decentralised service provision report submission
TRANSCRIPT
1
Development Planning Unit, UCL
“Following decentralisation, how has the quality of education changed in senior secondary and universities in Mekelle to have an
impact on poverty reduction?”
By Chen Chen, Nazia Carim, Raisa Chowdhury, Charles Ensor, Emily Snape and Yuanyuan Zhu
Word count: 10,573
2
Table of contents
Introduction………………………………………….3
Acknowledgements………………………………….5
Acronyms……………………………………………6
Section 1: Research proposal
A review of the international, national and local policy contexts….7
Institutional Landscape………………….……………13
Review of the existing literature and debates………..18
Analytical framework…………………………………23
Methodology and ethical considerations……………..28
Section 2: Report: findings, analysis and policy recommendations
Introduction……………………………….…………..33
Findings…………………………………….………….33
Guidelines and further research…………….…………40
Conclusion………………………………….………….44
Section 3: Appendices
References………………….........................................46
Appendix 1: Code of conduct……………….………...52
Appendix 2.1 Education Sector covered in the Matrix by Component in PASDEP (2005/06-
2009/10)……………………………………….……….54
Appendix 2.2 Main Challenges listed in ESDP IV….....56
Appendix 3.1: Stakeholder analysis………….………..57
Appendix 3.2: List of stakeholders interviewed.………63
Appendix 3.3: Research questions……………….…….66
Appendix 3.4 Interview transcripts……………….……73
Appendix 4: The relationship between decentralisation and poverty reduction….100
Appendix 5: Table of photographic findings…….……101
Appendix 6: Enrolment and graduation of under and post graduate student, Ministry of
Education………………………………….………….…102
Appendix 7: University of Mekelle staff by gender....…103
3
Introduction to our research:
Word count: 487
The aim of this research proposal is to provide readers with an understanding of how the
policy of decentralisation has affected the provision of quality education in Mekelle,
Ethiopia, and ultimately how this is affecting poverty reduction. Our proposal firstly presents
an overview of national and local policies in the Tigray region itself, analysing in depth the
current policies in place to improve the quality of education, as well as the indicators we have
used to measure it. We will then conduct an analysis into the institutional landscape of
education provision within the region, cataloguing its actors and assessing the power relations
present between stakeholders, with particular reference to its effects on decentralisation and
the quality of education. Importantly, the proposal will then present the analytical framework
and the methodology that was employed to better understand the role of decentralisation on
access to quality education and its resulting effects on poverty reduction.
For this we have decided to focus our study on senior secondary schools for the following
distinct reasons:
Though Ethiopia is strongly on track to reach MDG target 2, in reaching universal enrolment
rate at a primary school level, we particularly wanted to see the effects of this on secondary
school education, where there has been a limited, if negligible donor focus. Prior to our field
research we felt this to be of particular importance when considering the region’s strides
towards poverty reduction. We wanted to know how the quality of education within senior
secondary schools (grades 9-12) affects both the region’s prospects of growth as well as the
ability for young adults to reduce or mitigate shocks against their own livelihoods through
increased enrolment in education. In particular we wanted to identify any potential
bottlenecks and barriers to entrance to tertiary education, primarily from the standpoint that
Ethiopia, and the region itself, is pushing towards being a middle-income country by 2025.
Its future is heavily reliant on high-skilled labour, with the country needing to expand its
human capital in order to reach this target.
Decentralisation is particularly important in the process of providing access to quality of
education. We identify resource allocation as a strong element of the process, and for this we
will pay strong attention to the institutional arrangements in place for funding in schools and
4
its scope for improving and expanding the education sector in the region. We are particularly
interested in how decentralisation affects and is affected by four main indicators:
participation, policing, efficiency and curriculum, which will be expanded upon in our
analytical framework section. We will be using this as a framework to firstly assess the
institutions and arrangements currently in place, before using the framework as a means of
offering policy recommendations and areas for further research.
Attached to the end of our proposal are tables, graphs and diagrams pertinent to our research,
as well as the list of questions asked to various stakeholders during our research.
5
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to the teaching staff of the Development Planning Unit for arranging and
organising this research project in Ethiopia. In particular we would like to thank Mr.
Zeremariam Fre and Ms. Di Jiang for their tireless support in helping to refine and develop
our research brief. We would like to thank Mekelle University for accommodating our
research and for their hospitality. Primarily we would like to give special thanks to our
facilitator, Mr Kibiret Dessalegn, and our translator, Mr. Ataklty Adugna, for all their hard
work in arranging and scheduling interviews with important stakeholders.
This research is dedicated to the school girls and boys of the three senior secondary schools
we visited, as well as the teachers and parents. Their first-hand experience of the education
system as it is today in Mekelle provided invaluable insights, critical thinking and
suggestions which have greatly informed our report.
6
Acronyms
CSO Civil Society Organisation
DFID Department for International Development
DLDP District Level Decentralization Program
EPRDF Ethiopian People’s Revolutionary Democratic Front
ESDP Education Sector Development Programme
GEQIP General Education Quality Improvement Project
GER General Enrolment Rate
GIZ Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit
GTP Growth and Transformation Plan
MoE Ministry of Education
MoFED Ministry of Finance and Economic Development
NETP National Education and Training Policy
NGOs Non-government Organisations
PASDEP Plan for Accelerated and Sustained Development to End Poverty
PGDT Post Graduate Diploma in Teaching
PTAs Parent-Teacher Associations
PSTAs Parent-Student-Teacher Associations
REB Regional Education Bureau
REST Relief Society of Tigray
SIP School Improvement Program
SDPRP Sustainable Development and Poverty Reduction Program
TDA Tigray Development Association
TDP Teacher Development Program
TPLF Tigray People’s Liberation Front
TVET Technical and Vocational Education and Training
WCEA World Conference on Education for All
7
Section 1: Research ProposalA review of the international, national and local policy contexts
By Yuanyuan ZhuWord Count: 1,649
International Background
Education is recognised as the foundation for individual and societal development.
International efforts attempt to ensure quality basic education to people all around the world.
Article 26 of the UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights proclaims everyone has the
right to education. The World Conference on Education for All (WCEA) held in Thailand in
1990 adopted the World Declaration on Education for All and Framework of Action to Meet
Basic Learning Needs, which directly promotes Universal Primary Education (UPE) and the
elimination of adult illiteracy. Based on WCEA, the World Education Forum (WEF)
assembled in Senegal ten years later reaffirming the WCEA vision, set six goals and
expressing commitment to achieve Education for All (EFA).
The Dakar Framework for Action, Education for All: Meeting our Collective Commitments
and six regional frameworks for action were established and practiced globally. The
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) set by the Declaration are influential to
international and Ethiopia’s national road map towards education progress. According to The
Plan for Accelerated and Sustained Development to End Poverty (PASDEP), Ethiopia has set
its education goals and themes according to various MDGs focusing not only access to
education, but also education quality and gender equity (see appendix 2). These international
development agenda on education has encouraged Ethiopia to attach great priority to
education and develop its own policy contexts to achieve quality basic education for all its
citizens.
National Policy Context: From Centralisation to Decentralisation
Since the 1940s there have been three different systems of political governance with distinct
education policies: the Imperial, Socialist and modern day Federal System presided over by
the EPRDF regime (Negash, 2006: 12).
8
The Haile Selassie regime (1941-1974) particularly pursued centralisation and policies that
were centred on the idea of national, cultural identity.
The socialist system, governed by the military Derg regime (1974-1991) gave more
autonomy to local regions (McNab, 1990) and challenged the perceived elitism of the
previous regime regarding the poor access to education, especially in rural areas (Daba,
2010). However, as Negash writes (2006), the regime lacked additional resources to expand
which affected education quality.
In 1989, the TPLF founded the EPRDF to unite in opposition against the Derg, and the
Tigray region, especially Mekelle, was a war-torn and neglected area for much of the
proceeding years until the EPRDF came to power in 1991. From this the Federal system was
born and education policies began to take a more decentralised form of planning and
delivery. During the revolutionary movement in the region, the TPLF region acted as a quasi-
autonomous region, exacting and organising its own education system, focusing particularly
on democratic participation and especially the empowerment of women (Young, 1997).
According to the Sustainable Development and Poverty Reduction Program (SDPRP, 2002:
38), there are four pillars (building blocks) for the economic and political strategy to fight
against poverty and ensure sustainable development, one of which is “governance,
decentralization, and empowerment”. In the same year, the District Level Decentralisation
Program (DLDP) was adopted by the government to render districts (woredas) the centre of
socio-economic development, entailing decentralised service provision, including education,
health, water, roads, agriculture and so forth. Local policies throughout all sectors are
designed according to local situations and citizens at the grass roots level are involved and
empowered to tackle poverty. Gender issues have been continually considered and stressed in
the process of decentralisation and empowerment.
9
Table 1. Timeline of Decentralisation in Ethiopia
(Source: USAID, 2010: 38)
Education
The Education system in Ethiopia changed hugely in different periods according to policies
designed and implemented by different governments. The present Ethiopian government has
made education one of the highest priorities in their development agenda which has
developed tremendously. SDPRP includes private sector growth and off-farm employment as
one of the major thrust and has an emphasis on education and human capacity building to
achieve these goals. PASDEP has set the goal of “increasing proportion of Ethiopians who
are educated and enjoy a higher standard of living with access to improved quality of
education” (see appendix 2.1) (PASDEP, 2006: 8-9). In this policy context, admission to
post-primary schools, qualified teachers, gender disparity, and school facility are all
emphasised in addition to primary education. A general Education and Training Policy has
been formulated in April 2004 followed by Education Sector Strategy in September 1994.
10
The policy identifies some major problems of education systems, namely, access, equity,
quality, efficiency and relevance.
Education Sector Development Programs (ESDPs) are designed to meet goals set up by the
MDGs, specifically MDG 2 and MDG 3 mentioned above. From ESDP I to ESDP III, access
to better qualified education for all citizens and relevant socio-economic development were
concentrated to attain the MDGs by 2015. One of the goals ESDPs continue to identify and
focus is to improve the quality of education concerning main challenges (see appendix 2.2).
The current ESDP IV concentrates on “maintaining the momentum of expanding quality
general education and strengthening tertiary education institutions and TVET schools to
promote quality human resource development” (ESDP IV, 2010: 9). Gender equity has been
integrated across all levels of education systems to ensure equal access and quality.
Another policy directly focusing on quality and internal efficiency is the General Education
Quality Improvements Package (GEQIP). It has now become an integral part of ESDP IV, to
ensure student completion and achievement by improving education quality. The attention
has been also placed on improving student learning by quality-focused school supervision,
student participation, school-community partnerships as well as quality concerns in general
concerning numbers and qualification of teachers and the availability of equipment (ESDP
IV, 2010: 10). The challenge of quality is closely related to students’ completion of their
education and drop-out rate. The GEQIP has designed several specific programs on various
aspects of quality improvements, including Curriculum, Textbooks and Assessment (CTA),
Teacher Development Program (TDP), School Improvement Program (SIP), Management
and Administration Program (MAP), Implementation Arrangements, Monitoring and
Evaluation, and Budget and Financing Plan. Gender and equity assessment are applied in
these programs with the consideration of social and culture contexts in Ethiopia.
Local Policy Contexts: Mekelle
Decentralisation at the school level has been practiced through the establishment of Regional
Education Bureaus to improve education quality and to empower local communities to
determine their own educational priorities. Mekelle is one of Ethiopia’s primary economic
and educational centres. As the bearer of responsibility in decentralised service provision,
local government undertakes the responsibility to provide quality education and training for
11
any job, title, or position approximate national standards and other activities in the public
services that have been decentralized since 2001. According to Tigray’s Five Years (2010/11
- 2014/15) Growth & Transformation Plan, the access to education in the region is not the
major concern these days so an emphasis will be given to ensure the quality of education in
the region by evaluating and strengthening the good practices that has been achieved so far.
To measure the quality of education, the indicators that are currently used are teacher
qualifications, the teacher-student ratio, class size, and the distribution of text books to
students among others.
In the Plan of the next five years from 2010/11 to 2014/15, one of the missions of Tigray
Regional State is “providing education and health services to all citizens”. The Plan attempts
to bring changes in overall economic structure through several pillar strategies, one of which
is to improve the access and quality of social development. By strengthening the promising
achievements gained in education and training, services and improving quality of education,
efforts will be made to increase the participation rate of children and especially of females.
Moreover, based on evaluation results of the program of improving quality of education,
additional measures will be taken to achieve the intended standard of education.
Conceptual Framework
The conceptual framework presents all the components of this report. The background
explores national and local policies of decentralisation focusing on education quality. Then
the institutional landscape studies stakeholders and the power relationship that exists between
them. Relevant existing literature and debates are reviewed to lay a theoretical foundation.
The analytical framework corresponds to the rationale and logic of the research. Research
questions and strategies are outlined to collect data needed with ethical considerations.
Consequently, findings are analysed to generate further research and policy
recommendations. Through the whole process, the research question is evaluated
theoretically and practically.
12
Institutional Landscape:
Stakeholder & Power
Relationship
Literature Review:Relevant
literature and debates
Analytical Framework:
poverty reduction, decentralisation and quality of
education
Methodology:QuestionsStrategies
Ethical considerations
Background:National and local policy contexts
Report:
Findings and Analysis
Research Question:
Following decentralisation, how has the quality of education changed in senior secondary and universities in Mekelle to have an impact on poverty reduction?
13
Institutional LandscapeBy Nazia Carim
Word Count: 1,380
Power analysis of stakeholders in the education system
The power relations between stakeholders can be analysed through two dimensions:
power sourced from capital and power sourced from cultural norms and values. There
are three sources of capital for the various stakeholders within the educational system
in Ethiopia: these are financial, political and social capital, which together determine
the power of each stakeholder’s impact on education, specifically the quality of
education.
