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Demosthenes

Bust of Demosthenes(Louvre, Paris, France)

Born 384 BC

Athens

Died 322 BCIsland of Kalaureia (present-day Poros)

DemosthenesFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Demosthenes(Englishpronunciation:/dms.ni z/,Greek: ,Dmosthns[dmostns];384322 BC) was a prominent Greek statesman andorator of ancient Athens. His orations constitute a

significant expression of contemporary Athenianintellectual prowess and provide an insight into thepolitics and culture of ancient Greece duringthe 4thcentury BC. Demosthenes learned rhetoric by studyingthe speeches of previous great orators. He delivered hisfirst judicial speeches at the age of 20, in which heargued effectively to gain from his guardians what wasleft of his inheritance. For a time, Demosthenes madehis living as a professional speech-writer (logographer)and a lawyer, writingspeeches for use in private legalsuits.

Demosthenes grew interested in politics during his timeas a logographer, and in 354 BC he gave his firstpublic political speeches. He went on to devote hismost productive years to opposing Macedon'sexpansion. He idealized his city and strove throughouthis life to restore Athens's supremacy and motivate hiscompatriots against Philip II of Macedon. He sought to

preserve his city's freedom and to establish an allianceagainst Macedon, in an unsuccessful attempt to impedePhilip's plans to expand his influence southward byconquering all the other Greek states. After Philip'sdeath, Demosthenes played a leading part in his city's uprising against the new King of Macedonia,Alexander the Great. However, his efforts failed and therevolt was met with a harshMacedonian reaction.To prevent a similar revolt against his own rule, Alexander's successor in this region,Antipater, sent hismento track Demosthenes down. Demosthenes took hisown life, in order to avoid being arrested byArchias, Antipater's confidant.

TheAlexandrian Canoncompiledby Aristophanes of Byzantium and Aristarchus ofSamothracerecognized Demosthenes as one ofthe ten greatest Attic orators and logographers. Longinus likenedDemosthenes to a blazing thunderbolt, and argued that he "perfected to the utmost the tone of lofty speech,

living passions, copiousness, readiness, speed".[1]Quintilian extolled him as lex orandi("the standard oforatory"), and Cicero said about him that inter omnis unus excellat("he stands alone among all the

orators"), and he also acclaimed him as "the perfect orator" who lacked nothing.[2]

Contents

1 Early years and personal life1.1 Family and personal life1.2 Education1.3 Speech training
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Bust of Demosthenes (British

Museum, London), Roman copy of aGreek original sculpted by

Polyeuktos.

According to Pseudo-Plutarch, Demosthenes was married once.The only information about his wife, whose name is unknown, is

that she was the daughter of Heliodorus, a prominent citizen.[12]

Demosthenes also had a daughter, "the only one who ever called

him father", according to Aeschines in a trenchant remark.[13]Hisdaughter died young and unmarried a few days before Philip II's

death.[13]

In his speeches, Aeschines uses pederastic relations ofDemosthenes as a means to attack him. In the case of Aristion, ayouth from Plataea who lived for a long time in Demosthenes'shouse, Aeschines mocks the "scandalous" and "improper"

relation.[14]In another speech, Aeschines brings up the pederasticrelation of his opponent with a boy called Cnosion. The slanderthat Demosthenes's wife also slept with the boy suggests that the

relationship was contemporary with his marriage.[15]Aeschinesclaims that Demosthenes made money out of young rich men,such as Aristarchus, the son of Moschus, whom he allegedlydeceived with the pretence that he could make him a great orator.Apparently, while still under Demosthenes's tutelage, Aristarchuskilled and mutilated a certain Nicodemus of Aphidna. Aeschinesaccused Demosthenes of complicity in the murder, pointing outthat Nicodemus had once pressed a lawsuit accusing Demosthenesof desertion. He also accused Demosthenes of having been such a bad erastesto Aristarchus so as noteven to deserve the name. His crime, according to Aeschines, was to have betrayed his eromenosbypillaging his estate, allegedly pretending to be in love with the youth so as to get his hands on the boy's

inheritance. Nevertheless, the story of Demosthenes's relations with Aristarchus is still regarded as morethan doubtful, and no other pupil of Demosthenes is known by name.[16]

Education

Between his coming of age in 366 BC and the trials that took place in 364 BC, Demosthenes and hisguardians negotiated acrimoniously but were unable to reach an agreement, for neither side was willing to

make concessions.[18]At the same time, Demosthenes prepared himself for the trials and improved hisoratory skill. As an adolescent, his curiosity had been noticed by the orator Callistratus, who was then at

the height of his reputation, having just won a case of considerable importance.[19]According to FriedrichNietzsche, a German philologist and philosopher, and Constantine Paparrigopoulos, a major Greek

historian, Demosthenes was a student of Isocrates;[20]according to Cicero, Quintillian and the Roman

biographer Hermippus, he was a student of Plato.[21]Lucian, a Roman-Syrian rhetorician and satirist, lists

the philosophers Aristotle, Theophrastus and Xenocrates among his teachers.[22]These claims are

nowadays disputed.[c]According to Plutarch, Demosthenes employed Isaeus as his master in Rhetoric,even though Isocrates was then teaching this subject, either because he could not pay Isocrates theprescribed fee or because Demosthenes believed Isaeus's style better suited a vigorous and astute orator

such as himself .[23]Curtius, a German archaeologist and historian, likened the relation between Isaeus and

Demosthenes to "an intellectual armed alliance".[24]

It has also been said that Demosthenes paid Isaeus 10,000 drachmae (somewhat over 1.5 talents) on thecondition that Isaeus should withdraw from a school of Rhetoric which he had opened, and should devote

himself wholly to Demosthenes, his new pupil.[24]Another version credits Isaeus with having taught
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"If you feel bound to act in the spirit of that dignity, whenever youcome into court to give judgement on public causes, you mustbethink yourselves that with his staff and his badge every one of you

receives in trust the ancient pride of Athens."Demosthenes (On the Crown, 210)The orator's defense of thehonor of the courts was in contrast to the improper actions of whichAeschines accused him.

