Developing appropriate leadership styles

A Tesco case study

Page 2: Management and leadership

cmyk_everyThere is a difference between management and leadership. Management is about getting things done. Managers organise human and physical resources to achieve business aims and objectives. Leadership is about influencing, motivating and inspiring people. It is about coaching and developing people, treating them with respect but challenging them. Leaders seek to create strong teams, with people committed to the organisation’s overall goals.

The process of managing starts with the target or objective to be achieved. A manager must decide on the appropriate approach for reaching that target. The manager then needs to communicate this approach clearly to his or her team and to allocate tasks to each team member. Task allocation and delegation of responsibility is part of the management function. However, other factors will also have an influence on whether the target is achieved, including the task in hand, the skills of the team and the style of leadership.

tesco-1The style of leadership can vary depending on the task. Some managers allow teams to take charge of their own decision-making for many tasks. Team leaders will set the objectives but empower team members to decide how these objectives are achieved. This has several advantages. It helps to motivate individuals in the team and it draws on the expertise of the members of the team.

Berian is a bakery manager

Berian manages a team of 17 in a Tesco in-store bakery. One of the key challenges of Berian’s job is to ensure his team produces the right products to meet demand at key times. His usual management approach is to allow the team to take responsibility for achieving the desired result. In this way, the team not only buys into the activity, but also develops new skills. For example, when the bakery expanded its product range and Berian needed to ensure that all the products would be on the shelves by 8.00 am, rather than enforce a solution, he turned to the team for ideas. The team solved the problem by agreeing to split break times so that productivity could be maintained. Berian’s approach produced a positive outcome and increased team motivation.

Tesco’s leadership framework sets out not just the skills and competencies but also the personal characteristics and behaviours it expects of its leaders. Tesco looks for managers who are positive, confident and genuine, with the capacity to inspire and encourage their teams. A key part of Tesco’s

programme for building leaders is encouraging self review and reflection. This allows staff to assess their strengths and find ways of demonstrating the characteristics that are vital to the long-term development of the business.

e 3: Leadership styles

The business writers Tannenbaum and Schmidt categorised different leadership styles. They suggested that leadership styles could be explained on a scale ranging from ‘autocratic’ through ‘democratic’ to ‘laissez-faire’.The autocratic or authoritarian style is characterised by an ‘I tell’ philosophy. Autocratic leaders tell their staff what to do. This can give a business clear direction but it may also lead managers to undervalue or ignore input from their teams. However, an autocratic approach is appropriate in some situations. It is valuable when the business faces a crisis or when an urgent problem arises that requires an immediate response.

Stephen is a Tesco store managerStephen is the manager of a medium-sized Tesco store. He has been with the company for over 10 years and his first job was filling shelves in the dairy section. He is currently working towards the Tesco foundation degree. Stephen directly manages a team of around 20 departmental managers, who between them are responsible for almost 300 people. Stephen’s leadership style is usually to allow his managers to make most operational decisions. However, if, for example, an accident occurs in the store, Stephen may take control to ensure a prompt and co-ordinated response.There are some leadership approaches that sit between autocratic and democratic. These styles allow team participation up to a point. However, the manager reserves the right to make the final decision.

Managers adopting an ‘I sell’ philosophy will try to persuade their teams to accept their viewpoint.

Managers adopting an ‘I consult’ approach will seek the opinions of subordinates before taking a decision. This is moving closer to a democratic style of management.

The best managers adopt leadership styles appropriate to the situation. Stephen’s preferred leadership style is to take a democratic approach. He consults widely as he feels that staff respond better to this approach. For example, when planning a major stock reduction programme, he encourages his managers to put forward ideas and develop plans. This increases team motivationand encourages creativity. Some mistakes may be made, but they are used as a learning experience. However, as a store manager, Stephen deals with many different situations. Some may be business critical and it is important that he responds to these in the most appropriate way. In such situations, Stephen may need to adapt his leadership approach and exert more authority.