The power analysis chart provides a visual representation of the distribution of power
found in the educational sector following decentralisation. The national Ministry of
Education distributes power to the Regional Education Bureau which, in this case
study is Tigray. However, it also gives devolves power to international donors and
NGOs, in some cases even bypassing the regional institutions altogether. Essential to
the success of decentralisation, an example of strong central authority can be found in
the case of GEQIP’s direct allocation of funding to intended senior secondary schools.
The international donors we refer to in this power analysis are; World Bank, DFID,
GIZ and British Council, whereas NGOs refers to TDA. At this level financial and
political capital are the most relevant, although in the case of TDA we found that due
to their ‘local’ nature, they also had considerable social capital in Tigray.
The main influence from the national level on senior secondary schools, are
educational policies and funding. The national government determines core elements
of the curriculum such as the 70-30 policy, which reflects power sourced from
political capital. Furthermore the Ministry of Education also designs national
educational policies and programmes such as GEQIP and the Education Sector
Development Programmes (ESDPs). These demonstrate political capital by
14
solidifying their presence at the local level. In contrast to this, power sourced from
financial capital is limited. This is due to the limited funding directly sourced from the
national budget. This is based on the fact that our restricted research indicated that a
mere 20 Birr per student, was allocated by the Mekelle woreda from the national
budget. This affords external stakeholders, such as NGOs and International Donors,
entry points into the power structure through financial capital.
At this level the impact of cultural norms and values are reflected in the history of the
Tigray region in the national context. Due to its central role in the revolution through
the TPLF, Tigray has acquired a certain prestige. This has enabled them to have an
influence within policymaking and also be unique in various areas including
education. This is seen in the curriculum for example, where Tigray is the only region
to teach their regional dialect, Tigrinya, until grade 8, as opposed to grade 4 as in all
other regions. The pro-government sentiment in the region plays a huge role in the
power structure, particularly in reference to the education sector. Tigray is a
significant region in Ethiopia, and its capital, Mekelle, is afforded many perks such as
investment and infrastructure. A clear example is TDA, an NGO that is having a huge
impact on the region’ s education and health, and is formed and financed mainly by
the Tigray diaspora. This denotes the significant cultural power Tigray holds in the
national context, due to its history prior to decentralisation.
The power flow changes from the woreda level down, as it becomes bottom up rather
than top down. We witnessed strong local ownership within Mek’ele’s educational
system, specifically at the level of Senior Secondary schools. This is because the
schools very much relied on community support, which was channelled through the
PSTA’s.
Hence, here we find a power stratum which is more significantly tied to the cultural
dimension than the top down part of the diagram. Nonetheless, power found on the
15
bottom half of the power analysis diagram, is still sourced from the three types of
capital. The main source of influence between these three types of capital is difficult
to discern, as here many of the stakeholders overlap. Financial capital for example is
very heavily sourced from the community through the PSTAs, the main stakeholder of
power here are parents. This is due to the fact that they provide the finance for the
schools’ immediate needs. An example is the PSTA in Ayder Senior Secondary
School, which built a staff room for the teachers. This type of power affords them a
great deal of influence in local policies through their kebelles and woredas, but most
importantly in the school’s individual policies.
The woreda is responsible for distributing state funds as well as NGO funds, like
those from TDA. This is because TDA recently changed their policy regarding funds,
so that they no longer manage the funds themselves but rather keep only 30%, for
administration and projects. The remaining 70% is distributed to the woredas and
kebelles directly, to allow them to spend as they see fit with regards to education and
health. Hence the financial entry point into the power strata left by the state is filled
by multiple stakeholders in different positions, changing the power relations in the
local context significantly. This is because it affords the community a real stake in the
education system at senior secondary level, which allows them ownership of the
process. In relation to which there are power hierarchies created within the
community, which can be seen through the establishment of PSTA’s and civic
councils.
This creates sources of political and social capital, with the political being derived
from local institutions such as the civic council and the PSTAs, and the social coming
from being a part of these aforementioned institutions, as they denote power in the
community. For example, the parents we talked to who were members of the PSTA,
spoke very proudly of their role and mentioned that this gave them an elevated status
within society. These overlaps speak to the complex structure of power relations
16
within the local context where power flows bottom-up. Interestingly in this structure
parents have more power overall than teachers and the wider community, which is a
unique dynamic within an educational system. This is a result of decentralisation
policy which has created entry points for different stakeholders1.
Finally, the cultural dimension is quite significant, specifically from the gender
viewpoint. Despite the progressive figures we have seen of women in power in the
political sphere, in the field we spoke to only one woman in power. This is very
important, as the area of Tigray has a very powerful history that includes war
heroines, such as Tirfu Kindemariam, the head of Tigray’s civil service. There is a
huge disparity in the power structure where women are concerned. Within the schools
we did not have access to a single female teacher, despite the fact that we saw female
faculty members, and requested interviews with female teachers specifically. Hence it
can be deduced that the female voice in institutions is not heard despite their presence,
and this may be derived from specific cultural elements.
We had limited access to these cultural facets of power relations, but the brief insights
we did gain were very informative. The research assistant of a very inspiring
professor at Mekelle University told us that she was he only female professor in the
natural sciences department – which accounts for 70% of the curriculum. She said that
this is due to the fact that students still view female teachers as less able to teach than
males, and also that the University was discriminating in the hiring process against
women. This is the kind of struggle the female professor has been facing, yet she has
been successful in making changes in the University’s policy in hiring women.
However, she is an exception to the very patriarchal rule found within the power strata
of the educational system.
1 For a review of primary and secondary stakeholders please refer to appendix 3.1
17
Power analysis diagram of relevant stakeholders
18
Review of the existing literature and debatesBy Chen Chen
Word Count: 1,307
Importance of Education:
While education continues to receive great attention in policy debates, reforming
education to provide adequate access and quality education, involves redefining the
role of government in education management and finance. Proponents of fiscal
decentralisation and decentralised education argue that decision-making in the
delivery of education services that are closer to the people, at lower levels of
government, may translate into better education service delivery and improved output
(Fiske 1996; Hanson and Ulrich 1994).
Theory of Decentralisation:
Decentralisation consists of a transfer of public functions from higher tiers to lower
tiers of governance. Rondinelli (1981) Deconcentration implies the “outsourcing of
central government functions to local or regional offices of the same”. Subnational
officials are appointed by the centre and are subject to directives from above. Demand
for equity and efficiency in local public services pushes the trends of decentralization.
Noted inefficiencies in the management and delivery of local public services, often
provided earlier through central government without a proper notion of local needs
and demands, which has raised the demand for decentralization to improve level,
quality and efficiency in delivering public services.
USAID (2010) has summarized the achievements and limitations of decentralisation
in Ethiopia regarding three aspects – political, fiscal and administrative – and four
intermediate objectives of authority, autonomy, accountability and capacity (see
appendix figure 2). Garcia and Rajkumar (2008) examine social services delivery in
19
the contexts of decentralization with coverage of education sector. The potential to
provide better services through decentralisation is asserted but the constraints are also
critically analysed, such as inadequate resource and information at local level, poor
administrative capacity, unclear expenditure assignments and responsibilities, lack of
monitoring and enforcement and so on. Recommendations given are focused on
recruiting and retaining of teachers and stuffs, citizens and communities
empowerment, and accountability mechanisms to ensure the efficiency and equity of
decentralisation.
Local Economy
The economy of Ethiopia as a whole is growing quickly the exact percentage has been
debated but the World Bank has put the figure at 7.2% of GDP growth for 2014.
There GNI per Capita was at $320 in 2012, and the poverty percentage ratio of the
population was at 29.6% in 2011. And school enrolment was at 79% in 2005 – it has
risen considerably since. (World Bank, 2008).
Literature linking the education to the economy have two takes on the issue, one is the
practicality in terms of higher skills translating to higher productivity. The second
argument is based on the efficiency and capacity of the labour force to deal with local
issues effectively, and protecting the economy and knowledge systems from the
global systems. This was presented by Desta he argued in his various articles about
the importance of indigenous knowledge.
The World Bank produced a report in 2005 highlighting the clear and practical links
between education and poverty reduction through higher incomes and productivity.
Mainly the report argues that both in agriculture and the salaried professions those
with higher education levels had higher productivity and income. Furthermore
20
households headed by people with higher levels of education even at a basic primary
level had higher incomes of around 32%.
The argument is made based on established hypothesis and is then reasoned in context
to data from the country to determine whether or not the hypothesis prove true. This
data clearly demonstrates that education has a big impact on the economy and
correlates directly to poverty reduction, both in the agricultural sector as well as the
salaried and private sector. This has clearly had an impact on policy by the
government to improve the education in recent years, hence it will be beneficial to
assess the reality in Ethiopia almost a decade after this report was produced, in order
to compare the progress made (World Bank, 2005).
Education Policy:
There are two key elements concerned as the basis of education quality: students’
cognitive learning (what achievement tests usually measure) and their social, creative,
inter-personal and emotional development. Cognitive learning is usually set as the
objective of education and also as indicators to measure quality despite various
measure targets and methods. Cognitive learning has been emphasized by Ethiopia’s
policies and includes student-centred knowledge, analytical thinking, and problem-
solving skills which are the bedrock of the 1994 National Education and Training
Policy (NETP) and the new curriculum (Transitional Government of Ethiopia 1994)
(Amare et al, 2006: 5). UNESCO (2004: 32-35) has released a report on education
quality outlining four approaches usually mix-used and dominating education
policies.
Tekeste Negash examined and compared the education policies of Ethiopia’s regimes
from 1941 to 2006 and found a correlation between poverty and poor education policy
(Telila, 2010: 59). Since 1991 Ethiopia has gone through decentralisation and big
21
changes in education system. Both positive and negative sides of these changes are
debated by scholars. Almost all the articles recognized the recent expansion of the
educational system with basic access to education yet the quality of education has a
tendency of deterioration instead (Telila, 2010, pp. 61). Besides, scholars also
criticized that the expansion did not decrease the level of poverty.
Gender
The gendered effects of access to quality education are particularly well cited in the
available literature, with the constraints taking the broader headings of
socioeconomic, sociocultural and school related factors (Rose and Al-Samarrai,
2001). The most commonly cited socioeconomic reasons for lack of access to
schooling is due, in part, to household economics and the misallocation of resources
which favours the sending of male children over female when resources are
particularly stretched (Mulugeta, 2004). Due to the socialisation of patriarchal
gendered norms which values the education of boys as being able to see better returns
from education than girls, there is much more of a household work burden, with girls
facing more responsibility in participating in reproductive labour (Mulugeta, 2004;
Rose and Al-Samarrai, 2001).
Even when girls are enrolled in primary and secondary education, work within the
household diverts schoolgirls’ attention away from school work. This in turn leads to
higher drop-out rates and instances of grade repetition among girls, which is more
likely to be the case the larger a family is (Rose et al, 2001). An economically strained
household tends to reinforce cultural norms and the socialisation of gendered
differences (Mjaaland, 2010: 5), with women and girls suffering from a “reproductive
tax” (Palmer, 1995), that is higher opportunity costs vis-à-vis boys (Weir, 2000),
which decreases the chance of education as well as low absorption rates into the local
economy (Rose and Al-Samarrai, 2001).
22
Cultural values and expectations particularly affect the enrolment and retention of
female students in the education system, and is something we found that hindered
their progress from senior secondary school level to university as well as employment
in the local economy. Instead of education this becomes a valued priority, which
therefore affects attendance and retention in the schooling system and
disproportionately affects girls2. Conservative views on gender greatly affect the
mobility of girls and therefore access to education. In areas where schools are more
than ten kilometres away girls unlikely to be able to access schools due to distance.
Particular to the case of Tigray has been a generational shift towards an increased
recognition of the importance of education for girls (Maajland, 2010). Due to the role
of women in the TPLF movement in the region, new dialogues about female
participation in education have emerged (Mjaaland, 2010: 3). In general, trends in
Ethiopia show positive strides towards achieving gender parity in enrolment and
attendance at primary school level education (Unterhalter, 2010), with the Tigray
region actually showing greater enrolment of girls than boys at primary schools
(Mjaaland, 2010: 2) and it is arguable that historical context has allowed this to
become a possibility.
2 This is not something we found in the urban context of the city of Mekelle, but is something which the literature informs as being a particular rural issue.
23
Analytical Framework: Relationship between Decentralisation of Service Provision and Poverty Reduction
By Raisa ChowdhuryWord Count: 1235 words
The World Bank (2001) defines poverty as “pronounced deprivation in well-being”
and highlights that poverty can include different features, including limited access to
education. According to advocates of decentralisation claim “reorganization will
improve the quality of teaching and learning by locating decisions closer to the point
at which they must be carried out and be energizing teachers and administrators to do
a better job” (Fiske 1996, p. 24).
This section will highlight the relationship between decentralisation of service
provision, particularly in the education sector, to poverty reduction. Decentralisation
can have both political and economic impact (OECD; 2004)3. We have selected four
indicators for the quality of education, which also corresponds to the political and
economic impacts of decentralisation:
1) Participation
2) Policing
3) Efficiency
4) Curriculum
Political Impact:
Decentralisation of education is expected to allow citizens to have more voice and
encourage community involvement. By creating new institutions, decentralisation
empowers citizens by giving them greater voice and participation, and involving them
more so that they might play a greater role in management of services. This is expected
3 See appendix 4
Political Impact
Economic Impact
24
to improve services, including education. If there is local independence, parental
contribution and community participation in school is considered to be a good
strategy for improvement. For our research, participation refers to participation of
students, teachers, parents and civil society organisations.
Decentralisation is also expected to strengthen accountability and improve
transparency. Also, decentralisation is a way to share power between different ethnic
groups (especially in ethnically divided regions) and this is expected to lead to
political stability. Due to greater voice, responsiveness and monitoring, accountability
relationships are also strengthened. “Policing” as an indicator for our research looks at
internal assessments carried out by schools and community, and external inspections
by Regional Education Bureau, woredas and kebelles.