"While the vessel is safe, whether it be a large or a small one, then isthe time for sailor and helmsman and everyone in his turn to show hiszeal and to take care that it is not capsized by anyone's malice orinadvertence; but when the sea has overwhelmed it, zeal is useless."

Demosthenes (Third Philippic, 69)The orator warned hiscountrymen of the disasters Athens would suffer, if they continued toremain idle and indifferent to the challenges of their times.

powerful men. It is not unlikely that he became a teacher of rhetoric and that he brought pupils into court

with him. However, though he probably continued writing speeches throughout his career,[e]he stopped

working as an advocate once he entered the political arena.[37]

Judicial oratory had become asignificant literary genre by thesecond half of the fifth century, as

represented in the speeches ofDemosthenes's predecessors,Antiphon and Andocides.Logographers were a unique aspectof the Athenian justice system:evidence for a case was compiled by a magistrate in a preliminary hearing and litigants could present it asthey pleased within set speeches; however, witnesses and documents were popularly mistrusted (since theycould be secured by force or bribery), there was little cross-examination during the trial, there were noinstructions to the jury from a judge, no conferencing between jurists before voting, the juries were huge(typically between 201 and 501 members), cases depended largely on questions of probable motive, and

notions of natural justice were felt to take precedence over written lawconditions that favoured artfullyconstructed speeches.[38]

Since Athenian politicians were often indicted by their opponents, there wasn't always a clear distinctionbetween "private" and "public" cases, and thus a career as a logographer opened the way for Demosthenes

to embark on his political career.[39]An Athenian logographer could remain anonymous, which enabledhim to serve personal interests, even if it prejudiced the client. It also left him open to allegations ofmalpractice. Thus for example Aeschines accused Demosthenes of unethically disclosing his clients'arguments to their opponents; in particular, that he wrote a speech for Phormion (350 BC), a wealthybanker, and then communicated it to Apollodorus, who was bringing a capital charge against

Phormion.[40]Plutarch much later supported this accusation, stating that Demosthenes "was thought to

have acted dishonorably"[41]and he also accused Demosthenes of writing speeches for both sides. It hasoften been argued that the deception, if there was one, involved a political quid pro quo, wherebyApollodorus secretly pledged support for unpopular reforms that Demosthenes was pursuing in the greater,

public interest[42](i.e. the diversion of Theoric Funds to military purposes).

Early political activity

See also: On the Navy, For the Megalopolitans, and On the Liberty of the Rhodians

Demosthenes was admitted to his deme as a citizen with full rights probably in 366 BC, and he soon

demonstrated an interest in politics.[36]In 363 and 359 BC, he assumed the office of the trierarch, being

responsible for the outfitting and maintenance of a trireme.[43]He was among the first ever volunteertrierarchs in 357 BC, sharing the expenses of a ship calledDawn, for which the public inscription still

survives.[44]In 348 BC, he became a choregos, paying the expenses of a theatrical production. [45]

Between 355351 BC,Demosthenes continued practicinglaw privately while he wasbecoming increasingly interested inpublic affairs. During this period,he wroteAgainst Androtionand

gainst Leptines, two fierce attacks
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Philip II of Macedon: victory medal

(niketerion) struck in Tarsus,

c. 2nd BC (Cabinet des Mdailles,

Paris).

"We need money, for sure, Athenians, and without money nothing

can be done that ought to be done."

Demosthenes (First Olynthiac, 20)The orator took great pains toconvince his countrymen that the reform of the theoric fund wasnecessary to finance the city's military preparations.

"Just think. The instant this court rises, each of you will walk home,one quicker, another more leisurely, not anxious, not glancing behind

In 352 BC, Athenian troops successfully opposed Philip at Thermopylae,[63]but the Macedonian victoryover the Phocians at the Battle of Crocus Field shook Demosthenes. In 351 BC, Demosthenes felt strongenough to express his view concerning the most important foreign policy issue facing Athens at that time:the stance his city should take towards Philip. According to Jacqueline de Romilly, a French philologistand member of the Acadmie franaise, the threat of Philip would give Demosthenes's stances a focus and

a raison d'tre (reason for existence).[48]Demosthenes saw the King of Macedon as a menace to theautonomy of all Greek cities and yet he presented him as a monster of Athens's own creation; in the First

Philippiche reprimanded his fellow citizens as follows: "Even ifsomething happens to him, you will soon raise up a second Philip

[...]".[64]

The theme of the First Philippic(351350 BC) was preparedness

and the reform of the theoric fund,[f]a mainstay of Eubulus's

policy.[48]In his rousing call for resistance, Demosthenes askedhis countrymen to take the necessary action and asserted that "fora free people there can be no greater compulsion than shame for

their position".

[65]

He thus provided for the first time a plan andspecific recommendations for the strategy to be adopted against

Philip in the north.[66]Among other things, the plan called for thecreation of a rapid-response force, to be created cheaply with eachhoplite to be paid only ten drachmas (two Obols per day), whichwas less than the average pay for unskilled labourers in Athens implying that the hoplite was expected to make up the deficiency

in pay by looting.[67]

From this moment until 341 BC, all

of Demosthenes's speeches referredto the same issue, the struggleagainst Philip. In 349 BC, Philipattacked Olynthus, an ally ofAthens. In the three Olynthiacs,

Demosthenes criticized his compatriots for being idle and urged Athens to help Olynthus.[68]He also

insulted Philip by calling him a "barbarian".[g]Despite Demosthenes's strong advocacy, the Athenianswould not manage to prevent the falling of the city to the Macedonians. Almost simultaneously, probablyon Eubulus's recommendation, they engaged in a war in Euboea against Philip, which ended in

stalemate.[69]

Case of Meidias (348 BC)

For more details on this topic, see Against Meidias.