Martin is Tesco's Programme Manager for Education and Skills

The democratic approach is characterised by an ‘I share’ philosophy. Decisions are made within teams, with each member having equal input. Martin is Tesco’s Programme Manager for Education and Skills in the UK. He has a range of responsibilities associated with people, processes and standards. Martin may use a democratic approach when setting training budgets. Managers can suggest ideas to make cost savings and they can jointly discuss their proposals with Martin. By empowering his managers, he gets them to take ownership of the final agreed budget.Laissez-faire is at the other end of the spectrum from autocratic. A laissez-faire manager takes a ‘hands-off’ approach and trusts teams to take appropriate decisions or actions with broad agreed boundaries. For example, Martin might leave an experienced departmental manager to develop a budget. This could be because he trusts that the manager has a good knowledge of the needs of the department and of the business.

Read more: http://businesscasestudies.co.uk/tesco/developing-appropriate-leadership-styles/leadership-styles.html#ixzz3WkjVjaq4 Under Creative Commons License: Attribution Non-Commercial Share Alike Follow us: @BizCaseStudies on Twitter | bizcasestudies on Facebook

Leadership styles in action

Although each person will have their own preferred leadership style, the most effective leaders adopt a style appropriate for the situation. They will consider several factors in deciding which style to use:

The task - Is it business critical? Must a decision be made immediately? What will be the potential impact on the business?

The team - Does it have the right skills and resources? Is it used to making decisions?

Tradition - What has been the norm in the past?

For example, Martin uses a more authoritarian style if something needs achieving in a particular way or in a very quick timeframe. Sometimes budgets need to be reduced quickly in order to make cost savings. Martin will tell managers what needs to be done and by when, so that they can then resubmit their budgets in line with expectations.

Stephen regards inspiring, guiding and influencing his staff as an important part of his role. Sometimes he may need to informcmyk_hanley20 his teams about a new in-store innovation or corporate initiative. Even though this is a 'tell' situation, Stephen aims to 'sell' the idea. He tries to ensure that staff understand why it is necessary. If his people are able to give their opinions, it is more likely that they will readily support the initiative.

Managers have to be aware of the possible consequences of using the wrong style in a particular situation. For example, Berian would not adopt a laissez-faire approach with a new member of the bakery team. If the employee is not given proper instruction before operating the baking equipment, the bread might be overcooked. Employees might also injure themselves if they don't use the equipment properly. In this situation, it is essential to adopt a 'tell' approach.

Read more: http://businesscasestudies.co.uk/tesco/developing-appropriate-leadership-styles/leadership-styles-in-action.html#ixzz3WkjksrYW

Under Creative Commons License: Attribution Non-Commercial Share Alike

Follow us: @BizCaseStudies on Twitter | bizcasestudies on Facebook

Factors influencing leadership style

People at each level of responsibility in Tesco, from administrators and customer assistants to directors, face different types of decisions. Each comes with its own responsibilities and timescales. These will influence the most appropriate leadership style for a particular piece of work or for a given project or audience.

cmyk_ramseyTesco managers have responsibilities for ‘front of house’ (customer-facing) staff as well as ‘behind the scenes’ employees, such as office staff. Before making a decision, the manager will consider the task in hand, the people involved and those who will be affected (such as customers). Various internal and external factors may also affect the choice of leadership style used.

Internal factors include the levels of skill that employees have. Large teams may have members with varying levels of skill. This may require the manager to adopt a more directive style, providing clear communication so that everyone knows what to do to achieve goals and tasks. On the other hand, team leaders may take a more consultative approach with other managers of equal standing in order to get their co-operation for a project. External factors may arise when dealing with customers. For example, Berian may need to use a persuasive style to convince a customer to accept a replacement product for an item that is temporarily out of stock.

Critical success factors (CSFs)

In order to build a sustainable and robust business, Tesco has set out critical success factors (CSFs). These are linked at all levels to its business goals. Some CSFs apply to all employees. These are:

customer focus – to ensure delivery of ‘every little helps’

personal integrity – to build trust and respect

drive –to achieve results, even when the going gets tough

team working – to ensure positive relationships in and across teams

developing self/others – to motivate and inspire others.