Economic Impact:
Decentralisation should have a strong and positive impact on poverty through
increased efficiency and better targeting of services. Efficiency as an indicator for our
research looked at the infrastructure and the facilities within the educational
institutions. It is important to have a link between costs and benefits in order to
improve the efficiency of services. There is a greater scope for improved revenue
utilisation and increased budget available for programs when local governments have
the independence to charge fees and impose local taxations. Efficiency is ensured as
decentralisation eliminates bureaucratic procedures and motivates local officials to
take responsibility for resource allocation. Efficient allocation of resources takes place
as local government units are assumed to be more informed about local needs and be
responsive towards the communities they serve.
Decentralisation of education leads to improved targeting due to the institutionalised
linkage with beneficiary communities. This enables better and more responsive
25
mechanisms that are able to distinguish between local changes in conditions,
standards, and market requirements. Again, community participation leads to
increased access to information and therefore better project performance through
improved targeting. As such, for our research, we used “curriculum” as a measure of
better targeting since it is designed and revised every five years to meet the local
development needs.
Analytical Framework: Linking decentralisation to poverty reduction
An improvement in the quality of education (measured by the four indicators:
participation, policing, efficiency and curriculum) is expected to create high skilled
labour in the region. The Ethiopian government has a target to become a middle-
Government Policy -
Decentralisation
Local Ownership of Education
Quality of Education Measured
By
Participation Policing Efficiency Curriculum
High Skilled Labour
Poverty Reduction
Government Development Policy
26
income country by 2025, and this will be possible if the economy moves from
agriculture to manufacturing. Therefore there is a need for creation of high skilled
labour force. This is derived from important contributions by Kaldor (1966; 1967)
who states that manufacturing should be considered as the leading sector in economic
growth. The link between GDP and the rate of growth of manufacturing can be seen
in Kaldor’s first law - “the faster the rate of growth of manufacturing in the economy,
the faster will be its growth of GDP” (Dasgupta; 2006). We can also assume that the
employed labour will have higher income, leading to poverty reduction. In addition,
the employed labour will be able to pay higher taxes, which can be used as a source of
increased public expenditure by the government to further implement its development
policy.
Central governments in most developing countries are involved in financing and
regulating (standardising and monitoring) in many developing countries as primary
and secondary education tends to be a national priority. On the other hand, it is the
responsibility of the regional governments in most developed countries, such as the
United States. However, education decentralisation will only improve education
output in a context where democracy is working effectively, i.e. in which regional
governments are able to apprehend all local externalities, and institutions have
adequate capacity to respond to people’s needs. In the absence of these presumptions
it is argued that “decentralisation in education may increase disparities in access,
learning outputs, and disparities and inequality in expenditures” (Elmore, Fuller, and
Orfield 1996; Godwin and Kemerer 2002).
There are two sets of conditions that determine the impact of decentralisation on
poverty (OECD; 2004). They are as follows:
1) Background conditions:
Country Setting: This includes population density, national
infrastructure, level of income and inequalities across regions. In
27
countries with low GDP, resources may be drained for the
establishment of local institutions, and thereby leave minimal amount
for poverty reduction strategies.
Capacity of local actors: In countries with weak government
accountability, decentralisation does not necessarily lead to pro-poor
outcomes.
Political power structure: The institutional framework of checks and
balances is critical.
2) Process conditions:
The capacity and willingness to carry out reforms: It is important to
have political commitment (at the national level), monetary means (at
the local level), and involvement of international donors in assisting to
plan and implement policies.
Transparency and participation: Outcomes for the pro-poor growth
depend on the implementation of transparent and accountable
mechanisms, as well as the participation of local communities.
Consistent Policies: Decentralisation will have greater effectiveness if
it is supported by other policy changes and if the course does not
oppose other efforts that are being carried out by the country.
28
Methodology and Ethical Code
By Emily SnapeWord Count: 1,252
Main Question: “Following decentralisation, how has the quality of education
changed in senior secondary and universities in Mekelle to have an impact on poverty
reduction?”
Sub Questions:
How has the level of participation of each stakeholder changed following
decentralisation?
What are the policing mechanisms for quality of education following
decentralization?
Have there been any improvements in infrastructure and facilities as a result of
decentralisation?
How responsive is the curriculum to local development needs?
Is there evidence that graduates are able to enter the high-skilled labor market
and able to participate in the local economy?
Is there a divide between men and women in pursuing higher education? If so,
what are the reasons behind this?
Strategy for Collecting Primary and Secondary Data:
In order to collect a holistic interpretation of the quality of education found in
Mekelle, research triangulation was conducted through 75 semi-structured interviews,
including 25 formal interviews, 44 informal interviews and a focus group discussion.
Rational behind these informal interviews (mostly with students and teachers) was to
get an understanding of individual perspectives regarding satisfaction with the current
taught curriculum and facilities found on campus. Motivated in achieving a
comprehensive study of analysis, the purpose of conducting these informal and
29
unsupervised interviews was to counteract challenges associated to receiving a biased
image of a school’s reputation.
In terms of sampling, we were able to visit all three public senior secondary schools,
one public TVET institution, and the only public university within the Mekelle region.
In doing so, 100 percent coverage of all public education institutions was
accomplished within the city4. In terms of stakeholders interviewed, we only had
access to top-tier students, parents involved with PTA’s, teachers (including
principals and senior teachers), government officials and representatives supporting
NGO’s, such as the Tigray Development Association (TDA) and Relief Society of
Tigray (REST).
The objective of all formal interviews was to firstly understand the influence
administrative decentralisation in the education sector has transformed quality,
specifically looking at the four crucial indicators of our analytical framework: 1.
Participation, 2. Policing, 3. Efficiency and 4. Curriculum. Secondly, interview
questions regarding the role of gender were included to analyse the influence these
societal norms have had on these aforementioned indicators. A third focus of our
interviews looked at how interviewees felt about any barriers involved in their
entrance into the labour market, to establish an understanding of whether changes in
the education sector have reduced levels of poverty.
To overcome ethical considerations surrounding whether or not to record formal
interviews, our team delegated one individual to create a verbatim transcript of all
interviewee responses (see appendix 3.2). Benefits associated to the creation of this
transcript include allowing the interview to have better flow without interruption (of
4 It should be noted that our analysis was limited to research only public schools, despite
acknowledging the presence of private and religious schools. Our reasoning behind limiting
our study to these institutions was because these schools provide the most appropriate
representation of the role decentralization has had on the education sector.
30
note taking), create a comprehensive narrative useful for our analysis, and reduce
levels of interviewer bias in interpretation. Another scope of qualitative analysis was
achieved through a focus group discussion with six TVET students. While this
experience proved beneficial in enabling an in depth discussion regarding our topic,
the main purpose of this activity was purely ethnographic in making observations
about the interactions witnessed between participants related to our analysis of
gender. Lastly, an alternative source of primary qualitative data collected includes a
photographic comparison of the standards of infrastructure and facilities observed in
each educational institution, e.g. toilets.
The main source of primary quantitative data was gathered from senior secondary
schools, TVET, and Mekelle University administrations. We collected sex-
disaggregated data from secondary and TVET institutions including; enrolment rates,
drop out rates, academic performance of students within different subjects. From
Mekelle University, figures were provided from the registration office on the gender
composition of staff and student within all departments. This information was
gathered in parallel to our gender parity analysis of female/male student participation
and performance. Such data is imperative in linking the realities of education quality
performance on the ground to national and regional statistics regarding the education
sector, ex: Education Statistics Annual Abstract (2012-13) and the Tigray’s Five Year
Plan (2010/11- 2014/15).
Ethical Considerations:
Particular considerations were taken into account when assessing how we would
conduct interviews and collect primary data, both on the part of the participants and
the researchers. Our primary concern was developing an equitable methodology in
collecting data and formation of interview questions, which were sensitive to
local/individual issues and contexts. Given the political environment of the Mekelle
31
and Tigray region, there were particular constraints in how we were able to phrase
certain questions in our interviews in making sure they did not include any political
connotations and/or overtures.
This meant that primary and secondary stakeholders were unable or reluctant to talk
about advocacy, campaigning and issues surrounding human rights in the education
sector. With an understanding of this situation prior to our field research, we ensured
that our questions did not probe into sensitive issues that would make participants feel
uncomfortable about proceedings.
The issue of cultural sensitivity pervades the issue of what can be discerned as
sensitive information, which inherently is politically and culturally determined. As
researchers from backgrounds unfamiliar with the Ethiopian and Mekelle context, we
therefore found it appropriate to consult academics, particularly our facilitators and
members of the DPU staff, about the appropriateness of our interview questions. This
was used as a strategy to firstly mitigate against bias in the interview process as well
as avoiding posing questions which would be insensitive to local realities. However, it
should also be noted that our facilitators did hold a significant power in
influencing/selecting the individuals we were able to interview for our study.
An explicit choice we arrived at during discussions prior to the fieldtrip was the
emphasis on including children over the age of 16 as interview informants as it was
deemed insensitive to interview children lower than this age.
In relation to the participants of both our formal interviews and our focus group
session, the following ethical issues were considered prior to our research:
Prior to every interview it was mandatory to obtain the informed consent of voluntary
participants after notifying participants of the objective of our research and their
32
particular relevance to the information being collected (Brydon, 2006; Phillips and
Johns, 2012: 79). If participants were unable to interpret the consent forms provided,
an oral translation was provided by our facilitator before they signed. The importance
of this was to allow the interviewee or focus group participants to be pre-warn them of
any risks associated to participating in our research, as well as establish a baseline
level of trust.
Confidentiality was of paramount concern, especially when regarding the safety and
anonymity of participants. For example our research has particular implications
regarding the issue of gender at Mekelle University, where we have discovered some
very fundamental gender inequalities through informal accounts. As our gender
analysis plays a predominate role in our report, we feel it necessary to protect the
identities of those students/staff involved where sensitive issues have cropped up
within our analysis of education at the university level. Though the identities of
interviewees are known by the researchers of the group, and have been included in
this research report (see appendix 3.4), confidential information will not be used in
any publications outside UCL’s Development Planning Unit.
33
Section 2:
Report: findings, analysis and policy recommendations
Word Count: 3,225
Introduction
This section of the report summarises the key findings of our research, as measured by
the four indicators we have used to assess the quality of education that was collected
in the field.
To do this we will utilise our analytical framework to assess the performance of the
education sector in the region, as well as using it as a diagnostic tool to identify the
obstacles and opportunities in accessing quality of education across the three levels of
education that we have studied.
We then use our analysis to detail a set of policy recommendations which we believe
will ameliorate the quality of education in the Mekelle region, and explore avenues of
research which can supplement this process.
Findings
1. Obstacles and opportunities in achieving quality education
Based on the analytical framework, the research during the field trip to Mekelle was
concentrated on the four indicators of local education quality: participation, policing,
efficiency and curriculum. Secondary schools, TVET and university were picked to
collect information and compare four indicators at various levels.
34
I. Participation
Students
As the recipients of education, students’ participation and voice are pivotal
considerations. Overall students faced dissatisfaction with the facilities across three
levels of education, TVET, senior secondary school and at a university level which
arguably. The students we interviewed at all three senior secondary schools expressed
discontent at the quality of the facilities available at the schools, with students
interviewed articulating a poor impression of the libraries present in each of the
schools. Alongside poor library facilities we generally found that the out-of-class
support for students was non-existent, a strong reason being the lack of support
teachers had themselves in terms of capacity building and on-the-job training from
relevant government ministries. Though in-class arrangements such as the 5-1
“educational army”, whereby top students mentor medium-low achieving students
seek to bridge educational and attainment gaps at an intra-pupil level, the quality of
education afforded per pupil vastly differed.
Girls also reported more concern with the toilet facilities at school, TVET and
university level, which affects girls who are middle to low achievers in the classroom.
For the girls at the top of their classes in the schools we interviewed this was cited as
an issue, but was given a low level of priority regarding their enrolment at school.
Boys found the toilets in a poor state as well, but not as much of an issue as their
female counterparts
Due to successes at policy level in mainstreaming the importance of good gender
practices at senior secondary school level, the participation of girls at a secondary
school level was equal to that of boys, with more girls than boys actually enrolled
across all three schools. However, having analysed data across three, we have found a
35
general pattern which shows that the top performers in each school were, by and
large, male, with only a handful of girls achieving at the top of their classes.
Undoubtedly this affects the ability of females in pursuing higher education, with a
grade disparity particularly apparent between girls and boys. The gender ratio at
TVET and at Mekelle University was unbalanced in favour of males. Unfortunately
we were unable to access this data at a university level5. However through interviews,
especially with a female alumnus who graduated from the university in the last year,
we were able to understand some of the social pressures young women face in
enrolling past senior secondary school level, as well as the gender inequalities faced
by women while enrolled at university.
Teachers
Due to the Post Graduate Diploma in Teaching (PGDT) government policy the
minimum qualifications for teachers at all three levels has increased. In order to
promote student centred teaching, PGDT gives training teachers the opportunity to
develop practical hours in observing classes and receiving feedback from both
students and mentor teachers concerning proposed class plans. Though this is a
needed and necessary step towards improving the quality of education within senior
secondary schools, the time it takes for prospective teachers to train to become fully
qualified can act to affect the stock of fully trained teachers available to serve
secondary schools. Teachers can receive on-the-job training and capacity building, but
this is not given in situ at the schools in which they are employed, but rather by
external actors or through self-motivation to travel to teacher training centres.