In 348 BC a peculiar event occurred: Meidias, a wealthy Athenian, publicly slapped Demosthenes, whowas at the time a choregos at the Greater Dionysia, a large religious festival in honour of the god

Dionysus.[45]Meidias was a friend of Eubulus and supporter of the unsuccessful excursion in Euboea. [70]

He also was an old enemy of Demosthenes; in 361 BC he had broken violently into his house, with his

brother Thrasylochus, to take possession of it.[71]

Demosthenes decided to prosecutehis wealthy opponent and wrotethe judicial orationAgainst
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m, no ear ng w e er e s go ng o run up aga ns a r en or anenemy, a big man or a little one, a strong man or a weak one, oranything of that sort. And why? Because in his heart he knows, and isconfident, and has learned to trust the State, that no one shall seize orinsult or strike him."

Demosthenes (Against Meidias, 221)The orator asked theAthenians to defend their legal system, by making an example of thedefendant for the instruction of others.[72]

Meidias. This speech givesvaluable information aboutAthenian law at the time andespecially about the Greek conceptof hybris (aggravated assault),which was regarded as a crime notonly against the city but against

society as a whole.[73]

He statedthat a democratic state perishes if the rule of law is undermined by wealthy and unscrupulous men, and that

the citizens acquire power and authority in all state affairs due "to the strength of the laws".[71]There is noconsensus among scholars either on whether Demosthenes finally deliveredAgainst Meidiaseither on the

veracity of Aeschines's accusation that Demosthenes was bribed to drop the charges.[h]

Peace of Philocrates (347345 BC)

For more details on this topic, see Peace of Philocrates.

In 348 BC, Philip conquered Olynthus and razed it to the ground; then conquered the entire Chalcidiceand all the states of the Chalcidic federation that Olynthus had once led.[74]After these Macedonianvictories, Athens sued for peace with Macedon. Demosthenes was among those who favored compromise.In 347 BC, an Athenian delegation, comprising Demosthenes, Aeschines and Philocrates, was officiallysent to Pella to negotiate a peace treaty. In his first encounter with Philip, Demosthenes is said to have

collapsed from fright.[75]

The ecclesia officially accepted Philip's harsh terms, including the renouncement of their claim toAmphipolis. However, when an Athenian delegation arrived at Pella to put Phillip under oath, which was

required to conclude the treaty, he was campaigning abroad.[76]

He expected that he would hold safelyany Athenian possessions which he might seize before the ratification.[77]Being very anxious about thedelay, Demosthenes insisted that the embassy should travel to the place where they would find Philip and

swear him in without delay.[77]Despite his suggestions, the Athenian envoys, including himself and

Aeschines, remained in Pella, until Philip successfully concluded his campaign in Thrace.[78]

Philip swore to the treaty, but he delayed the departure of the Athenian envoys, who had yet to receive theoaths from Macedon's allies in Thessaly and elsewhere. Finally, peace was sworn at Pherae, where Philipaccompanied the Athenian delegation, after he had completed his military preparations to move south.

Demosthenes accused the other envoys of venality and of facilitating Philip's plans with their stance.[79]

Just after the conclusion of the Peace of Philocrates, Philip passed Thermopylae, and subdued Phocis;

Athens made no move to support the Phocians.[80]Supported by Thebes and Thessaly, Macedon tookcontrol of Phocis's votes in the Amphictyonic League, a Greek religious organization formed to support

the greater temples of Apollo and Demeter.[81]Despite some reluctance on the part of the Athenian

leaders, Athens finally accepted Philip's entry into the Council of the League. [82]Demosthenes was amongthose who adopted a pragmatic approach, and recommended this stance in his oration On the Peace. ForEdmund M. Burke, this speech landmarks a moment of maturation in Demosthenes's career: after Philip'ssuccessful campaign in 346 BC, the Athenian statesman realized that, if he was to lead his city against the

Macedonians, he had "to adjust his voice, to become less partisan in tone".[83]

Second and Third Philippics (344341 BC)

For more details on this topic, see Second Philippic, On the Chersonese, Third Philippic
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Satellite image of the Thracian

Chersonese and the surrounding area.

The Chersonese became the focus of a

bitter territorial dispute between

Athens and Macedon. It was

eventually ceded to Philip in 338 BC.

The battle of Chaeronea took place

the autumn of 338 BC and resulted in

a significant victory for Philip, who

established Macedon's supremacy

over the Greek cities.

In 344 BC Demosthenes travelled to the Peloponnese, in order to detach as many cities as possible fromMacedon's influence, but his efforts were generally

unsuccessful.[84]Most of the Peloponnesians saw Philip as theguarantor of their freedom and sent a joint embassy to Athens to

express their grievances against Demosthenes's activities.[85]Inresponse, Demosthenes delivered the Second Philippic, avehement attack against Philip. In 343 BC Demosthenes delivered

On the False Embassyagainst Aeschines, who was facing acharge of high treason. Nonetheless, Aeschines was acquitted bythe narrow margin of thirty votes by a jury which may have

numbered as many as 1,501.[86]

In 343 BC, Macedonian forces were conducting campaigns in

Epirus and, in 342 BC, Philip campaigned in Thrace.[87]He alsonegotiated with the Athenians an amendment to the Peace of

Philocrates.[88]When the Macedonian army approachedChersonese (now known as the Gallipoli Peninsula), an Atheniangeneral named Diopeithes ravaged the maritime district of Thrace, thereby inciting Philip's rage. Becauseof this turbulence, the Athenian Assembly convened. Demosthenes delivered On the Chersoneseandconvinced the Athenians not to recall Diopeithes. Also in 342 BC, he delivered the Third Philippic, which

is considered to be the best of his political orations.[89]Using all the power of his eloquence, he demandedresolute action against Philip and called for a burst of energy from the Athenian people. He told them that

it would be "better to die a thousand times than pay court to Philip". [90]Demosthenes now dominatedAthenian politics and was able to considerably weaken the pro-Macedonian faction of Aeschines.

Battle of Chaeronea (338 BC)

For more details on this topic, see Battle of Chaeronea (338 BC).

