuisance problems.
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Responsible Agencies
PCD has the responsibility to establish crematory emissions standards. As stated above, opacity is the only standard currently in effect. BMA, under the “Crematorium Act”, has the authority to establish its own emission standards and design specifications, provided they are at least as stringent as those set by the PCD. BMA has used this authority to establish emissions and efficiency standards based on the most stringent overseas standards. NEPO administers an Energy Conservation Fund to be used for fuel switching to clean fuel, environmental improvement, and study projects. The Ministry of Interior (MOI) has authority over crematory standards as well.
Proposed Program
The Governor of the BMA has made a policy decision that wood-fired crematoriums be retrofitted to become “pollution free” crematoriums within one year. Implementing this retrofit program within one year is highly unlikely. BMA has concluded that a three-year program is more likely to be implementable. Based on considering the status of wats (temples) as religious institutions, potential shortages of funds, and perceived need to test and assure that the planned equipment operates as expected, the following implementation program is proposed:
Develop Design Requirements and Emissions Standards
The National Environment Board has assigned PCD to prepare technical criteria, standards and implementation guidelines for crematories that should contain at least the following performance specifications:
• Contain at least two combustion chambers, the first one for burning the human remains and the second or the last chamber for reducing air pollutant emissions.
• The residence time of the second or last chamber must not be less than 1 second. • The temperature in the second or last chamber must not be less than 1000 degree Celsius. • Diesel or natural gas fueled. • Contain an automatic temperature monitoring in both the first and second chambers • Contain other air pollution control systems as necessary to ensure the emission standards are
met.
Standard operating procedures should be as follows:
• Before beginning a cremation, the second or last chamber shall be preheated to the temperature of at least 900oC.
• The temperature of the second or last chamber shall be controlled to be no less than 1000oC throughout the duration of combustion in the first chamber.
• During cremation, the temperature of the second or last chamber shall be recorded in the Crematory Operation Record Form.
• The crematory and other devices shall be maintained as recommended in the operation manual, or by the manufacturer.
• During a crematorium, the opacity value shall be measured using the Ringlemann Method. The opacity shall not exceed the standard value of 10%.
• Emissions control shall be performed in accordance with the standard criteria. No dilution is allowed.
Cost and Implementation Schedule
For program development purposes, an average installed cost of $65,000 per crematory unit designed to meet Bangkok requirements is assumed (BMA Department of Health, 2000). Actual costs per individual unit may be higher or lower, depending on the detailed requirements of specific facilities, whether any of the existing equipment can be retrofitted, current stack height, and other factors. The proposed implementation schedule is as follows.
• Year 1 – Develop and finalize design requirements. Develop a site selection process for the first 20 units to be installed during the second program year, in a cooperative process with BMA and MOI. Site selection criteria should include but not be limited to: relative proximity of sensitive receptors (such as residences, schools, hospitals) to the wood-fired crematoriums,
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average number of cremations performed daily and annually, existing facility condition, history of smoke and nuisance complaints, existing stack height, proximity to natural gas supply infrastructure, and individual facility willingness and capability to participate in the first phase of the program.
• The participation and agreement of the temples to be identified using these criteria is vital. Many are concerned that the source testing to be done at the selected sites is intrusive on the temple’s religious functions. Therefore, the site selection criteria development process must be sensitive to that concern. At least some of the selected sites should be relatively near the Bangkok gas ring to make use of natural gas supplies. Develop and implement an operator- training program for the 20 facilities to be retrofitted.
• Year 2 – Procure, install and source test 20 units at sites selected by the BMA/MOI cooperative process, with the participation and agreement of the affected temples. Refine and conduct an ongoing operator-training program for newly retrofitted facilities. This program would continue until all facilities have been installed, and on an as-needed basis thereafter. Refine and implement the site selection process for the remainder of the retrofit program.
• Year 3 – Procure and install 60 units using the same process as above. • Year 4 – Procure and install 65 units using the same process as above.
Other Stationary Sources
Emissions Inventory
PCD prepares and updates a mobile and stationary source emissions inventory for Bangkok and the BMR. The stationary source emissions inventory was conducted by sending out questionnaires to over 7,000 recipients for self-reporting, conducting direct interviews at facilities, and conducting stack tests on 30 sources within the BMR to determine emissions of SO2, NOx, TSP and O2. The data are published in summary form organized by type of source for both Bangkok and the other subregions in the BMR. In preparing its inventory, PCD encountered several significant problems including:
• Cooperation from the industries surveyed - The inventory was conducted by sending questionnaires to industries; the return rate was only 6.4%. The larger companies were able to answer the questions, the smaller industries were most likely unable to answer them.
• Lack of adequate traffic data to estimate mobile source emissions – there were insufficient data to use MOBILE 5 (a mobile source emissions program) to develop the emissions inventory.
• Baseline data are not updated on a regular basis.
Recommendations
To improve the mobile and stationary source emission inventory process, PCD should implement the following recommendations during the initial program year:
• PCD presently conducts its inventory with consultant help. PCD should hire and train up to twenty temporary staff in the first program year to conduct the inventory. The emissions inventory activity should be elevated to a new divisional status and provided with ten more permanent staff to increase effectiveness and accuracy.
• Medium-sized and larger industries should be required to keep fuel use and emissions records. Selected large facilities (most likely to be limited to the two power plants and the Bang Chak Refinery) should be required to install continuous emissions monitors (CEMs) on major equipment. Training assistance and materials should be developed in the first program year to assist industries with compliance. No additional staff needs are identified.
• The latest motor vehicle inventory should be incorporated into the emissions inventory system in the first program year, and updated yearly. No additional staff needs are identified.
• Government agencies should increase their cooperation and data sharing to reduce duplication of work and enhance use of a common database by other national and local government agencies. This should be done by organizing a steering committee in the first program year comprising PCD, BMA, LTD, and MOI to develop guidelines for cooperation, and to establish data sharing parameters. If possible, this committee should also establish
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guidelines for a common database. This committee should also consider adding members as necessary.
• The existing base map should be updated during the first program year for land use, population, road network, and industrial locations using data from the BMA Planning Department, MOI for industries, and OCMLT for the transportation system. Establish a system to update the base map every three years. No additional staff needs are identified.
• Baseline databases, including data on point sources (combustion sources such as industrial operations, incinerators, and crematoriums), mobile sources (vehicle fleet characteristics in terms of type and numbers of vehicles, traffic volume and speed), and area sources (land use, population density, gasoline stations, airport activities, solid waste disposal) should be updated beginning in the first program year, and revised at least e