Motivation of teachers at senior secondary school, TVET and university level was
low. We discovered that this was due to the fact that a number of teachers whom we
interviewed were working on a voluntary basis or for minimal pay, as well
5 See appendix figure 6 for an overview of the male-female ratio across Ethiopian universities
36
experiencing low-job satisfaction arising from poor teacher training provisions for
example. This is cause for some concern as it undeniable affects the quality of
education provided for students.
Parents
Given the heavily decentralised nature of senior secondary schools, whereby schools
are funded by bottom-up community approaches, parents whom we interviewed who
were members of PTA organisations identified the important role of community
fundraising in pooling resources towards the management, administration and
expansion of the schools they were involved in. The role of parents in this process is
largely voluntary, with members balancing paid employment with their PTA roles.
Parents very much play an active role participating in resource allocation for senior
secondary school, but play as passive role in TVET and university. Overall a
consistent role of parents across the three levels is the role they play as “initiators”
(Mulugeta, 2004), in the sense that their perception of the value of education dictates
involvement of not only the students interviewed, but also their classmates. Parental
expectations can largely inform and shape social constraints which limit the level of
female graduates studying at a higher education level.
Civil Society Organisations
As described with parents, CSO organisations form the social body which helps
financial assistance through fundraising for senior secondary school. These locally
embedded organisations also provided technical and material assistance in the form of
manpower and building materials respectively. They play an active role in the
physical building and expansion plans of senior secondary schools. This role is the
same at TVET level. Mekelle University is greatly involved in the local community
and provides vital technological, technical and knowledge inputs for stakeholders in
37
the community. For example, the university is involved in soil conservation and
irrigation projects in the Tigray region, particularly applying critical research to help
local farmers become more productive in a harsh climate or in growing crops which
are more appropriate for this environment. In this sense there is a large degree of
knowledge sharing between civil society actors and Mekelle University.
II. Policing
Policing is essential for guaranteeing education quality, and in making sure the correct
institutional frameworks are put in place to regulate for an efficient and equitable
education system. Decentralisation has particularly provided PTA organisations and
civil society organisations with a large role to play in ensuring the quality of
education. PTAs also create an environment where mechanisms for dealing with
student and teacher malfeasance can be enforced. Internally, PTAs oversees the
outputs and inputs of education with the participation of both school teachers and
parents. They decide the priority list for investment in infrastructure expansion within
schools, and generally have a large role to play in the allocation of budgets within
schools. In essence PTAs self-regulate without the intervention of external actors.
Externally, Tigray Regional Education Bureau undertakes supervisions every three
years. Inspections are applied at the woreda and kebelle levels yearly and quarterly
respectively.
The framework for policing at TVET was not analysed as rigorously as we could not
contact the body in charge of the process. At university level the process of policing is
highly centralised, with the central government providing the assessment of
investment needs within university, as well providing the regulatory body in terms of
quality of education.
38
III. Efficiency
The indicator of efficiency mainly focuses on school infrastructure and facilities. The
sanitation problems are severe in schools, both students and teachers are dissatisfied
with low quality toilets. Except university, all secondary schools and TVET don’t
have water to flush and wash hands in their toilets. Libraries are poorly built and the
books are insufficient and outdated. The satisfaction of science and ICT labs in
secondary schools and universities are low due to inadequate equipment and
computers as well as inaccessibility to Internet. Another problem in secondary schools
is their cramped seating that 3 to 4 students have to share one table together and one
classroom is overcrowded with 60 to 70 students. For an illustration of facilities at the
school we have attached photographs to the appendix (se appendix 5)
IV. Curriculum
The curriculum decides the contents of education. For secondary schools, curriculums
are revised every 5 years according to findings of inspections and assessment to fill
the gaps and respond to local and governmental needs. Students have to share one
textbook with 2 to 3 classmates and return books to school after their graduation. This
greatly affects grade attainment in the classroom More and new textbooks are needed.
Students in TVET have their own textbooks which are only revised when relevant
guidelines or criteria are changed. Additionally, students complained about
overemphasis on theory and lack of practice in secondary schools and university,
especially the university students are worried about their job hunting after graduation
without any practical experiences.
At present government policy dictates that 70% of the curriculum is dedicated
towards the natural sciences compared to 30% directed towards the social science.
This dictates local development plans and thereby defines the types of jobs available
39
on the job market for university graduates. This particularly has gendered
implications, as subjects within the remit of natural sciences, which include physics,
medical degrees, biology and chemistry which are traditionally male-oriented career
paths. This arguably limits the effects of poverty reduction on women through
creating an inefficient allocation of resources.
The current curriculum is also constrained by lack of infrastructural development at
senior secondary schools, TVET and at Mekelle University. Students at senior
secondary school who are interested in, or study more practical subjects or degrees,
face particular issues relating to the lack of adequate facilities. TVET students,
conversely, complain at the lack of theoretical application to their studies, and find
that they have to enrol at university level in order to gain a holistic understanding of
their chosen subjects. University students faced similar problems to senior secondary
school students, and were unhappy with the facilities (most noticeably IT and science
laboratories), which results in a curriculum which is overly theoretical for the
demands of students studying in the natural sciences sector.
Gender disparities in grade attainment at senior secondary school level
Primary data, collected at each of the three senior secondary schools regarding grade
attainment, reflect notable gender inequalities. In this section of the report we include a
cumulative collection of this data in form of pie charts (see over the page) to better illustrate
the trend we found in the schools between boys and girls on aggregate. The left hand column
shows the number of males (first pie chart) and the number of females (second pie chart) in
the bottom grade percentile per school (which we set at 50 and lower). The right hand
column shows the number of males (first pie chart) and the number of females
(second pie chart) in the top grade percentile (which we set accordingly at 85 and
over). We found that, despite the fact that there were a higher number of females than
males enrolled in all three schools, the number of girls in the bottom percentile was
40
higher than boys. However, in the top percentile, the number of boys was higher than
girls. Given the fact that we included all three schools in the Mekelle region, this
strongly emphasises the gender bias in access to education which in turn affects the
ability of female students to pursue university level education.
Comparative pie charts for aggregate data disaggregated by sex
41
Further Research and Policy Recommendations
1. Quantity of education must also be met with quality by improving each of
the indicators in the analytical framework
Revolving class planning around “student centered learning” to include
subjects outside of local issues. In-class activities, discussions and debates
should also be introduced.
Following this, expand the selection of taught subjects and have an even
balance of theory and practice in all educational institutions.
Participation in the educational army should be made a compulsory module for
all students.
Citizens should be involved in accountability mechanisms such as community
scorecard process to assess the performance and quality of education taking
place within all educational institutions.6 This can also be used to generate a
database of feedback on services that is placed in the public domain.
The current toilets are unhygienic and almost non-existent for many students,
particularly girls. Hygienic sanitation is a key to increase the enrollment rates
and will reduce absence rate of students who catch diseases caused by the
unhygienic sanitation of the current sanitation facilities. As such, there needs
to be an increased budget allocation towards the upgrading and maintenance of
toilets for students. Cleaners should be given a daily schedule, instead of the
current weekly schedule.
The experience of introducing different ICTs in the classrooms suggests that
the staff did not fully realize the potential educational benefits of ICTs.
Various competencies of teachers must be developed throughout the
educational system for ICT integration to be successful. Teacher professional
6 Community Scorecard: World Bank and UN
42
development in skills with particular applications and integration into existing
curriculum. It is also necessary to have stable Internet connections for
university students in order to access online articles and journals.
Further Research:
Long-term studies should be conducted to look at the architecture of
investment from government as well as donors, particularly in terms of teacher
remuneration, training, and infrastructure.
2. Policy to tackle existing youth unemployment
Set up career counselling at universities and TVET institutions, host annual
job fairs and set up job centres in every city to match prospective applicants to
job vacancies in the market.
Increased access to finance for young entrepreneurs, such as micro-credit and
revolving funds for group-based lending, specifically for women.
Create an enabling environment to promote the growth of niche markets, such
as white honey, and compete in national and global markets. Additionally,
expand service sector industries, such as tourism, which will attract
investment, create a new market for employment, and gain foreign exchange.
Further research:
We would suggest conducting further research on the credentials and
limitations to receiving government loans, as well studies that look at the
success rates of existing loans.
43
It would be useful to have increased transparency regarding information on
current employment patterns to encourage both domestic and international
investment, specifically angel investors.
3. Better support for young women transitioning into higher education and
those currently enrolled in the education system
Creation of women’s groups within universities tackling social issues such as
sexual harassment, pressures of early marriage, as well as to increase the
security and empower the livelihoods of female students. This should include
a staff liaison responsible for addressing any pressing issues.
Improved childcare support at the state and university level by the creation of
a day-care facility, maternity leave policies and networking “big sister-little
sister” model for employment, references and advice.
Further Research:
Need for further advocacy efforts by both regional and national organisations
to eliminate social stigmas associated with women receiving higher education.
4. Provide incentives for teachers
Every school should practice knowledge management in order to redesign and
updated schools knowledge practices as part of their professional development
process and internal training in enhancing teachers’ performances.
According to a study by DFID, the “minimum household survival incomes for
teachers are typically two-three times more than the basic government salary
(including allowances), and frequently more than this” (Bennell and
Akyeampong 2004). As such, it may be necessary to provide the basic salary,
44
as well as performance related pays. It may also be good to have individual
payment schemes for each subject, as certain subjects may have greater
shortage of teachers.
Teacher’s union should be created as a platform to collectively use their
strength to have a voice to discuss issues such as low pay, lack of capacity
building training, etc.
Further Research:
Further research can be carried out on the main barriers preventing the entry of
female teachers into the education system. The research can also examine
current gender equality policies and professional development policies within
the institutions, as well as the effectiveness of the government’s quota policy.
5. Supporting organisations to address rural/urban linkages
Create effective transport systems since many boys and girls have to commute
long distance to get access to quality education. The local government should
work with rural people to identify transport needs, possible interventions,
priorities and to design the most appropriate projects that will improve
people’s mobility.
Safe and secure boarding schools need to be set up to prevent fear and
isolation, especially for girls moving from rural to urban areas at a young age.
An improved rural infrastructure is a necessary condition for developing rural
areas. This brings to the fore the urgent need for developing countries to
design and implement realistic urban-rural and spatial infrastructure policies
and begin setting up secondary schools in rural areas as well.
45
Further Research:
There is a need to examine the difference in performance between urban and
rural boys and girls
There is a need to conduct a rural transportation needs-assessment in the
region and evaluate current policies and implementation process in place.
Conclusion
Our research has identified that while decentralisation has played a vital role in
improving the quality of education in the Mekelle region, there are still some
improvements to be made. Our findings reflect a reality which can be argued as being
entirely different from the forecasts and predictions at government and policy level.
Though it is arguable that there is a general push towards quality of education, taking
into account the central government’s GEQIP plan for example, we feel that our
findings present a reality which is very much different
.
Rapid GER rates in senior secondary schools is promising, and much needed to
stimulate growth, but the quality of education is being compromised by a lack of
sustained and upgraded investment in the creation of new schools in the general area
of Mekelle as well as investments in teacher quality. If the region is to improve, it
must also consider that the success of students is highly dependent on investments in
quality training. High quality teacher training results in a highly prosperous and
skilled work force which is headed towards a middle-income growth pattern. This
therefore allows greater fiscal expenditure on education to therefore increase the tax
base to be able to upgrade the per-student expenditure average of 20 Birr per student,
which is currently not enough to ensure quality education per head.
46
We also analysed the gender perspective of access to quality of education, which we
argued is highly imbalanced, based on our own data which informed us that girls are
underachieving at senior secondary school, thus finding greater barriers to tertiary
education (see appendix 6). This also expands onto the job market, where young
women are finding it harder to find similar employment opportunities to men.
47
Section 3:
References:
Asgedom, A et al, (2006), Quality in Education, Teaching, and Learning: Perceptions
and Practice, USAID.
Bennell, P and Akyeampong, (2004), “Teacher Motivation in Sub-Saharan Africa and
South Asia”
Bureau of Plan and Finance, (2003), Five Years (2010/11 - 2014/15) Growth &
Transformation Plan, Mekelle: Bureau of Plan and Finance.
Daba, O.T., (2010), “Decentralization and Community Participation in Education in
Ethiopia: A case of three woredas in Horro Gudduru Wollaga Zone of Oromia
National Regional State”
Desta, A., (2010a), Comprehending Globalization and Local Development, Ethiopian
Journal for Research and Innovation Foresight 2 (Special Issue on Education), pp.71-
83
Desta, A, ( 2010b), “Indigenous Knowledge In the Context of Natural Resource
Mangement: An Information System Perspective”
Dickovick, J.T. and Gebre-Egziabher, T., (2010), Comparative Assessment of
Decentralization in Africa: Ethiopia Desk Study, USAID.
Elmore, R.F., and Fuller, B., (1996), “Empirical Research on Educational Choice:
What Are the Implications for Policy-Makers?”
48
Ethiopian Economics Association., (2011), Financial Sector Development in Ethiopia:
Performance, Challenges and Policy Issues, Report on the Ethiopian Economy
Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (FDRE) and Ministry of Finance and
Economic Development Ministry of Finance and Economic Development (2002),
Ethiopia: Sustainable Development and Poverty Reduction Program (SDPRP), Addis
Ababa: FDRE and MOFED.
Federal Ministry of Education, (2010), Education Sector Development Program IV
(ESDP IV) 2010/2011 – 2014/2015, Addis Ababa: Federal Ministry of Education.
Federal Ministry of Education, (2008), General Education Quality Improvement
Package (GEQIP), Addis Ababa: Federal Ministry of Education.
Fiske, E.B, (1996), “Decentralization of Education: Politics and Consensus”
Garcia, M. and Rajkumar, A.S., (2008), Achieving Better Service Delivery through
Decentralization, Washington D.C.: The World Bank.
German Overseas Instititute. 2005. Decentralisation and Poverty Reduction: A
Conceptual Framework for the Economic Impact.Hamburg: German Overseas
Institute.