In 341 BC Demosthenes was sent to Byzantium, where he soughtto renew its alliance with Athens. Thanks to Demosthenes'sdiplomatic manoeuvres, Abydos also entered into an alliance withAthens. These developments worried Philip and increased hisanger at Demosthenes. The Assembly, however, laid aside Philip'sgrievances against Demosthenes's conduct and denounced thepeace treaty; so doing, in effect, amounted to an official

declaration of war. In 339 BC Philip made his last and mosteffective bid to conquer southern Greece, assisted by Aeschines'sstance in the Amphictyonic Council. During a meeting of theCouncil, Philip accused the Amfissian Locrians of intruding onconsecrated ground. The presiding officer of the Council, aThessalian named Cottyphus, proposed the convocation of anAmphictyonic Congress to inflict a harsh punishment upon theLocrians. Aeschines agreed with this proposition and maintained

that the Athenians should participate in the Congress.[91]Demosthenes however reversed Aeschines's

initiatives and Athens finally abstained.[92]

After the failure of a first military excursion against theLocrians, the summer session of the Amphictyonic Council gave command of the league's forces to Philipand asked him to lead a second excursion. Philip decided to act at once; in the winter of 339338 BC, he
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Alexander Mosaic from Pompeii,from a 3rd-century BC original Greek

painting, now lost. In 336335 BC,

the King of Macedon crippled any

attempt of the Greek cities at

resistance and shattered

Demosthenes's hopes for Athenian

independence.

passed through Thermopylae, entered Amfissa and defeated the Locrians. After this significant victory,Philip swiftly entered Phocis in 338 BC. He then turned south-east down the Cephissus valley, seized

Elateia, and restored the fortifications of the city.[93]

At the same time, Athens orchestrated the creation of an alliance with Euboea, Megara, Achaea, Corinth,Acarnania and other states in the Peloponnese. However the most desirable ally for Athens was Thebes.To secure their allegiance, Demosthenes was sent, by Athens, to the Boeotian city; Philip also sent a

deputation, but Demosthenes succeeded in securing Thebes's allegiance.[94]

Demosthenes's oration beforethe Theban people is not extant and, therefore, the arguments he used to convince the Thebans remainunknown. In any case, the alliance came at a price: Thebes's control of Boeotia was recognized, Thebeswas to command solely on land and jointly at sea, and Athens was to pay two thirds of the campaign's

cost.[95]

While the Athenians and the Thebans were preparing themselves for war, Philip made a final attempt to

appease his enemies, proposing in vain a new peace treaty.[96]After a few trivial encounters between thetwo sides, which resulted in minor Athenian victories, Philip drew the phalanx of the Athenian andTheban confederates into a plain near Chaeronea, where he defeated them. Demosthenes fought as a mere

hoplite.[i]Such was Philip's hatred for Demosthenes that, according to Diodorus Siculus, the King after hisvictory sneered at the misfortunes of the Athenian statesman. However, the Athenian orator and statesmanDemades is said to have remarked: "O King, when Fortune has cast you in the role of Agamemnon, areyou not ashamed to act the part of Thersites? [an obscene soldier of the Greek army during the Trojan

War]" Stung by these words, Philip immediately altered his demeanour.[97]

Last political initiatives and death

Confrontation with Alexander

After Chaeronea, Philip inflicted a harsh punishment uponThebes, but made peace with Athens on very lenient terms.Demosthenes encouraged the fortification of Athens and was

chosen by the ecclesia to deliver the Funeral Oration.[98]In337 BC, Philip created the League of Corinth, a confederation of

Greek states under his leadership, and returned to Pella.[99]In336 BC, Philip was assassinated at the wedding of his daughter,Cleopatra of Macedon, to King Alexander of Epirus. TheMacedonian army swiftly proclaimed Alexander III of Macedon,then twenty years old, as the new King of Macedon. Greek citieslike Athens and Thebes saw in this change of leadership anopportunity to regain their full independence. Demosthenescelebrated Philip's assassination and played a leading part in hiscity's uprising. According to Aeschines, "it was but the seventhday after the death of his daughter, and though the ceremonies ofmourning were not yet completed, he put a garland on his headand white raiment on his body, and there he stood making thank-

offerings, violating all decency."[13]Demosthenes also sent

envoys to Attalus, whom he considered to be an internal opponent of Alexander.[100]Nonetheless,Alexander moved swiftly to Thebes, which submitted shortly after his appearance at its gates. When theAthenians learned that Alexander had moved quickly to Boeotia, they panicked and begged the new Kingof Macedon for mercy. Alexander admonished them but imposed no punishment.
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"You stand revealed in your life and conduct, in your publicperformances and also in your public abstinences. A project approvedby the people is going forward. Aeschines is speechless. A regrettableincident is reported. Aeschines is in evidence. He reminds one of an

old sprain or fracture: the moment you are out of health it begins tobe active."

Demosthenes (On the Crown, 198)In On the CrownDemosthenesfiercely assaulted and finally neutralized Aeschines, his formidablepolitical opponent.

The site of the temple of Poseidon,

Kalaureia, where Demosthenes

committed suicide.

In 335 BC Alexander felt free to engage the Thracians and the Illyrians, but, while he was campaigning inthe north, Demosthenes spread a rumoreven producing a bloodstained messengerthat Alexander and

all of his expeditionary force had been slaughtered by the Triballians.[101]The Thebans and the Atheniansrebelled once again, financed by Darius III of Persia, and Demosthenes is said to have received about

300 talents on behalf of Athens and to have faced accusations of embezzlement. [j]Alexander reactedimmediately and razed Thebes to the ground. He did not attack Athens, but demanded the exile of all anti-Macedonian politicians, Demosthenes first of all. According to Plutarch, a special Athenian embassy led

by Phocion, an opponent of the anti-Macedonian faction, was able to persuade Alexander to relent.[102]

Delivery of On the Crown

See also: On the Crown

Despite the unsuccessful venturesagainst Philip and Alexander, theAthenians still respectedDemosthenes. In 336 BC, the

orator Ctesiphon proposed thatAthens honor Demosthenes for hisservices to the city by presentinghim, according to custom, with agolden crown. This proposalbecame a political issue and, in 330 BC, Aeschines prosecuted Ctesiphon on charges of legal irregularities.