Others are specific to the level of responsibility the person or role has and covers:

analysing and decision making

managing performance

managing change

gaining commitment.

By meeting the requirements of these CSFs, Tesco managers can build their leadership skills & contribute to the growth of the business.

Read more: http://businesscasestudies.co.uk/tesco/developing-appropriate-leadership-styles/factors-influencing-leadership-style.html#ixzz3Wkk881E4

Under Creative Commons License: Attribution Non-Commercial Share Alike

Follow us: @BizCaseStudies on Twitter | bizcasestudies on Facebook

Analysis of Leadership Styleswritten by: nataliajones•edited by: Michele McDonough•updated: 5/25/2011

Leaders are charged with the task of forging a path for the organizations they control, but there is more

than one way to get the job done. This article undertakes a leadership style analysis that highlights

differences and suggests when one form may be more appropriate than another.

Leadership Styles Explored

 There are many different ways to lead and these styles are sometimes taken up

and practiced as pure methodologies but more often than not the leadership we experience and even the

leaders we become are a mixture of these styles. It is important nevertheless to identify what these styles

are so what follows is an analysis of the various leadership styles in existence.1. Autocratic Leadership

2. Democratic Leadership

3. Laissez-fair Leadership

4. Transformational Leadership

Autocratic LeadershipWhat is Autocratic Leadership?

Autocratic leaders expect obedience, not understanding and input from their staff or followers. Under the

autocratic style, the leader is the maximum ruler and they make all the decisions without seeking any

input from those below them. It is characterized by very little trust and management relies on threats and

negative enforcement to get things done. Hitler is one of history's autocratic leaders and it is commonly

said that Martha Steward uses the same iron fist to rule her company. This style of leadership, though,

has been criticized terribly in the past few decades as the workforce has started to crave more input.

When is Autocratic Leadership Appropriate?

Despite the overwhelming amount of negativity surrounding this style of leadership there are certain

instances when it can be the best suited option. When employees are largely untrained and insecure, the

firm decisions that come down from an autocratic leader can be welcomed. When there is limited time to

get results or if their is a power struggle arising from lower levels an autocratic style might be able to

maintain order.

When is Autocratic Leadership Inappropriate?

In most instances, autocratic leadership must be taken in smaller doses. This style probably won't work

for an extended period, especially in modern organizations because Generation X employees expect to

have a different level of participation in the work environment and autocratic leaders eventually create

fear and low employee morale, which are both counter-productive.

Democratic LeadershipWhat is Democratic Leadership?

Democratic leadership can be described as the polar opposite of autocratic leadership. It is sometimes

referred to as a participative style because it is characterized by a more of a bottom-up approach.

Management empowers lower-level staff to establish goals and even to evaluate their own performance.

There is a constant flow of information up the chain of command. This style of leadership often enlists

greater employee commitment because everyone has a say in the direction of decisions so they are more

likely to try to make sure they succeed.

When is Democratic Leadership Appropriate?

Democratic leadership styles come in handy when there are complex problems to be addressed and they

require several different perspectives to come to some agreement. When there is a great focus on team

work and improving production based on this model of working in groups a democratic style is also

appropriate.

When is Democratic Leadership Inappropriate?

This leadership style can seem particularly attractive so it might be hard to think of situations where it

would not be useful, but when there is no time for mass consultation and the cost of making the wrong

decision is simply too high, the consultative democratic style may have to take a backseat. If the

workforce does not have the level of experience necessary to make decisions, the democratic style can

have devastating results.

Laissez-faire LeadershipWhat is Laissez-faire Leadership?

Continuing with the leadership style analysis, laissez-fair leadership must also be examined. This style of

leadership calls for the person at the head to allow those who follow to make their own decisions and

choose the path they think is best. The leader takes direction and advice from those placed in key

positions and this is in stark contrast to the democratic leader who invites input but reserves the right to

make the final decision. Under a laissez-faire approach the experienced staff members analyse, interpret

and arrive at a decision. Laissez-faire leaders should not choose this as a path to laziness but rather they

must have extreme trust in their team.