Godwin, R.K and Kemerer, F.R. (2002), "School Choice Tradeoffs"
Hanson, M.E., and Caroline Ulrich, (1994), “Democracy, Decentralization and
School-Based Management in Spain.” La Educación 38 (118): 319-31
49
International Fund for Agricultural Development, (2005), “Performance and Impact in
Decentralizing Environments: Experiences from Ethiopia, Tanzania and Uganda”
Lopez, J., Maoulidi, M., (2009), Education Needs Assessment for Mekelle City,
Ethiopia, Mekelle.
Mjaaland, T., (2010), “Girls’ educational strategies and visual practice: a gendered
case from Tigray, Ethiopia”, Engendering empowerment: education and equality, e4e
E-Conference Discussion Paper, New York: United Nations Girls’ Education
Initiative
Maajland, T, (2014)”At the frontiers of change? : women and girls' pursuit
of education in north-western Tigray, Ethiopia”
McNab, C., (1990), "Language Policy and Language Practice: Implementing
Multilingual Literacy Education in Ethiopia", African Studies Review, 3 (3), 65-82.
Retrieved from http://jstor.org.gate2.library.lse.ac.uk/stable/524187
Ministry of Finance and Economic Development, (2006), A Plan for Accelerated and
Sustained Development to End Poverty (2005/06-2009/10), Volume I and II, Addis
Ababa: Ministry of Finance and Economic Development and the Bureau of Planning
and Finance, (2003), Five Years (2010/11 - 2014/15) Growth & Transformation Plan,
Mekelle: Bureau of Plan and Finance.
Ministry of Education, (2008), General Education Quality Improvement Package,
Addis Ababa, Republic of Ethiopia
Ministry of Education, (2010), "Education Sector Development Program IV", Addis
Ababa, Republic of Ethiopia
50
Ministry of Finance and Economic Development (MoFED), (2006), A Plan for
Accelerated and Sustained Development to End Poverty (PASDEP) (2005/06-
2009/10), Volume I: Main Text, MoFED, Addis Ababa
Ministry of Finance and Economic Development, (2010), Growth and Transformation
Plan, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Ministry of Finance and Economic Development., (2014), Growth and
Transformation Plan: Annual Progress Report for Financial Year 2012-2013, Addis
Ababa
Mulugeta, E., (2004), “Swimming against the tide: Educational problems and coping
strategies of rural female students in Ethiopia”, Eastern Africa Social Science
Research Review, 20(2) 71-97.
Mulugeta, Z.F., (2011) Performance of the Higher Education Sub-Sector in Ethiopia,
Association of African Universities Conference
Negash, T., (2006), “Education in Ethiopia: From Crisis to the Brink of Collapse”,
Nordiska Afrikainstitutet
OECD, (2004) “Decentralisation and Poverty In Developing Countries: Exploring the
Impact”
Rondinelli, A., (1981) “Government Decentralization in Comparative Perspective:
Theory and Practice in Developing Countries”, International Review of
Administrative Science 47(2): 133-45
51
Rose, P., Yoseph, G., Berihun, A. and Nuresu, T. (1997) “Gender and Primary
Schooling in Ethiopia”, Research Report 31. Institute of Development Studies, Sussex
and Ministry of Education
Rose, P., and Al-Samarrai, S. (2001), “Household Constraints on Schooling by
Gender: Empirical Evidence from Ethiopia”
Seged, A. et al, (1991), “What Factors Shape Girls’ School Performance?”, evidence
from Ethiopia International Journal of Educational Development
Telila, L., (2010), “Review of some recent literature: Identifying Factors that Affect
Ethiopia’s Education Crisis”, Ethiopian e-Journal, Vol.2, No.2, pp. 56-68.
UNESCO. (2004). EFA Global Monitoring Report 2005: Education for All – The
Quality Imperative. Paris: UNESCO.
Unterhalter, E., (2010), “Partnership, participation and power for gender equality in
education.Situation Analysis”, UNGEI E4 conference.
USAID, 2010, Comparative Assessment of Decentralization in Africa: Ethiopia Desk
Study
Verwimp, P. (1996), “Enrolment in Rural Ethiopia”, Leuven: Center For Economic
Studies, Mimeo
Verwimp, P, (1999), “Measuring the Quality of Education at Two Levels: A Case
Study of Primary Schools in Rural Ethiopia”
52
Weir, S. (2000), “Concealed Preferences : parental attitudes to education and
enrolment choice in rural Ethiopia”
World Bank, (2001), "Attacking Poverty", World Development Report 2000/2001
World Bank, (2014), “Ethiopia General Education Quality Improvement Project II”,
http://www.worldbank.org/projects/P129828/ethiopia-general-education-quality-
improvement-project-ii?lang=en, accessed 10.03.14
Young, J., (1997), "Peasant Revolution in Ethiopia: The Tigray People's Liberation
Front, 1975-1992", Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
53
Appendices
Appendix 1Code of Conduct:
Group members will try their best to attend all arranged meetings. If this is not
possible it is required for group members to notify the project manager in advance .
Group members will do their best to be sensitive and informed to the local context in
terms of culture, customs, values and environment of Ethiopia, as well as that of their
colleagues.
All group members will do their best to contribute, collaborate and input towards the
report as a whole.
Group members will do their best to submit their work in a timely manner. Where this
is not possible, the team member in question will inform other members in advance in
order to make arrangements accordingly.
If any issues arise as to the direction of the report during the team’s field research,
group members will be encouraged and facilitated by the project manager to reach a
unanimous decision, or at least a democratic consensus if possible. In order to inform
this process better, team members will consult our facilitator and translator first and
foremost, before referring any issues to DPU staff.
Where possible, the project manager will ensure that meetings are arranged in
advance so as not to impose upon professionals and students, all of whom have busy
schedules. Whilst we acknowledge and are aware that the interview schedule is likely
to change during our visit to Mekelle, we will try to arrange meetings with
stakeholders in good time rather than turning up unannounced.
For all written work, members will follow the Harvard Referencing System
54
Group members must obtain the informed consent of all interview participants by
using the Model Interview Consent Sheet provided by the DPU
All interview participants will be informed about the purpose of the group’s research
proposal prior to every interview in order to inform positionality within the education
sector
Group members will use the team’s private Facebook group as a platform for sharing
information, sources and data pertinent to the project’s research. It will also be used as
a means by which the project manager will consolidate all team members’ work into
the project report.
55
Appendix 2.1 Education Sector covered in the Matrix by Component in PASDEP (2005/06-2009/10)
Source: PASDEP, 2006, pp.8
56
Appendix 2.1 (cont.)
Source: PASDEP, 2006, pp.9
57
Appendix 2.2 Main Challenges listed in ESDP IV:
Source: ESDP IV, (2010:19)
58
Appendix 3.1
Stakeholder Analysis:
StakeholderStake in Project
Impact (1/4)
ResponsibilitiesContact Details
Students primary n/a
Parents primary 4
Parent Teacher Association
primary 4• Tigray Region Teacher's Association - PO Box 24536, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Tel: +251 344 400207/344 409 498
Teachers/Deans primary 3
• Promote student enrolment as 'community members' and facilitate higher school performance .
Secondary Schools in Mekelle: none-governmental (1), governmental (5), private (10): 1. (non-governmental) Nicolas Robinson Secondary School – backed by Rainbows4Children (Swiss)Tel: +417 862 623642. Alpha International Academy Tel: +251 344 4174513. ATSE Yohannes Prepatory SchoolTel: +251 344 440 00304. Ayder Secondary SchoolTel: +251 344 41963
Universities:Mekelle University – PO Box 231, Mekelle, Tigray, Ethiopia.Tel: +251 344 404 4005
* Community primary 4
Offer support in determining school infrastructure and maintenance, management and administration, teacher support and supervision, and classroom support, specifically:
• Mekelle City Education Bureau- Contribute expenditure to regional education (= 30% of all gov. contributions in 2000)
- Community ownership over issues of school disciplinary
- Assessment of teachers performance- Participate in student recruitment
* Woreda Education Offices
(WEO)secondary 3
Manages education systems up to secondary level:
• Tigray Regional Education Bureau - Tel: + 251 11 34 44 08 296• Overall recruitment and training of head teachers
• Ensuring standards and accreditation of institutions
59
• Implementing and evaluating projects
• Administering primary and secondary schools
• Monitoring and supervising programs
• Enhancing community participation by establishing administrative boards (Kebele), PTAs and other committees
• Developing inter-school integration and coordination
* Kebele Education and Training Board
(KETB)secondary 4
• Allocating school budgets and teacher distribution
* Regional Education Bureau
(REB)secondary 3
Prepare strategic plans for the region at the federal level, within the approved framework:• Plan, administer and direct education from the pre-school to junior college level in line with the country’s education policy; • Monitor the implementation of education policy in the region; • Adapt the national curricular framework, particularly that of primary and pre-primary education, to the region’s specific needs and culture; • Build, rehabilitate, maintain and repair educational establishments (secondary schools, TVET and teacher training schools) in the region; • Train, employ, manage and dismiss teachers and other educational staff; • Supply educational materials and equipment, and issue certificates; • License the establishment of private institutions of education (primary, secondary and middle-level TVETs); initiate enhance the participation of the community.
• Tigray Regional Education Bureau - Tel: + 251 11 34 44 08 296
60
Local NGOs secondary 2
Offer technical and financial support. • Capacity Building- offer financial support in a 'gap filing' capacity to the education sector • Support the Education Sector Development Programme (ESDP) 1997.
LOCAL NGO• CARE International - PO Box 4710, Addis Ababa, EthiopiaEmail: www.care.org.et• Relief Society of Tigray (REST) – 211 Clapham Rd, London, SW9 0QH, UK.Tel: +44 20 035 967• Ethiopian Economics Association (EEC) – PO Box 34282, Addis Ababa, EthiopiaContact: Fitsum EstifanosTel: +251 11 6453 200Email: [email protected]• Forum for African Women Educationalists (FAWE) – PO Box 20882, 22 Mazoria, Djibouti Rd, Addis Ababa, EthiopiaTel: +251 11 618 0260Email: [email protected]• Ethiopian Youth Educational Support (EYES) – PO Box 839, Mekelle, Tigray, Ethiopia. Contact: Bisrat Mesfin (Manager)Tel: +251 344 402 067Email: www.e-yes.org/wwwa-cet.org (funder)
International NGOs secondary 2
Offer technical and financial support. • Capacity Building- offer financial support in a 'gap filing' capacity to the education sector • Support the Education Sector Development Program (ESDP) 1997.
INT NGO (UK)• CARE International – 89 Albert Embankment (9th Floor), Vauxhall, London, SE1 7TP, UK. Tel: +44 20 7091 6000• Relief Society of Tigray (REST)/Tigray Development Association (same office) –211 Clapham Rd, London, SW9 0QH, UK.Tel: +44 20 035 967Email: [email protected]• Link Ethiopia – Peel Center, Percy Circus, London, WC1X NEY, UK.Contact: Matt Stockdale (Head of Operations)Tel: +44 20 8045 4558Email: [email protected]
61
International Donors
secondary 2
Main focus of technical and financial support: • Capacity Building Initiative - where a representative from each bilateral and multilateral partner has formed a think-tank to identify missing gaps in Ethiopia’s education policy. • Experiential 'stock-taking', or policy/sector analyses to inform policy dialogue and development Coordination among International Donors take part in the Development Assistance Committee (DAC) - DfID, European Commission, Italy, Netherlands, Belgium, Irish Development Cooperation, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, SIDA, UNICEF, USAID, UNESCO, JICA and WB. Recent work:• USAID assisted in a training program focused on educational planning and management for the heads of REBs • JICA trained planners from the regional and woreda levels of the Oromia Region in school mapping and micro-planning • UNESCO assisted in the collection, storage, analysis and dissemination of education data (2007)
Bilateral• Italian Embassy – PO Box 1105, Villa Italia, Kebena, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Tel +251 11 123 5689• Netherlands Embassy – Old Airport Zone, Kifle Ketema – Lindeta, Kebele 02/03, Addis Ababa, EthiopiaTel: +251 11 371 1100• Belgium Embassy – PO Box 1239, Comoros St, Yeka Kifle-Ketema, Kebele 08, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.Tel: +251 11 662 3420• Swedish Embassy (SIDA) – PO BOX1442, Addis AbabaTel: +251 11 158 0030• Irish Embassy (Irish Development Cooperation) – PO Box 9585, Guinea Conakry St, Addis Ababa, EthiopiaTel: +251 11 518 0500• USAID - PO Box 1014, Entondo St, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Tel: +251 11 130 6002• European Commission – PO Box 5570, Cape-Verde Rd, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Tel: +251 11 661 2511• DFID - PO Box 858, Comoros St, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Tel: +251 11 661 2354• JICA - P.O Box 5384, MINA Building, Kebele 02, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.Tel: +251 11 550 4755
Multilateral• UNESCO - P.O. Box 2996, ECA New Building, Menelik Avenue, Addis Ababa Ethiopia.Tel: +251 11 551 3953• UNICEF - P.O. Box 1169. Africa Hall, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.Tel: +251 11 5515155. • World Bank – PO Box 5515, Africa Avenue(Bole Road),Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.Tel: +251 11 627 7700
62
* Regional Education Bureau
(REB)secondary 3
Offer technical and financial support. • Capacity Building Initiative - where a representative from each bilateral and multilateral partner has formed a think-tank to identify missing gaps in Ethiopia’s education policy. • USAID assisted in a training program focused on educational planning and management for the heads of REBs • JICA trained planners from the regional and woreda levels of the Oromia Region in school mapping and micro-planning • UNESCO assisted in the collection, storage, analysis and dissemination of education data (2007)
Ministry of Education (MoE)
secondary 2
Prepare strategic plans for the region at the federal level, within the approved framework:• Plan, administer and direct education from the pre-school to junior college level in line with the country’s education policy; • Monitor the implementation of education policy in the region; • Adapt the national curricular framework, particularly that of primary and pre-primary education, to the region’s specific needs and culture; • Build, rehabilitate, maintain and repair educational establishments (secondary schools, TVET and teacher training schools) in the region; • Train, employ, manage and dismiss teachers and other educational staff; • Supply educational materials and equipment, and issue certificates; • License the establishment of private institutions of education (primary, secondary and middle-level TVETs); initiate enhance the participation of the community.