In his most brilliant speech,[103]On the Crown,Demosthenes effectively defended Ctesiphon andvehemently attacked those who would have preferred peace with Macedon. He was unrepentant about hispast actions and policies and insisted that, when in power, the constant aim of his policies was the honor

and the ascendancy of his country; and on every occasion and in all business he preserved his loyalty toAthens.[104]He finally defeated Aeschines, although his enemy's objections to the crowning were

arguably valid from a legal point of view.[105]

Case of Harpalus and death

For more details on this topic, see Harpalus.

In 324 BC Harpalus, to whom Alexander had entrusted huge

treasures, absconded and sought refuge in Athens.[k]TheAssembly had initially refused to accept him, followingDemosthenes's advice, but finally Harpalus entered Athens. Hewas imprisoned after a proposal of Demosthenes and Phocion,despite the dissent of Hypereides, an anti-Macedonian statesmanand former ally of Demosthenes. Additionally, the ecclesiadecided to take control of Harpalus's money, which was entrustedto a committee presided over by Demosthenes. When thecommittee counted the treasure, they found they only had half themoney Harpalus had declared he possessed. Nevertheless, they

decided not to disclose the deficit. When Harpalus escaped, theAreopagus conducted an inquiry and charged Demosthenes withmishandling twenty talents. During the trial, Hypereides argued that Demosthenes did not disclose the
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"For a house, I take it, or a ship or anything of that sort must have itschief strength in its substructure; and so too in affairs of state theprinciples and the foundations must be truth and justice."

Demosthenes (Second Olynthiac, 10)The orator faced seriousaccusations more than once, but he never admitted to any improperactions and insisted that it is impossible "to gain permanent power byinjustice, perjury, and falsehood".

"Two characteristics, men of Athens, a citizen of a respectablecharacter...must be able to show: when he enjoys authority, he mustmaintain to the end the policy whose aims are noble action and thepre-eminence of his country: and at all times and in every phase offortune he must remain loyal. For this depends upon his own nature;

while his power and his influence are determined by external causes.And in me, you will find, this loyalty has persisted unalloyed...Forfrom the very first, I chose the straight and honest path in public life:I chose to foster the honour, the supremacy, the good name of mycountry, to seek to enhance them, and to stand or fall with them."

huge deficit, because he was bribed by Harpalus. Demosthenes was fined and imprisoned, but he soon

escaped.[106]It remains unclear whether the accusations against him were just or not.[l]In any case, the

Athenians soon repealed the sentence.[107]

After Alexander's death in 323 BC,Demosthenes again urged theAthenians to seek independence

from Macedon in what becameknown as the Lamian War.However, Antipater, Alexander'ssuccessor, quelled all oppositionand demanded that the Athenians

turn over Demosthenes and Hypereides, among others. Following his request, the ecclesia adopted adecree condemning the most prominent anti-Macedonian agitators to death. Demosthenes escaped to asanctuary on the island of Kalaureia (modern-day Poros), where he was later discovered by Archias, aconfidant of Antipater. He committed suicide before his capture by taking poison out of a reed, pretending

he wanted to write a letter to his family.[108]When Demosthenes felt that the poison was working on his

body, he said to Archias: "Now, as soon as you please you may commence the part of Creon in thetragedy, and cast out this body of mine unburied. But, O gracious Neptune, I, for my part, while I am yetalive, arise up and depart out of this sacred place; though Antipater and the Macedonians have not left so

much as the temple unpolluted." After saying these words, he passed by the altar, fell down and died.[108]

Years after Demosthenes's suicide, the Athenians erected a statue to honor him and decreed that the state

should provide meals to his descendants in the Prytaneum.[109]

Assessments

Political career

Plutarch lauds Demosthenes for not being of a fickle disposition. Rebutting historian Theopompus, thebiographer insists that for "the same party and post in politics which he held from the beginning, to thesehe kept constant to the end; and was so far from leaving them while he lived, that he chose rather to

forsake his life than his purpose".[110]On the other hand, Polybius, a Greek historian of the Mediterraneanworld, was highly critical of Demosthenes's policies. Polybius accused him of having launched unjustifiedverbal attacks on great men of other cities, branding them unjustly as traitors to the Greeks. The historianmaintains that Demosthenes measured everything by the interests of his own city, imagining that all the

Greeks ought to have their eyes fixed upon Athens. According to Polybius, the only thing the Athenianseventually got by their opposition to Philip was the defeat at Chaeronea. "And had it not been for theking's magnanimity and regard for his own reputation, their misfortunes would have gone even further,

thanks to the policy of Demosthenes".[111]

Paparrigopoulos extolsDemosthenes's patriotism, butcriticizes him as being short-sighted. According to this critique,Demosthenes should have

understood that the ancient Greekstates could only survive unifiedunder the leadership of

Macedon.[112]Therefore,
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emos enes n e rown, ace w e prac cadefeat of his policies, Demosthenes assessed them by the ideals theyembodied rather than by their utility.

Demosthenes is accused ofmisjudging events, opponents andopportunities and of being unable

to foresee Philip's inevitable triumph.[113]He is criticized for having overrated Athens's capacity to revive

and challenge Macedon.[114]His city had lost most of its Aegean allies, whereas Philip had consolidatedhis hold over Macedonia and was master of enormous mineral wealth. Chris Carey, a professor of Greek

in UCL, concludes that Demosthenes was a better orator and political operator than strategist.[113]

Nevertheless, the same scholar underscores that "pragmatists" like Aeschines or Phocion had no inspiringvision to rival that of Demosthenes. The orator asked the Athenians to choose that which is just and

honorable, before their own safety and preservation.[110]The people preferred Demosthenes's activismand even the bitter defeat at Chaeronea was regarded as a price worth paying in the attempt to retain

freedom and influence.[113]According to Professor of Greek Arthur Wallace Pickarde, success may be apoor criterion for judging the actions of people like Demosthenes, who were motivated by the ideal of

political liberty.[115]Athens was asked by Philip to sacrifice its freedom and its democracy, while