When is Laissez-faire Leadership Appropriate?

Laissez-faire leadership is only ever appropriate when the employees are subject area experts, and they

are capable of responsibly executing their duties. It is usually adopted when dealing with consultants or

other field specialists.

When is Laissez-faire Leadership Inappropriate?

Laissez-fair leadership should not be used stronger management input is required and it is not an excuse

to mask management incompetence.

Transformational LeadershipWhat is Transformational Leadership?

Transformational leaders lead by example. They are willing to take charge by standing front and center

and inspiring those who look up to them to perform in ways that are always reaching for excellence.

Transformational leaders seek to bring about some sort of change so they are characteristically

passionate and energetic. They are also usually charismatic, although the subtle difference between a

charismatic leader and a transformational one lies in a shift in focus, while the charismatic leader has a

strong belief in himself and is able to project that onto others, the transformational leader is there to sell

belief in a process and highlight that all hands need to be on deck to achieve the change.

When is Transformational Leadership Appropriate?

Adopting this style of leadership is great when there is a need for a change leader. If the situation calls for

conversion of ideas and processes towards a different way of thinking and doing, nothing is more

appropriate than a transformational leader.

When is Transformational Leadership Inappropriate?

The danger of transformational leadership is the sacrifice of substance for style. Transformational leaders

need to depend on a heavy dose of charisma to glamor their followers into accepting their chants for

change, but there needs to be a solid vision and plan of action to back-up their claims otherwise they may

direct their followers to disillusionment.

Choosing a Leadership StyleAfter careful analysis of just a few of the major leadership styles it is clear to see there are several to

choose from. The final choice must be based on a match between the needs of the company, the level of

experience of the employees and the preference and limitations of those at the helm.

Image: jscreationzs / FreeDigitalPhotos.net

Management styles in the oil and gas industry

An OPITO case study

Page 1: Introduction

OPITO The Oil & Gas Academy is the focal point for skills, learning and workforce development for the oil and gas industry. Its role is to help employers to develop a safe and competent workforce. The production of oil and gas is a key industry in the primary sector and in the UK supports nearly half a million jobs. Of these, 380,000 work in oil and gas extraction from the area of the North Sea known as the UK Continental Shelf (UKCS). A further 100,000 jobs are involved in the export of oilfield goods and services. The industry makes an annual direct tax contribution to the United Kingdom in excess of £10 billion.

The skills and competencies of this workforce are vital to ensure safe and reliable oil and gas extraction. Only by having a safe and skilled workforce can the UK oil and gas energy supply be sustained and security of supply be maintained. Over the years the industry has built up considerable expertise. This has been exported across the global exploration and production networks through the movement of people. However the need for continuing staff training and skills development is essential as the UK industry will exist for several decades to come. The needs of the industry, technology and work practices are ever-changing. Therefore it is vital that all learning reflects the changes in the business.

The role of OPITO - The Oil & Gas Academy is to work collectively with industry employers and trade unions to establish common industry standards of safety and competence. It also works with schools, colleges and universities to promote STEM subjects (science, technology, engineering and mathematics) to students and show why the oil and gas industry is an exciting and rewarding career choice. The

Academy works with employers to identify training needs both for essential knowledge, like health and safety and for developmental needs such as technical and leadership skills. Once these are agreed, the Academy provides the link to a quality-assured learning network, for example, colleges and training providers who deliver the relevant courses. The Academy also works in partnership with many different organisations, including government, trade and enterprise bodies to support the industry's development.

The oil and gas industry provides a wide range of career opportunities. Some are offshore, working directly out on the rigs drilling for oil and gas and on fixed installation oil and gas production platforms as part of the extraction process. For example, Drilling Engineer Angus McCay works with high-tech drilling machinery exploring potential reservoirs of oil under the sea floor. Paul Mallinson is a Control Room Operator responsible for the day to day running of a floating production storage vessel. Other roles are in commercial activities working onshore, such as in buying and selling oil and gas or as part of the legal teams setting up contracts.