PO Box 1367, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Tel: +251 115553133
63
Ministry of Capacity Building
(MOCB) secondary 1
Formulates national education policy:• Monitor the education and training standards of woreda administrations• Monitoring the implementation of education policies and ensuring that these standards are respected Tel:+251 115572227
Ministry of Construction and
Urban Development secondary 1
Provide policy directions, coordination and implementation support
PO BOX 24134/1000, Addis Ababa, EthiopiaTel: +251 115541261Email: [email protected]
Ministry of Federal Affairs (MOFA)
secondary 1
Design, construction and contracting of all educational projects. PO Box 5718, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Tel: +251 115537373
Ministry of Finance and Economic Development
(MOFED)
secondary 1
provides financial assistance to regions with particular emphasis on those least developed & macro level budgeting for the education sector PO Box 1037, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Tel: +251 115552400 Email: [email protected]
64
Appendix 3.2
List of stakeholders interviewed:
Date Time Organization/Institution Interviewee Position Type of Interview (Formal/Informal/Focus Group)05/05/2014 11:00am Addis University Mahilet Tamret Student Informal
Addis UniversityMekedes Tekeste Student Informal
Addis University Abel Shiferau Student InformalAddis University Binyam Fikru Student InformalAddis University Yanatar Mulatu Student Informal
2:00pmAgro Pastoralist
Development Association Elias Guya ? Formal
08/05/2014 9:30amYohannes Preparatory
Senior Secondary SchoolLettcmart Kahshy Parent/PTA Formal
Yohannes Preparatory Senior Secondary School Mr. Araya Parent/PTA Formal
Yohannes Preparatory Senior Secondary School
Beyene Yohannes Senior Teacher Formal
Yohannes Preparatory Senior Secondary School Gher Gebru Principle Formal
Yohannes Preparatory Senior Secondary School
Solomon Germay Student (M) Formal
Yohannes Preparatory Senior Secondary School
Sarah Teklehaimanat Student (F) Formal
Yohannes Preparatory Senior Secondary School Students x8 Informal
11:00amTigray Regional Education
Bureau Mr. Ali PR Director Formal
Daniel SeifeQuality
Assurance Officer Formal3:00pm Ministry of Capacity Tirfu Head of Civil Formal
65
Building Kindanemariam Service
4:00pm TVET Wasie Ibrahem Student (M) Focus GroupTVET Hareg Haile Student (F) Focus GroupTVET Rigbe Alem Student (F) Focus GroupTVET Redwan Said Student (M) Focsu Group
TVETLetemedhn
Areya Student (F) Focus GroupTVET Grmanesh Hafte Student (F) Focus GroupTVET Zinabu Desalew Teacher FormalTVET Terkit Gilassie Teacher Formal
Gesellschaft für Internationale
Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) Cheryll GarayCapacity Building Officer/Teacher Formal
N/A Teacher x2 Informal
09/05/2014 9:30am RESTMenguste Gerresse
Director of Communications Formal
Weldu Niguse Secondary and Preperatory School
Mulugeta Gebrekrstos Principle Formal
Weldu Niguse Secondary and Preperatory School Sisay Werede English Teacher Formal
Weldu Niguse Secondary and Preperatory School
Mebrouhtu M/Slassie Student (M) Formal
Weldu Niguse Secondary and Preperatory School Luwam Ali Student (F) Formal
Weldu Niguse Secondary and Preperatory School Students x2 Informal
Weldu Niguse Secondary and Preperatory School Teachers x2 Informal
12:00pmAyder Preperatory Secondary School Kibrom Tidel Principle? Formal
66
TOTALS: Focus Group: 6 Formal: 25 Informal: 44
Ayder Preperatory Secondary School Haile Borhe VP? FormalAyder Preperatory Secondary School Kitsila Tarike VP? FormalAyder Preperatory Secondary School
Hatteselassie Zemmariam Student (M) Formal
Ayder Preperatory Secondary School
Meron G/Yohannes Student (F) Formal
10/05/2014 10:00amTigray Development Association (TDA)
Weldeslasie Kelkay
Director of Communications
and PR Formal
Bilen
Mekelle University
Alumni Informal
11/05/2014 3:30pm Mekelle University Students x2 FormalStudents x24 Informal
67
Appendix 3.3
Research questions:
Senior Secondary
Objective: To gain an insight into why the students have (individually or as a family) they have continued with their formal education
Type of interview: Individual Interviews
Number of Students: 2
Research Questions: Aspirations Expectations Siblings Potential remittance Commute and Access (Distance to school) Gaps in the curriculum Satisfaction with curriculum Feelings about infrastructure (how it affects their quality of education) Impact on their position in the society (social standing) How do they feel about the teachers? Do they face some kind of pressure from home? Social pressures faced by girls? How do you feel about being in a mixed class-room? Parents’ education? Do you think going through higher education reduces vulnerability? For example,
seasonal shocks affecting food supply. Are you planning migrate for work or return to your home? Do you plan on pursuing further education?
TVET Focus Group Discussion
Objective: To gain an insight into why the students have (individually or as a family) continued with their formal education and to see whether the government’s plans are supporting them.
Type of interview: Focus Group Discussions
Number of Students: 4-5
Research Questions: Aspirations Expectations Potential remittance Commute and Access (Distance to school)
68
Satisfaction with course Feelings about infrastructure (how it affects their quality of education) Impact on their position in the society How do they feel about the teachers? Do they face some kind of pressure from home? Social pressures faced by girls? How do you feel about being in a mixed class-room? Parents’ education? How are you funding your education? Are you planning migrate for work or return to your home? Do you feel that the institution is helping you to advance your career? Are you part of any local institutions or projects? Do you vote in national elections? Do you think going through higher education reduces vulnerability? For example,
seasonal shocks affecting food supply. Did you consider going to university instead of TVET?
University Focus Group DiscussionObjective: To gain an insight into why the students have (individually or as a family) continued with their formal education and to see whether the government’s plans are supporting them.
Type of interview: Focus Group Discussions
Number of Students: 4-5
Research Questions: Aspirations Expectations Potential remittance Commute and Access (Distance to school) Satisfaction with course Feelings about infrastructure (how it affects their quality of education) Impact on their position in the society How do they feel about the teachers? Do they face some kind of pressure from home? (both boys and girls) Social pressures faced by girls? How do you feel about being in a mixed class-room? Parents’ education? How are you funding your education? Are you planning for migrate for work or return to your home? Do you feel that the institution is helping you to advance your career? Are you part of any local institutions or projects? Are you part of student politics? Do you vote in national elections? Do you think going through higher education reduces vulnerability? For example,
seasonal shocks affecting food supply. Did you consider going to TVET instead of university?
69
Parents (part of PTA)Objective: To understand the links between community and teachers, and how much influence they have on the politics of the education system.
Type of interview: Individual Interviews
Number of Parents: 1
Research Questions: How did you get elected in this position? Does this affect your social standing? Does this have an effect on your view of teachers? How much of an influence do you have the education system? What challenges do you face? Do you have power to influence something? What are some of the improvements that you made? Where would you like to see the school in 5 years’ time? Do your children go to school? If so, how many? Is it a problem trying to get new members in the PTA? Education level? How do you feel about education? Do you think you are getting the support from government and NGOs? Who are the most supportive bodies? How often do they meet? Who are the attendants? Do your external duties affect your participation in the PTA? Are educational policies being discussed in these sessions? How do you think the education system has changed over the years? Potential remittance Commute and Access (Distance to school) Satisfaction with course Feelings about infrastructure (how it affects their quality of education) Impact on their position in the society How do they feel about the teachers? Do they face some kind of pressure from home? (both boys and girls) Social pressures faced by girls? How do you feel about being in a mixed class-room? Parents’ education? How are you funding your education? Are you planning for migrate for work or return to your home? Do you feel that the institution is helping you to advance your career? Are you part of any local institutions or projects? Are you part of student politics? Do you vote in national elections? Do you think going through higher education reduces vulnerability? For example,
seasonal shocks affecting food supply. Did you consider going to TVET instead of university? What are some of the pressing issues you had to deal with this year?
70
Parents (not part of PTA). (we were unable to interview these stakeholders)
Objective: To understand the links between community and teachers, and how are their demands being represented in the education system?
Type of interview: Individual Interviews
Number of Parents: 1
Research Questions: What are your views on PTA members? What are your views on the quality of your child’s education? What are your views on the teachers? Do you feel that you have any influence in the education system? What challenges do you face in getting your views across to the PTA? What are some of the improvements that you have seen? Do your children go to school? If so, how many? Why did you send your children to schools? Is there any particular reason as to why you are not part of the PTA? Education level? How do you feel about education? Do you think you receive any support from local government and NGOs? How do you think the education system has changed over the years? Do you expect any remittance from your children?
Senior Secondary Teachers
Objective: To understand the motivation to becoming a teacher and how the government or NGOs are supporting them
Type of interview: Individual Interviews
Number of Parents: 2
Research Questions: How did you reach this position? How did your education help you to reach this position? Did you face any challenges in this process? Level of qualification What was your in-service training? Are you part of PTA? What are your views on PTA members? What are your views on the performance of students? How do you feel about the quality of education in this school? Such as infrastructure,
enrollment rates, student-teacher ratio, drop-out rates, etc. Do you feel that you have any influence on the education system? Do you face in getting your views across to the PTA?
71
What are some of the improvements that you have seen? What, according to you, are the reasons behind higher drop-out rates amongst girls? Difference between participation and performance of boys and girls Do you think you receive any support from local government and NGOs? How do you think the education system has changed over the years? Do you think that your students have good employment opportunities?
TVET Teachers
Objective: To understand the motivation to becoming a teacher and how the government or NGOs are supporting them; and to understand the links between the teachers and industries
Type of interview: Individual Interviews
Number of Parents: 1
Research Questions: How did you reach this position? How did your education help you to reach this position? Did you face any challenges in this process? Level of qualification What was your in-service training? Are you involved in associations? What are your views on the performance of students? How do you feel about the quality of education in this school? Such as infrastructure,
enrollment rates, student-teacher ratio, drop-out rates, etc. Do you feel that you have any influence on the education system? What are some of the improvements that you have seen? Difference between participation and performance of boys and girls Do you think you receive any support from local government and NGOs? How do you feel that the quality of education has changed over the years? What are the employment opportunities for TVET students? How realistic is the target set up by the government? (238884 instead of 963439) How are you making the program more relevant to local realities? Is there any hands-on training? Does this lead to full employment?
University TeachersObjective: To understand the motivation to becoming a teacher and how the government or NGOs are supporting them
Type of interview: Individual Interviews
Number of Parents: 1
Research Questions: How did you reach this position? How did your education help you to reach this position? Did you face any challenges in this process?
72
How does your position impact your social standing? Where are you originally from? Level of qualification What was your in-service training? Are you involved in associations? What are your views on the performance of students? How do you feel about the quality of education in this university? Such as
infrastructure, enrollment rates, student-teacher ratio, drop-out rates, etc. Do you feel that you have any influence on the education system? What are some of the improvements that you have seen? Difference between participation and performance of boys and girls Do you think you receive any support from local government and NGOs? How do you feel that the quality of education has changed over the years? What are the employment opportunities for graduate students? Do you think you have adequate resources to carry out your tasks? How do you feel that university education can improve chances of employment?
NGOs
Objective: To understand the contribution of NGOs in the improvement of quality of education.
Type of interview: Individual Interviews
Research Questions: What is your organization’s contribution to the education sector? How do you see your role in the education sector within your overall development
strategy? What have you done to improve the quality to education? What challenges have you faced during your work? How do you think the quality of education has changed since decentralization? What further improvements need to be made? How do you collaborate with other NGOs and government? Why do you think Tigray is doing better than other regions in education and gender? What is their relationship with the Kebelle and Woredas?
GovernmentObjective: To understand the role of the government in improving the quality of education
Type of interview: Individual Interviews
Number of Government Organisations
Research Questions: Plans on improvements What have you done to improve the quality to education? What challenges have you faced during your work? How do you think the quality of education has changed since decentralization?
73
How do you collaborate with bilateral organizations and local organizations? Why do you think Tigray is doing better than other regions in education and gender? How do you feel about the current education policy? Do you have any data that you would like to share with us?
74
Appendix 3.4
Interview Transcripts
Thursday, May 8th 2014:
Atse Yohannes Preparatory Senior Secondary SchoolName: Lettemart Kahshy & Mr. ArayaPosition: Parents and members of PTA
Q. How did you get in this position?A. At the beginning the school there was a meeting of the parents, and during that time they looked at their [collective] priorities, because the school is funded by the parents.
Q. Does this affect your social standing, being in the PTA?A. (Two part answer by parents:) I have my own business, but then I have to attend the [PTA] meeting early in school. Sometimes there is suffocation because from the beginning the interest in supporting the school. | For example today I have my own business but thencame here today for the interest of the school.
Q. What type of fundraising do you do for the school?A. There are responsibilities to closely work with the management of school and to correct misbehaviors of the students. Even we follow up during exams to make sure they are available, and that the teachers are preparing them. The problem is that this is not full time job, so not involved with the everyday events of the school. The facilities of the school, there are some problems, in buildings classrooms, sanitation.