Demosthenes longed for the city's brilliance.[114]He endeavored to revive its imperilled values and, thus,

he became an "educator of the people" (in the words of Werner Jaeger).[116]

The fact that Demosthenes fought at the battle of Chaeronea as a hoplite indicates that he lacked anymilitary skills. According to historian Thomas Babington Macaulay, in his time the division between

political and military offices was beginning to be strongly marked.[117]Almost no politician, with theexception of Phocion, was at the same time an apt orator and a competent general. Demosthenes dealt in

policies and ideas, and war was not his business.[117]This contrast between Demosthenes's intellectualprowess and his deficiencies in terms of vigor, stamina, military skill and strategic vision is illustrated by

the inscription his countrymen engraved on the base of his statue:[118]

Had you for Greece been strong, as wise you were,The Macedonian would not have conquered her.

Oratorical skill

In Demosthenes's initial judicial orations, the influence of both Lysias and Isaeus is obvious, but his

marked, original style is already revealed.[119]Most of his extant speeches for private caseswritten earlyin his careershow glimpses of talent: a powerful intellectual drive, masterly selection (and omission) of

facts, and a confident assertion of the justice of his case, all ensuring the dominance of his viewpoint overhis rival. However, at this early stage of his career, his writing was not yet remarkable for its subtlety,

verbal precision and variety of effects.[120]

According to Dionysius of Halicarnassus, a Greek historian and teacher of rhetoric, Demosthenesrepresented the final stage in the development of Attic prose. Both Dionysius and Cicero assert thatDemosthenes brought together the best features of the basic types of style; he used the middle or normaltype style ordinarily and applied the archaic type and the type of plain elegance where they were fitting. In

each one of the three types he was better than its special masters.[121]He is, therefore, regarded as a

consummate orator, adept in the techniques of oratory, which are brought together in his work.

[116]

According to the classical scholar Harry Thurston Peck, Demosthenes "affects no learning; he aims at noelegance; he seeks no glaring ornaments; he rarely touches the heart with a soft or melting appeal, andwhen he does, it is only with an effect in which a third-rate speaker would have surpassed him. He had no
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Herma of Demosthenes:

the head is a copy of the

bronze posthumous

commemorative statue in

the Ancient Agora of

Athens by Polyeuctus

(ca. 280 BC); this herm

was found in the Circus of

Maxentius in 1825

(Glyptothek, Munich).

wit, no humour, no vivacity, in our acceptance of these terms. The secret of his power is simple, for it lies

essentially in the fact that his political principles were interwoven with his very spirit."[122]In thisudgement, Peck agrees with Jaeger, who said that the imminent political decision imbued theDemosthenes's speech with a fascinating artistic power.[123]From his part, George A. Kennedy believes

that his political speeches in the ecclesia were to become "the artistic exposition of reasoned views".[124]

Demosthenes was apt at combining abruptness with the extended period, brevity with breadth. Hence, his

style harmonizes with his fervent commitment.[116]His language is simple and natural, never far-fetchedor artificial. According to Jebb, Demosthenes was a true artist who could make his art obey him.[24]Forhis part, Aeschines stigmatized his intensity, attributing to his rival strings of absurd and incoherent

images.[125]Dionysius stated that Demosthenes's only shortcoming is the lack of humor, although

Quintilian regards this deficiency as a virtue.[126]In a now lost letter of his, Cicero, though an admirer ofthe Athenian orator, he claimed that occasionally Demosthenes "nods", and elsewhere Cicero also argued

that, although he is pre-eminent, Demosthenes sometimes fails to satisfy his ears.[127]The main criticism oDemosthenes's art, however, seems to have rested chiefly on his known reluctance to speak

extempore;[128]he often declined to comment on subjects he had not studied beforehand. [122]However,

he gave the most elaborate preparation to all his speeches and, therefore, hisarguments were the products of careful study. He was also famous for his

caustic wit.[129]

Besides his style, Cicero also admired other aspects of Demosthenes'sworks, such as the good prose rhythm, and the way he structured and

arranged the material in his orations.[130]According to the Romanstatesman, Demosthenes regarded "delivery" (gestures, voice etc.) as more

important than style.[131]Although he lacked Aeschines's charming voice

and Demades's skill at improvisation, he made efficient use of his body toaccentuate his words.[132]Thus he managed to project his ideas andarguments much more forcefully. However, the use of physical gestures

wasn't an integral or developed part of rhetorical training in his day.[133]

Moreover, his delivery was not accepted by everybody in antiquity:Demetrius Phalereus and the comedians ridiculed Demosthenes's"theatricality", whilst Aeschines regarded Leodamas of Acharnae as

superior to him.[134]

Rhetorical legacyDemosthenes's fame has continued down the ages. Authors and scholarswho flourished at Rome, such as Longinus and Caecilius, regarded his

oratory as sublime.[135]Juvenal acclaimed him as "largus et exundans

ingenii fons" (a large and overflowing fountain of genius),[136]and heinspired Cicero's speeches against Mark Antony, also called the Philippics.According to Professor of Classics Cecil Wooten, Cicero ended his career

by trying to imitate Demosthenes's political role.[137]Plutarch drew

attention in hisLife of Demosthenesto the strong similarities between thepersonalities and careers of Demosthenes and Marcus Tullius Cicero:[138]
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The "publication" and distribution of prose texts was common practice in Athens by the latter half of thefourth century BC and Demosthenes was among the Athenian politicians who set the trend, publishing

many or even all of his orations.[146]After his death, texts of his speeches survived in Athens (possiblyforming part of the library of Cicero's friend, Atticus, though their fate is otherwise unknown), and in theLibrary of Alexandria. However, the speeches that Demosthenes "published" might have differed from theoriginal speeches that were actually delivered (there are indications that he rewrote them with readers inmind) and therefore it is possible also that he "published" different versions of any one speech, differences

that could have impacted on the Alexandrian edition of his works and thus on all subsequent editionsdown to the present day.[147]