This case study examines how different management styles may be necessary to support the variety of job roles within the oil and gas industry.

Read more: http://businesscasestudies.co.uk/opito/management-styles-in-the-oil-and-gas-industry/introduction.html#ixzz3WktWCArC

Under Creative Commons License: Attribution Non-Commercial Share Alike

Follow us: @BizCaseStudies on Twitter | bizcasestudies on Facebook

Management and leadershipManagement is about getting things done. Managers work in different ways to achieve many diverse and often specific objectives. Theorists have tried to identify the functions and processes that all managers carry out. The oil and gas industry contains many layers of management within many types of organisation. Hierarchies are organisations that are structured in layers. The managers in the higher levels have more seniority than those further down.Everything from geological exploration, drilling, technical and scientific support, human resources, finance, maintenance, welding, sales, logistics, safety and emergency planning falls within management responsibilities.Henri Fayol, an early theorist, said that management had the following elements:

Planning looking ahead, consulting with others, setting objectives for staff Organising arranging people and things so that objectives can be achieved Commanding giving instructions to workers Coordinating bringing activities together into a common approach Controlling measuring what is happening and adjusting activities to achieve

goals. 

The skills and aptitudes of oil and gas employees must be appropriate for their job roles at every level:

Technical and scientific skills are needed in drilling and exploration to manage complex equipment and processes.

Human skills are needed in managing staff. Practical skills are needed in production operations, mechanical installation, electrical

plant maintenance and instrumentation and control systems.

The Academy has created a learning supply chain to stimulate the movement of people within the industry and ensure they have the right learning, skills, competence, attitudes and behaviours to work safely and effectively. The supply chain starts by working with schools, colleges and universities to encourage new entrants into the industry. It then links with learning, training and development partners to ensure the employees have the required skills for roles throughout the industry.Leadership differs from management. Leadership encompasses the skills and qualities needed to inspire others to achieve goals. Leaders can see the heart of a problem and suggest (sometimes unusual) solutions; they have a positive self image; they tend to be creative; they are often experts in a field and can sense change and respond accordingly. Many managers are also leaders, but people in the oil and gas industry are encouraged to show leadership at every level. The industry has an inclusive and involving culture so that even the newest Trainee Instrument Technician may spot a better way of doing something and will be able to influence positive change.

Read more: http://businesscasestudies.co.uk/opito/management-styles-in-the-oil-and-gas-industry/management-and-leadership.html#ixzz3WktfKPtc Under Creative Commons License: Attribution Non-Commercial Share Alike Follow us: @BizCaseStudies on Twitter | bizcasestudies on Facebook

Critique of the Leadership Style of Steve Jobs

Kimberly Celse

Uploaded by

Kimberly Celse

top 0.5%1,578 Info

Download PDF

Strengthening Leadership & Management Kimberly Marie Celse TUW Department of I-O Psychology 1 February 2, 2014

A Critique of the Leadership Style of Steve Jobs

Kimberly Marie Celse

Department of I-O Psychology Touro University Worldwide One of the most controversial yet wildly successful leaders of our time, Steve Jobs mesmerized the world with his passion for excellence yet infuriated many with his myopic drive. He was an incredible visionary who revolutionized the personal computer industry and gained devoted followers from the world over. Many waited with baited breath for the latest iPhone, iPod, or iPad, and the craze of sales and infinite lines at Apple stores portrayed to the world that this was, indeed, an extremely important company with a leader who must be doing every single thing right in running his company. But was this actually true? Dubbed by

his colleagues as having a “Reality Distortion Field”, which could be akin to bullying, this

allowed him to push people to achieve feats on an extraordinary level (Isaacson, 2012). His untimely death proving that he was still yet a man, immortalized him forever in our minds and in many hearts as a dreamer who realized his dreams

–

as many of his followers lived vicariously through his overwhelming accomplishments. Researching Steve