Q. Who do you confront with these types of problems?A. Reflect problems in general meetings with the school.
Q. What type of challenges do you face in these meetings for example? A. So far there is no challenge between school and PTA, student and PTA, because we are not fully working for the school I have my own business. This is a voluntary activity. There is small interaction between the school and PTA.
Q. How many parents are there in the PTA?A. Not more than 9, two from students, four teachers and three parents. We meet monthly in general meetings, a regular meeting time, but there are issues.
Q. If there are problems with the toilets for example, are you always able to come up with the money to fix it? A. They are trying to solve the problems by priority level. There is a small school budget. Focus on rooms, books. The new building for library was constructed for books, is new from this year.
Q. (Missed question)A. There is some improvement but in two years I cannot explain what happened before. However there are improvements.
75
Q. What would you like to see in the future?A. The strategy plan is to improve more classrooms. More technology. Have a nice building for the future. It is the same, they need to have good equipment, laboratory, technology. The school needs to have equipment. In the books they need to have efficiency. So this will be arranged by the system itself that will force everything to have nice quality. Even there is a plan to change the materials of buildings.
Q. Why do you send you children to this school? What are they expectations? What are your dreams for you children? What would you like to see them do after school?A. If you are not educated you cannot survive. Technology changes from time to time, they [the students] need to be familiar with this to support their family and compete globally. These are some of the reasons. [The economic conditions of the region are highly damaging, historically it is a place of worry. It is the responsibility of the children to change this for the future. They are not letting them do another job and are prioritizing their education –Translator].
Q. What are the main barriers stopping boys and girls from coming to school?A. Previously, the ratio was dominated by male students. Some of the reasons were oncultural impact. There were early marriage, even the return to education was not promising. Early marriage of daughter. 80% of the population is on agriculture. They send their male children to support. Now parents are sending both male and female children. Teachers are arranging classes especially for females.
Q. How long has this trend been happening of more women coming to school?A. For the last 20 years.
Q. Has decentralisation affected your control of the quality of education in school?A. It is highly decentralised. The PTA is authorised. The government provides budget for capital, construction of building. The responsibility of the PTA is maintenance, provision of books, sanitation of facilities. The PTA is highly authorized and separate from the governments. The PTA is independent.
Q. Do you feel this system provides better quality because you are closer to the needs of the school?A. Yes, and the government participate in issues beyond the PTA.
Name: Beyene Yohannes & Gher GebruPosition: Senior Teacher & Vice Principle
Q. Can you please tell us about yourselves? What is your role in the school?A. I am a resident in this town. My role is am a teacher. I’m teaching biology – (ST
- My name is Gher Gebru. I am the vice principal. I am from Mekelle as well – (VP).
Q. Was is difficult to become a teacher or to get to your position? A. Of course it is good to be a teacher. By myself I am proud to be a teacher – (ST)- [There is not minimum standard to be a teacher as long as you pass the exam, you take entrance exam, the primary importance is interest. In fact capability is important –Translator].
76
Q. What kind of support do you get in training?A. There is some training arranged, but the school capacity building or government. The primary issue is that teachers upgrade themselves, read new books, new additions technology like that. They are training to support themselves.
Q. How much time do they have to do this?A. They have time because per week they are expected to tech 30 periods (40 min each). So they have time to upgrade themselves, There are development programs for instance elementary teacher is less than in secondary. In our school teachers need to do TTI (Teacher training, administration), then diploma than qualification
Q. What is the average age of teachers?A. maybe 40
Q. How old is the youngest teacher?A. From 25 up to 47
Q. Since you are the vice principle, how do you go from teaching to vice principle?A. I graduated TTI, did diplomat and then post graduate. For that I did experience which is most important. And then I was able to my first degree administration and planning, my second degree managements, from Addis Ababa University.
Q. How do they choose the regions to place students?A. He came back because this is his home.
Q. So you have a good relationship with the PTA, does the government help with the qualityA. We have the good relationship with the community, like Mekelle University that helps with improvements. Sometimes the give us some help (REST) to provide some facilities. (TDA is another important NGO). They help with training the teachers in qualification, they sponsor master’s programmes, short training and issues of psychology and different important that are not
Q. How are they student performing, I there a difference between boys and girls? Do they come to school regularly/What are some problems coming to school?A. In the school the number of student of female student represents promise about 56%, our problem is similar to the country’s problem which is quality of education. The expansion is that the quality remains yet. We strive to improve this
Q. What are your enrolment rates from primary school? Also for students?A.Yes
Q. Is there a struggle to advance to secondary school in terms of drop-out rates? Do you find that it is difficult advancing from primary to secondary?A. We enroll students coming from different schools, because it is a preparatory school. They have different background in education. There is a problem in the first semester (***) at this time they are similar in school achievement. But the quality is yet. Some of them are achieving, most of them in the middle. Few students bad. To organise this (since 2002 theeducation system has changed in the country, so this is a preparatory to university. Fist they attend secondary, this is more senior secondary, the standards are made by the Ministry of
77
Education. The problem is that the children come from different schools with different standards. They school tries to make them well behaved, condition. The passing mark is determined by the Ministry of Education. The passing barriers is determined by the university. 7% of high school [students] graduate] to natural science and 30% social science. The capacity changes from year to year it depends on the capacity of universities - translator).
Q. Final question. Based on your experience, has the quality of education improved since your time to now?A. The quality of the education decreasing because it depends on the policy of the state in the past region. And not its had its own policy. Most of the schools are not well equipped in facilities. High standard of teaching, then the future is better than this. But now we are on the same line. There is no improvement of the quality of education until now. (VP)( translator: the quality of education comes from the inputs and processes and outputs, results is quality of education the expansion construction, quantity spoils quality, for example when I in was highschool this school was only a high school, but nowadays the government is expanding the number of schools etc. Because of expansion of the university there is high rate of involvement but previously the number of high school involvement was very limited, so the pass rate was lower; this effects quality of education. These days the government is focusing on the quality of education. One reason is input, second if the value of facilities and process even sometimes the qualities of teachers.
Bio Teacher. The quality is reducing because of the capacity. They are sending more teachers but at lower quality. The main problem is the class size, number of student we are teaching 70 students in class. Secondly there is not payment for teachers so all this is the main factors. Sometimes good teachers are not available, they cannot change their job as it takes 3 months to replace them. These are the main factors, economic, and capacity, for example there are not enough classrooms. We hope in the next year the standard will improve. We are keeping up the hope.
(translator: motivation is a main problem, for example when I was in Japan. When I compare to African university the salary of university is the least in the world, this will effect on the motivation, so they work additional job to support themselves. This effects the quality of education. There needs to be active participation by the students, this is a challenge because you cannot address 70 students. You need to give chance to 3 or 4 smart students, University is better because they can do this better. Main problem – lack of motivation, class time, facilities, capacity of enrollment, numbers expansion (translated)
Q. Is it possible to get the number of boys and girls in secondary level? To add to our data?A. Yes, of course
Students (Male and Female at the same time)Name: M: Salam ( 19) F: Sarah (19) GRADE 12
Q. Are you both from MekelleA. He is from a rural area, now lives in Mekelle, he is paying rent but he is 20 – 30 km from his rural village. He is alone here living with his uncle: She is living with her granddad here in Mekelle and is not from the town
78
Q. Do you have and brothers and sisters:M. Yes I have 3 sisters and 4 brothers
F. I have one brother
Q. What are you favorite subject:M. Economic and civics, because I am interested in them. I would like to join university with economics.
Q. What is the quality of teachers on this school? Problems?A. There are some very active teachers, but there is some with they have a low of performance. They come to class they open a book and read to class. Sometimes they ask for help from us.
Q. Does is happen that teachers do not come to class?How it is different between university and high school (where they have to come)
F. My favorite class is history, (missed what she said about teachers)
Q. How are the facilities here at school?A. In the library there is a shortage of guidebooks, there is a shortage of students of students that go to the library
Q. You were saying you were learning history and economics? Do you like the content? Do you like what you learn?A. The past events are all relevant what we have to learn from the past and what we have to do for the future. (translator: history is very important in Africa, it’s the most difficult of the social sciences, so in the exam you can fail).
Q. Do you have time to read?Yes and no
Q. what ti me do classes stat and endA. Morning at 8 – 12.30, there are two shifts and the next shift is 12.30 and 5:10. These shifts change week
Q. you talk about teachers coming and participationA. refer to a student center, where thy help each other. The have a network 5 students in 1, where there is one clever student in each team who is the leader
Q. Are you leaders?A. Yes
Q. missed question (Raisa)A. The schedule is two days in a week. But the students are not willing to attend all the classes. They go to the friends outside school. There is not teacher monitoring this –translator
Q. Is it tiring that you come to school to times a week and not every week:A. Yes and they use this time to study, we are leaders.
79
Q. What course would you like to do in the future?Male – Economics, and psychology (female)
Q. What are their aspirations for life, goals, aspiration, F. after university I wasn’t to be a business owner to support my family. (psychology for consumer knowledge). I work at a supermarket part time TIENS (Chinese company door to door marketing).
M. doesn’t work
Q. why is she working? Is she paying for school?A.no, school is free
Q. any of those earning are they sent back
(Student interview look at books)
Education Bureau for Education Quality AssuranceHead of Quality Assurance: Mr Ali and Daniel Seife from Tigray Education Bureau (PR)
Q. How do you think the quality of education has changed throughout the years?A.I can tell you the quality of education based on 1paramter: Input (physical, human, material,) has been changing and improving since recent years. Particularly the qualified of teachers in both primary and secondary. In terms of physical inputs, building, classrooms facilities are constructed by the public itself as well as us the government and some NGOs, so all of these improve the quality. The facility particularly centers, laboratories and sanitation are somewhat improving. Of course, the program is not avoided from all school. There is change as a result of public involvement and government inclusion, this is markedly changing. Technical inputs are important in our learning, computers for high school even for primary schools there is an improvement. There are more schools with 40 – 60 computers in class. Teachers and students have access to try out these computers. Another change is curriculum, which is revised every 5 years, in both primary and secondary school. The student ratio is 1:1. Both the primary and secondary curriculum are revised, revised recently where new books are distributed which is another image of input. So, knowing all this, the public particularly constructs schools by their own power, even though all the problems are not solved there is progress in this area. Through the way we measure quality we can see improvement. In processes, the process is we can see a change in 1) the teacher learningprocess and 2) the leadership process. A sort of change in commitment, particularly in the primary schools. And try to improve the class instruction. We have given short and long term training for teachers, which has an impact in the classrooms. We are training teachers. All of these have an effect on the teaching level. In terms of leadership there is similar improvements because we are building short and long term principles, which all have an impact, or even valued support and provision and accessing students ever 3 years regionally, nationally 4 years. From this we take lessons and improve the process and we are ensuring better practice, so all this help us with the process we motivate selected teachers for the best practice and innovation. To totally our schools are changing to become better schools from the former criteria. Since all of schools have met that criteria, we have raised the level of
80
standards. The process is changing. The output, regional examinations at grade 12, national level at grade 8.The average score the minimum grade in the regional level, and this is increasing from time to time. This is similar in the national assessment. This is already improving somewhat, because that assessment is based on a national level which is census based, regardless of quantification. There is change from time to time.
Q. You say the curriculum changes every 5 years? How are these changes made? A. The curriculum is changed on the assessment carried out by the national education ministry, learning assessment is carried out. From this we take lessons so that we can identify the most difficult portions, even doing assessments ourselves. Every teacher in the classrooms does by evaluating textbooks using all this, and through technology advancementin the curriculum change. If there is new, new subjects and courses are added
Q. How often are schools assessed?2 levels:
1. Supervising – which is only for support done quarterly, or in built supervision – each teacher and each principle will provide each other at all times.
2. Quality control process which is done every 3 years – this is measured using certain standards, inputs and output. They are access by 1= low, 2 = moderate, 3 = good standard, 4 above standard
Q. TVET questions:A. General education program TVET program has its own criteria. From the ministry level the higher education there are 3 levels: university, 2. general education, 3. TVET. Concerning the process one parameter is improving the qualification of teachers through TTI. This has a contribution to the quality of education. Therefore the bureau has taken initiative in this to make sure all teachers reach the minimum level which includes training in several areas (agriculture, etc).
Q.Is the bureau responsible to allocating students in different schools:A. Yes it is, the bureau puts a passing mark, you know? So the national administration of education for examination sets exams for higher education and preparatory. For student that score high have a place to advance to next grade. Since grade 8 examination is with us, we put a cut mark based on national, and capacity, all of this is incorporated. In Mekelle the passing is higher than in Addis and Amhara (36), and here in Mekelle it is 46%. After two years the cutting level will be changed to 50%. 15 % of students need to score 80%. Every teacher is responsible in making sure the students reach this point. There is target and every teacher should be measured by this. The student identifies the problem and tries to improve to a good direction. Class and basic targets - as all of us know students go from one class to another class. For instance there are 7 subjects and they can do good and bad in this. But everyone needs to reach 50% and above in every class. And now we have seen an improvement from this mark. From grade 1 – 12, the improvement has been dynamic particularly after 2003, after the national initiative. The leadership of teachers has seen great dynamism.