The Alexandrian texts were incorporated into the body of classical Greek literature that was preserved,catalogued and studied by scholars of the Hellenistic period. From then until the fourth century AD, copiesof his orations multiplied and they were in a relatively good position to survive the tense period from the

sixth until the ninth century AD.[148]In the end, sixty-one orations attributed to Demosthenes's survivedtill the present day (some however are pseudonymous). Friedrich Blass, a German classical scholar,

believes that nine more speeches were recorded by the orator, but they are not extant. [149]Modern editions

of these speeches are based on four manuscripts of the tenth and eleventh centuries AD. [150]

Some of the speeches that comprise the "Demosthenic corpus" are known to have been written by other

authors, though scholars differ over which speeches these are.[m]Irrespective of their status, the speeches

attributed to Demosthenes are often grouped in three genres first defined by Aristotle:[151]

Symbouleuticorpolitical, considering the expediency of future actionssixteen such speeches areincluded in the Demosthenic corpus;[m]

Dicanicorjudicial, assessing the justice of past actionsonly about ten of these are cases in whichDemosthenes was personally involved, the rest were written for other speakers;[152]

Epideicticor sophistic display, attributing praise or blame, often delivered at public ceremoniesonly two speeches have been included in the Demosthenic corpus, one a funeral speech that hasbeen dismissed as a "rather poor" example of his work, and the other probably spurious.[153]

In addition to the speeches, there are fifty-six prologues (openings of speeches). They were collected for

the Library of Alexandria by Callimachus, who believed them genuine.[154]Modern scholars are divided:

some reject them, while others, such as Blass, believe they are authentic.[155]Finally, six letters also

survive under Demosthenes's name and their authorship too is hotly debated.[n]

In popular cultureIn the historical novel Fire From Heavenby Mary Renault, Demosthenes is depicted as the chiefvillainIn theEnder's Gamebook series by Orson Scott Card, Demosthenes was used as an onlinepseudonym by Valentine Wiggin

Notes

a.^According to EdwardCohen, professor of Classics atthe University of Pennsylvania,Cleoboule was the daughter of aScythian woman and of an

Timeline of Demosthenes's life (384 BC322 BC)
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en an a er, y on,although other scholars insist onthe genealogical purity ofDemosthenes.[156]There is anagreement among scholars thatCleoboule was a Crimean andnot an Athenian citizen.[157]

Gylon had suffered banishmentat the end of the Peloponnesian

ar for allegedly betrayingNymphaeum in Crimaea.[158]

According to Aeschines, Gylonreceived as a gift from theBosporan rulers a place called"the Gardens" in the colony ofKepoi in present-day Russia(located within two miles(3 km) from Phanagoria).[4]

Nevertheless, the accuracy of

these allegations is disputed,since more than seventy yearshad elapsed between Gylon'spossible treachery andAeschines speech, and,therefore, the orator could beconfident that his audiencewould have no directknowledge of events atNymphaeum.[159]

b.^

According to Tsatsos, thetrials against the guardianslasted until Demosthenes wastwenty four.[160]Nietzschereduces the time of the judicialdisputes to five years.[161]

c.^According to the tenthcentury encyclopedia Suda,Demosthenes studied withEubulides and Plato.[162]

Cicero and Quintilian argue thatDemosthenes was Plato'sdisciple.[163]Tsatsos and thephilologist Henri Weil believethat there is no indication thatDemosthenes was a pupil ofPlato or Isocrates.[164]As far asIsaeus is concerned, accordingto Jebb "the school of Isaeus isnowhere else mentioned, nor isthe name of any other pupil

recorded".[24]Peck believesthat Demosthenes continued tostudy under Isaeus for the spaceof four years after he hadreached his majority.[122]
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d.^"Batalus" or "Batalos"meant "stammerer" in ancientGreek, but it was also the nameof a flute-player (in ridicule ofwhom Antiphanes wrote a play)and of a song-writer.[165]Theword "batalus" was also used bythe Athenians to describe the

anus.[166]In fact the wordactually defining his speechdefect was "Battalos",signifying someone withrhotacism, but it was crudelymisrepresented as "Batalos" bythe enemies of Demosthenesand by Plutarch's time theoriginal word had already lostcurrency.[167]Anothernickname of Demosthenes was

"Argas." According to Plutarch,this name was given him eitherfor his savage and spitefulbehavior or for his disagreeableway of speaking. "Argas" was apoetical word for a snake, butalso the name of a poet.[168]

e.^Both Tsatsos and Weilmaintain that Demosthenesnever abandoned the professionof the logographer, but, afterdelivering his first politicalorations, he wanted to beregarded as a statesman.According to James J. Murphy,Professor emeritus of Rhetoricand Communication at theUniversity of California, Davis,his lifelong career as alogographer continued evenduring his most intenseinvolvement in the politicalstruggle against Philip.[169]

f.^"Theorika" wereallowances paid by the state topoor Athenians to enable themto watch dramatic festivals.According to Libanius, Eubuluspassed a law making it difficultto divert public funds,including "theorika," for minormilitary operations.[48]E.M.Burke argues that, if this wasindeed a law of Eubulus, itwould have served "as a meansto check a too-aggressive and
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expensive interventionism [...]allowing for the controlledexpenditures on other items,including construction fordefense". Thus Burke believesthat in the Eubulan period, theTheoric Fund was used not onlyas allowances for public

entertainment but also for avariety of projects, includingpublic works.[170]As Burkealso points out, in his later andmore "mature" political career,Demosthenes no longercriticized "theorika"; in fact, inhis Fourth Philippic(341340 BC), he defended theoricspending.[171]

g.^

In the Third Olynthiacandin the Third Philippic,Demosthenes characterizedPhilip as a "barbarian", one ofthe various abusive termsapplied by the orator to theKing of Macedon.[172]