Jobs’s

background, one can see some of the elements that led to the legend he became. Adopted at birth, his adoptive parents had promised his birth mother that they would send him to college. His adoptive father taught him electronics at an early age and he had an average middle-class lifestyle. He was terribly bright in school and even skipped a grade, but was known to be a prankster. A former college dropout after just a semester, he

continued to audit classes and didn’t seem to be worried about his futur

e. Growing up in the San Francisco Bay Area, he was likely influenced by two major social movements in that area

–

the counterculture hippy, anti-war revolution starting in San Francisco, and the Silicon Valley boom of high-tech innovation. He even went to India for a while to connect with his spirituality and dabbled in LSD and other psychedelic drugs (Isaacson, 2012). As Isaacson noted in his biography of Steve Jobs written in 2004, his first twenty years of life were

“Abandoned. Chosen. Special.

Those concepts became part of who Jobs was and how he

regarded himself.” (Evans, 2012).

Steve Jobs had the ability to inspire people to share his passion and the belief that they could achieve the seemingly impossible (Isaacson, 2012). California was a hotbed of a culture of individualism and more and more people began contributing to society in innovative ways irrespective of their race, gender, background, socioeconomic, and educational level. His countercultural rebellious attitude sparked a revolution of free thinkers who felt they had the

power to change the world and is reflected in his “Think Different” ads upon his return to Apple, “Here’s to the crazy ones. The misfits. The rebels. The troublemakers. The round pegs

in the square ho

le…

While some see them as the crazy ones, we see genius. Because the

people who are crazy enough to think they can change the world are the ones who do.”

(Isaacson, 2012). I once had the opportunity to meet Steve Jobs at a technology networking event in Silicon Valley,

and perhaps because I wasn’t

a fan of Apple products at the time

, I wasn’t intimidated

by his presence as so many others around me were at the time.

I wasn’t aware of Jobs’

s cult

Strengthening Leadership & Management Kimberly Marie Celse TUW Department of I-O Psychology 2 February 2, 2014

status but I recall the intensity and focus in his eyes when he spoke. I was merely a quiet observer in a group of enthusiastic listeners and what I expected would be a group conversation was immediately dominated by essentially a question and answer session with this modern day guru. As I recall, it was all quite fascinating, but I was already quite used to this kind of exchange in that industry. I got the feeling people were constantly picking his brains and he seemed to enjoy telling people his ideas and how well Apple was doing. As his innovations have been copied the world over, so has also been his leadership style. His strive for complete perfection in spite of profit-

making and people’s feelings pushed people

beyond their boundaries, and he expected his engineers to be on the level of artists. He even went as far as having them line up PC chips perfectly and having their signatures engraved in

the cases of the products, commenting “Real artists sign their work” (Isaacson, 2012). Yet he

was also known as being rude, rough, and impatient. Antagonizing and insulting others with his superior genius. But how is it that such negative traits could also emanate from a leader who inspired and transformed people? But what was his particular leadership style that made him such a huge success? Did he honestly even hone leadership skills or did he just run things based on his personality alone? After pouring over effective leadership theories, how is it that

Jobs’

s approach could even

remotely be classified as “positively effective”? He was consi

dered dictatorial, controlling every step along during the product design phase, and often reprimanded and humiliated staff in front of others (de Silva, 2011). But indeed, he really did see himself as a leader as opposed to just a manager, director, or CEO (Arlen, 2011). Jobs

practised a form of “tough love” leadership. He was incredibly hard on his employees yet showered them with praise

when they fulfilled what he wanted. A 2011 study out of Cornell University, University of Notre Dame, and University of Western Ontario found that disagreeable leaders were more highly regarded and received higher salaries than agreeable ones (Badass-Boss, 2014). Other

leaders who have tried to copy his “tough love” approach have often failed by not

understanding that loyalty needs to be in place in order for such a tactic to work (Isaacson, 2012). Looking at the various popular theories of trait, behavioural, and situational theories, I

will attempt to analyse Steve Jobs’s leadership approach and the positive and negative

aspects of such.