According to KonstantinosTsatsos and Douglas M.MacDowell, Demosthenesregarded as Greeks only those

who had reached the culturalstandards of south Greece andhe did not take intoconsideration ethnologicalcriteria.[173]His contempt forPhilip is forcefully expressed inthe Third Philippic31 in theseterms: "...he is not only noGreek, nor related to theGreeks, but not even abarbarian from any place that

can be named with honour, buta pestilent knave fromMacedonia, whence it wasnever yet possible to buy adecent slave." The wording iseven more telling in Greek,ending with an accumulation ofplosive pi sounds: ,

, ,

[174]


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.

h.Âeschines maintained thatDemosthenes was bribed todrop his charges againstMeidias in return for a paymentof thirty mnai. Plutarch arguedthe Demosthenes accepted thebribe out of fear of Meidias's

power.[175]Philipp AugustBckh also accepted Aeschines'saccount for an out-of-courtsettlement, and concluded thatthe speech was never delivered.Bckh's position was soonendorsed by Arnold Schaeferand Blass. Weil agreed thatDemosthenes never delivered

Against Meidias, but believedthat he dropped the charges for

political reasons. In 1956,Hartmut Erbse partlychallenged Bckh's conclusions,when he argued thatAgainst

Meidiaswas a finished speechthat could have been deliveredin court, but Erbse then sidedwith George Grote, byaccepting that, afterDemosthenes secured ajudgment in his favor, he

reached some kind of settlementwith Meidias. Kenneth Doveralso endorsed Aeschines'saccount, and argued that,although the speech was neverdelivered in court, Demosthenesput into circulation an attack onMeidias. Dover's argumentswere refuted by Edward M.Harris, who concluded that,although we cannot be sureabout the outcome of the trial,the speech was delivered incourt, and that Aeschines storywas a lie.[176]

i.Âccording to Plutarch,Demosthenes deserted his colorsand "did nothing honorable, norwas his performance answerableto his speeches".[177]

.Âeschines reproachedDemosthenes for being silent asto the seventy talents of theking's gold which he allegedlyseized and embezzled.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinarchushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenneth_Doverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Grotehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hartmut_Erbsehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philipp_August_B%C3%B6ckhhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mina_(unit)


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esc nes an narc us a somaintained that when theArcadians offered their servicesfor ten talents, Demosthenesrefused to furnish the money tothe Thebans, who wereconducting the negotiations,and so the Arcadians sold out tothe Macedonians.[178]

k.^The exact chronology ofHarpalus's entrance in Athensand of all the related eventsremains a debated topic amongmodern scholars, who haveproposed different, andsometimes conflicting,chronological schemes.[179]

l.^According to Pausanias,Demosthenes himself and othershad declared that the orator hadtaken no part of the money thatHarpalus brought from Asia.He also narrates the followingstory: Shortly after Harpalusran away from Athens, he wasput to death by the servantswho were attending him,though some assert that he wasassassinated. The steward of hismoney fled to Rhodes, and wasarrested by a Macedonianofficer, Philoxenus. Philoxenusproceeded to examine the slave,"until he learned everythingabout such as had allowedthemselves to accept a bribefrom Harpalus." He then sent adispatch to Athens, in which hegave a list of the persons who

had taken a bribe fromHarpalus. "Demosthenes,however, he never mentioned atall, although Alexander heldhim in bitter hatred, and hehimself had a private quarrelwith him."[180]On the otherhand, Plutarch believes thatHarpalus sent Demosthenes acup with twenty talents and that"Demosthenes could not resist

the temptation, but admittingthe present, ... he surrenderedhimself up to the interest ofHarpalus."[181]Tsatsos defendsDemosthenes's innocence, butIrkos Apostolidis underlines the
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philoxenus_(general)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pausanias_(geographer)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinarchus


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problematic character of theprimary sources on this issueHypereides and Dinarchus wereat the timeDemosthenes'spolitical opponents and accusersand states that, despite therich bibliography on Harpalus'scase, modernscholarship has

not yet managed to reach a safeconclusionon whetherDemostheneswas bribed ornot.[182]

m.^Blassdisputes theauthorshipofthe followingspeeches: Fourth Philippic,Funeral Oration,Erotic Essay,

Against Stephanus 2andAgainst Evergus and

Mnesibulus,[183]while Schaeferrecognizesasgenuine onlytwenty-nine orations.[184]OfDemosthenes's corpus politicalspeeches, J.H. Vince singles outfive as spurious: On

Halonnesus, Fourth Phillipic,Answer to Philip's Letter, OnOrganizationand On the Treatywith Alexander.[185]

n.În this discussion the workof Jonathan A. Goldstein,Professor of History andClassics at the University ofIowa, is regarded asparamount.[186]Goldsteinregards Demosthenes's letters asauthentic apologetic letters thatwere addressed to the AthenianAssembly.[187]

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. , , . . .doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0002%3Aspeech%3D2%3Asection%3D34)* D.M. MacDowell,Demosthenes the Orator, ch. 12

76. ^Demosthenes, Third Philippic, 15* G. Cawkwell, Philip II of Macedon, 102103

77. ^ abDemosthenes, On the Crown, 2527* G. Cawkwell, Philip II of Macedon, 102103

78. ^Demosthenes, On the Crown, 30* G. Cawkwell, Philip II of Macedon, 102103

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80. ^Demosthenes, On the Crown, 36; Demosthenes, On the Peace, 10* D.M. MacDowell,Demosthenes the Orator, ch. 12

81. ^Demosthenes, On the Crown, 4382. ^Demosthenes, On the False Embassy, 111113

* D.M. MacDowell,Demosthenes the Orator, ch. 1283. ^E.M. Burke, "The Early Political Speeches of Demosthenes", 18818984. ^Demosthenes, Second Philippic, 1985. ^T. Buckley,Aspects of Greek History 750-323 BC,48086. ^Pseudo-Plutarch,Aeschines,840c

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* C. Carey,Aeschines, 7892. ^C. Carey,Aeschines,78, 1193. ^Demosthenes, On the Crown, 152

* K. Tsatsos,Demosthenes, 283; H. Weil,Biography of Demosthenes, 414294. ^Demosthenes, On the Crown, 153

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98.^

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