Trait Leadership

If we take a look at the trait theory of leadership which was developed in the 1940s, Steve Jobs definitely had a tremendous amount of charisma going for him. His style is a mixture of several traits, with some unconventional and unpopular ones thrown in for added impression. We find, however, that the most driving trait factors for effective leadership are extraversion (sociability), followed by conscientiousness (determination & integrity), openness, and low-neuroticism (Northhouse 2013). Although his social graces are in question, Jobs certainly seemed to have no fear of people and was very proactive in meeting and working with them. He believed in face-to-face meetings and spontaneous meetings and discussions (Isaacson, 2012). The second trait of conscientiousness certainly applied to him. He was driven by his vision and held true to his self and his beliefs despite criticism. His Zen training taught him how to focus and he often overlooked ordinary day-to-day things that his family and friends deemed important, even his health issues (Isaacson, 2012). He rarely wavered from the integrity of his products and ideas

and wasn’t driven by profit like so many others

. An amazing product line and giving customers what they wanted is what mattered most and falls in line with his high integrity. As for openness, he possessed it for new ideas that drove the creative force behind Apple; but how open he was to implementing the ideas of others and

Strengthening Leadership & Management Kimberly Marie Celse TUW Department of I-O Psychology 3 February 2, 2014

giving them credit for it remains debatable. In fact, he was often criticized for plagiarizing new ideas presented by his competitors and followers (Evans, 2012). The final major personality aspect of low-ne

uroticism doesn’t fit

Jobs

’s

approach. He was known to be neurotic due to his worry, contempt and envy of competitors, and extreme obsession even with the smallest of details (Evans, 2012). Northhouse points out that another way to assess the effectiveness of trait leadership is by considering emotional intelligence. It is considered by many researchers to be comprised of both personal and social competencies. Personal competencies being self-awareness, self-confidence, self-regulation, conscientiousness, and motivation. We have already pointed out that Jobs was conscientious and motivated to certain degrees, yet his self-awareness and self-regulation were certainly lacking through evidence of his often abusive and obsessive behaviour. Additionally, although he publicly displayed tremendous self-confidence, he ironically

often “broke down and cried when he felt that he had not been treated fairly”

(Evans, 2012). Although trait theory boasts the largest body of research, it is often a difficult style to apply because it is an intuitive approach and the traits are usually i

nherited and can’t be

learned. As

commented by Evans, “His perfectionism was legendary, but so were his disloyalty, abrasiveness, abusiveness, and lack of generosity, both financial and otherwise” (2012).

It’s

likely that much of his disagreeableness led to his first dismissal from Apple. It was only when the company was in trouble was when he was invited to return. One wonders if Jobs could have accomplished just as much if he had only treated people with a little more decency. He admitted that he might have, but that he would have betrayed his true nature by suppressing his unpleasant personality traits (Isaacson, 2012).

Behavioural Leadership

As laid out by Doyle and Smith, behavioural leadership dominated the 1950s and 1960s and the focus moved from traits to how leaders behaved. This type of leadership generally comprised of four basic styles (2001): 1) Concern for task

–

priority in productivity and ways to meet objectives, 2) Concern for people

–

priority in the needs, interests, desires of follower, 3) Directive leadership

–

leaders make decisions and expect followers to follow, and 4) Participative leadership

–

leaders share decision-making with others (Doyle & Smith, 2001). Further research and development into the area of behavioural theories discovered more distinct categories based on original research. The newly defined categories are:

Task-oriented behaviours

Relational-oriented behaviours

Change-oriented behaviours

Passive leadership (Derue et al., 2011)

Task-oriented behaviours:

This falls under what is known as transactional leadership and involves the pairing of concern for task and directive leadership. In this style, leaders offer contingent rewards depending on the successful completion of tasks, as well as punishment for failure of achievement. They are directive in that they make decisions and expect subordinates to follow, generally without question. There is evidence to show he engaged in a strong transactional approach. He would show the end result of projects to his

followers and lay out every single step on how to get to it and dictate how to conduct each step (de Silva,