Q. Are the schools able to meet this target, if not what are some existing problems?A. We measure schools using criteria on base level schools. One item is the results of students, with greater focus given to Mathematics, English and the Science. It is not onlyclassroom, where we also use national assessment, of how many students score 50%, 70% and above. All of this shows the school improvement programme, otherwise if there is a
81
problem to give them a direction for improvement. We support them using supervision, and by best practices compiled from different schools and shared. We do this yearly. Teacher performance evaluation we measure by different parameters, proves to make sure they meet all the qualifications. If there is no any change, we work on it. Each performanceevaluation should be measured by regional offices. This was very challenging the last two years, and we have had much discussion how to do this. Starting from 2004, teachers are assessed by students, which has changed their role in the classroom. We can say there is an improvement because, as you know, the quality of education is contextually measured. When we measure using our parameters, from 4 years to where we are now, there is significant improvement, not only in results, but in learning environments, all of this we can definitely say there is improvementTo improve the quality of education as mentioned there are certain parameters 1. input –manly construction. You can compare the improvement of schools from time to time to the Haile Selassie period. In the 1960 you can take the number of students enrolled for instance: grades 1 – 4 60,000 total in Tigray, and grades 5 – 8 = 8000. The great problem was in high school with only 2000 students. Grade 1 – 12 1500.students. This was a major issue. When you come to now, 2006 [2014], the number of students at grades 1 – 4 = 630,254 students and between grades 5 – 8 = 42,6126 students and in 9 – 10 = 90,00. In every grade or cycle the number of students is greater than in the past. In grades 11 – 12 there has been improvement because there was no high school in the areaThere are 5 criteria for assessment - 1) access, 2) equity, 3) relevance, 4) efficiency and 5) quality. It is not only access that is improving, and problems with equality have remarkablydecreased. In terms of equity also there is more balance between rural and urban. In all the schools the number of female students is greater than men. All have the access of communication equally. Relevance in our region are curriculum is made to be relevant and instruction is given 1 – 8 years, but in our region 1 – 8 teaching is done in mother tongue. When we come to quality, I mentioned, there is improvement, among the 5 objectives there the main issue is quality. There is improvement, not as much as we need.
Q. Do you feel like decentralization enabled you to attain the relevance in improving the quality of education, (e.g. changing to local language)A. Extremely, because the region is free to decide. Not only the region. Each institution has their own power, workforce and supervision to allocate resource to raise awareness to the public. So there are many things. This could not be possible achievement, so we appreciate decentralization. PSTA (PTA and force of students) – there is a developmental force of teachers and students. This has been integrated, and is an emerging thing. It is starting and a solution for the future. Even improvement of plasma - which is given in high schools, has been improving in giving lessons, plasma and teacher and student. Plasma gives instruction through TV monitors to students, then students are given exercises, with the TV giving conclusion, which gives time for the teachers to sum up last minute questions. This makes a difference from the problem of teachers just coming in and reading from books. It changes it to become more standardised. This improves the quality, but there are problem with interruptions - people moving, electricity. This interruption can be an obstacle. And was at first challenged by the teachers, but later through discussion they take it as an assertive thing, But this interruption can be solved, by taking the software from the national level and placing into each individual school. So if it crashes we can access them, during rest times, particularly the computer lab.
Q. Are there any other challenges in improving quality?
82
A. There are always challenges. Skill is an issues, materials we need to find, all of this particularly with technology. There is a bottleneck to teachers in that every teacher is expected to use technology, but not all can. Lack of access to internet. Even facilities are not fulfilled to standard levels at many of the schools lack which adequate facilities, toilets/ All of these are challenges.
Head of Civil Service, Kirfu KindanemariamAll translated after long speeches = room for interpretation
Q. How have you seen the quality of education improved, in your experience? A. Development and education is inseparable, because education ensures development and eradicates poverty. In this region, a base of battle, the previous political system was unstable before this ruling party ERDF, or local level TPLF. As you can see from the data from the education bureau, the number of students was decreasing from the Haile Selassie regime tothe Der. No one wanted to pursue education because of the conflict, because of cases like red terrorism. This ruling party is striving to increase the quality of education, which is improving time to time. Priority was given to expansion, giving certificate, to ensure security. But as time passes, especially in the working sector, there is a high in demand of qualification. Poverty is gradually being eradicated because of development in the education sector.
Q. Employability of TVET students in the working sector?A. We don’t have a shortage of jobs, instead the problem is the perception of graduates from TVET, because they don’t want to employed in small end jobs. So what being done is making them more practical whereby 70% of the curriculum is practical and 30% theory. They are giving groups of graduates loans for micro enterprises supported by TDA & REST, and the regional government to establish SMEs (small and medium enterprises) . TVET is if more fruitful in the region [Tigray], whereas other regions have strikes because of unemployment, this is not an issue here. The very important aspect of TVET is that it is practical and theory based, which is highly demanding for the manufacture sector, who see them better employees than university students. In some cases they invest in new technologies, an advantage of practical education. The graduates themselves are motivated to create their own businesses. Part of the program involved preparing for these types of businesses before graduations:
Q. 3A. We have the Ethiopian capacity development policy, if you want to ensure the quality of education you need to have a good middle and lower ground, focusing on improving the performance of teachers. For teachers this comes through foreign programs esp. German [GIZ] to increase the capacity of the teachers from the higher to the lower education. Maybewe’ve made some mistakes, but the programme is a very interesting programme and has made a huge difference in this area. I’m sure they have increased their capacity from year to year in our teachers. For example, in our university we have a shortage of teachers especiallyscience teachers. Even for a degree for master’s and PhD we have planned and implemented,year by year, these programs. Today we have a better system for higher educationTranslator: I remember when I was a teacher all the teachers were just at a certificate level, now it is expected that they have a diploma level. The government had a strategy plan for 33 years to graduate 10,000 master’s and 2,000 PhD students within 3 years, this goal was already achieved.
83
(translated) during summer, school is closed. During that time 2/3 there is short term training to upgrade skills and knowledge of teachers (elementary and secondary). By the waythis is upgrading the capacity of teachers. That’s it.
Q. Can you tell us about how your journey as a women to this position of power?A.As a woman, the government of Ethiopia already has a good constitution for women, in terms of access. This is seen in the political sphere, but this needs to be seen in all sectors.We have 30% female occupation in parliament*. Female executive members are 35% in offices and vice offices. Part of the 5 year strategy plan, is trying to reach 50% in allgovernment offices. The government is giving a focus to empower women, politically, socially and economically; we give priority to equality of women. These women need to learn and be taught in a way that prepares them for all areas (interpreted). Because of development all women are educated in all sectors, but don’t understand the concept of equality. We also have a problem because of the culture, superiorities, etc.
TVET interview (not verbatim): Cheryl Garay (Philippine teacher working on a GIZ program alongside the Ethiopian government
- 50 Philippine teachers hired by GIZ working in different clusters (also teachers from Cuba)
- One-year contract (renewable)- Financed by GIZ budget (different from the federal budget for other stuff)- Methodology teaching for teachers and trainers - Skill training for employees in small and middle enterprises- Livelihood programs of government, eg. HIV carriers training.- Free for students- Construction (around 100 students)- IT (6 students per computer)- Food preparation- School provides materials for students and they bake food (eat or sell)- Culture conflicts, such as cleaning and sanitation- Hotel & Tourism- Serving (e.g. table setting, serving customers), hotel operation, house-keeping,
tourism- Only 1 teacher (17 + 25 students)- 1000 – 1500 birr- Government + companies = jobs (allocated)- 800 - 3000 birr per month- Eg. Level b and c is technical and level a would be university- Engineering is university level (7000 bir per month) – go to university for better
employment and higher income - Federal agency in Addis Ababa (TVET bureau), requesting for support from
European countries (foreign aid)- Pay for local teachers, buildings, and materials etc.- Private school around 1200 birr per month but better services/ education quality/
facilities, also better outcomes- Public school around 185 birr per year- Power analysis in terms of decentralization from top down - Policing: Supervision by schools and community- Inspection by government
84
- Knowledge sharing and information spillover: experiences shared by schools- Redistribution
TVET Teachers:Q. How did you become a TVET teacher? What was the process?1. I Graduated from university then went to college to start training. At that time there was no assessment for teachers, now it is different. Now there is a ranking of GPA to enter and exams. Now there is a main criteria, and an assessment called the COC. (translator: COC is applied to both students and teachers with competency, if the teachers can’t pass this they Center of competence certificate, now it has been changed to agency of competency) . 2. Almost the process is the same. There is new education system, before that there was old education system before revolution. Before TVET teachers are directly employed, after that they join the university. So, after completing university education, the Ministry of Education will post vacancies. Those needing employment in this occupation must register. All students must register and they compare each other. But no one joined TVET, because now there is national assessment, after university they take national assessment. No another occupations, but it depends on the government plans, to have assessment to be satisfied. The certificate of the university is not enough. If you pass the COC assessment you join or become a teacher. Even if formal teacher is directly employed by TVET, you have to go back to do COC. (Translator; after they finish university they have to complete exit exams)
Q. Do you think this is a good system?
A. Yes, very nice, because quality is improved. In our country this exam shows knowledge. You go to university only for marks, because of they are not competent.(translator: they are only working to pass exam, students are only working for scoring good grade, this does not mean knowledge, therefore the exit exam is very important)
A. The curriculum in TVET is practical, theoretical, and cooperative based training programme.
For example if the course has 100 hours, from this 30% is theoretical, then for example 90 hours is 50% is practical, from this 90 hours and 40% is cooperative training, then what is remaining 10% that 10% is project work. This project work is what, practical, from thisalmost 70%, 30% theoretical. First they do theoretical in class. For example, I am automotive teacher,[my class shows] how, when, the history of automotive, different practice, like that, videos of integral parts of an engine. Then practical.
Q. What about apprenticeships?A. First you do in school training, which is outside of the Mekelle region, for cooperative training, this is part of practical
Q. What is the difference between level 1 – 2, & 4?A. Level 1 for example depends on the program, come go to level 2, level 3, depending upon the school. For example it even depends upon the department, with some departments finishing the course, but other departments work side to side. (2) there are not only levels, there is also competency, if you finish competency, there is training where students go to cooperatives.
85
Friday, 9th May 2014:
REST Name: Mengiste GerressePosition: Director of Communications
Q. Can you give us a background about REST and your position?A. REST is working only on primary schools, you know the elementary schools are the target of the organisation, so we support access for students in the Tigray region. We are only regionally helping primary schools. In the primary schools there are two cycles, grades 1- 4, and 5-8. This organization was created in 1978, performing integrated land development, agriculture, radiation, health and education. With regard to education, access to education in remote areas, we have supported 35,000 students in education till grade 4. Creating classrooms, providing furniture, hiring teachers, and also we have been distributing education materials to the centres. We are working together in the committee in constructing classrooms. REST provides materials, while the public also provides materials at a grassroots level. So far we have constructed 700 classrooms for those students. After they have completed primary education we hand them over to the government to finish second cycle. We are working in alternative programs for unreached areas by the government.
Q. Can you please describe these alternative programs?A. Education is provided in line with the curriculum here in Tigray, but it is little different. They complete it in 3 years and join grade 5, but later on we realised that the age of students is the same year as primary program so we raised it to 4 years. The schedule is flexible. Mostly it is provided at a convenient time for families, so that they can help their family in the spare time. The only difference is that the schedule, it is flexible, but the curriculum is similar prepared by the government. We have a running program.
Q. Is the flexible schedule because if seasons in agricultural harvesting?A. The schedule is flexible for the harvest. They plan weekly program and daily classrooms accordingly, so the rest of the year is unaffected. There is more flexible time for preference of students and families.
Q. How has decentralisation helped the quality of education?A. Let me proceed about the alternative program, function and literacy for learners age 15 and above. There is also a two-year program for adults, based on lifestyles, which provides education in mathematics and science. Another program that we are supporting is formal school support. In terms of construction of additional classroom providing. So far we have constructed about 200 additional classrooms that benefited 20,000 students, and createdstandardised classrooms. Second to classrooms, we constructed about 190 segregated bathrooms for boys and girls. I think this intervention has improved the quality in primary education. In term of the infrastructure, we establish the schools in collaboration of the city and grassroots organisations. After they identify their needs, we work together with them. The centers are established in traditional structure, until the classrooms are constructed, instructed by the formal school. The principles of the nearby formal schools are the directors until that school is transformed into a formal school. Expanding a primary education in itself. The woreda office is responsible for the supervision and provision of curricular materials. Also, a supervisor at the woreda level is responsible for supervision at the centres. The management is centralised by local communities, and technically by the principles of the formal schools. They also have their own management committee established to manage the
86
day-to-day activities of the schools. The centre management activities are elected by the committee and parents around. The committee is responsible for the immediate administration of the centres. So they are highly centralised. Managed academically by local committee and local schools.
Q. Do you know about the training for teachers in senior secondary schools?A. We do not provide training for secondary schools. But we have high interest of students becoming teachers, in providing them alternative skills that enable to join the training professions. No, no involvement in secondary education, you should consult TDA that focuses on that area as well as primary schools. Sometimes they provide training, textbooks and establish libraries. If you consult that organization you can get more information about education. Our principle is focusing on primary and disabled students in line with the MDGs.
Q. In your opinion how has the quality of education changed over the years? What specific changes have you seen?A. After a couple of decade the regions was highly limited, even the access to school was limited in certain towns. Now tremendously the access of education has improved. With that, the quality of education was a challenge for the region with the number of primary and secondary schools increasing dramatically, affecting quality of education. At this time the quality of education is improving, the facilities of the schools is improving, and the training aspect with regard to teachers is improving. The classification of primary teachers was certificate, now it is upgrading to the level of diploma. In the secondary schools, teachers is upgrading to degree. In terms of the capacity of professionals, the administrative part of the sector, and in extremism of the provision of materials, and in terms of designing the curriculum, that address the contextual aspects of the region, I see improvements in the region. But still, the quality of education remains a challenge. Many students cannot preform as per the standards set, many students can't preform. Their reading capacity is poor, and so on. Area to be improved on in the region in terms of the process, the communication between teachers and students still remains a challenge, there is need to work on it.
Weldu Niguse Secondary and Preparatory SchoolName: Mulugeta GebrekrstosPosition: Principle
Q. How long have you been a director at this school?A. I work for one year as a teacher and three and half years as a principle. So, in total, five and a half years.
Q. How did you find the change of role from teacher to director? Has it been difficult to be a principle?A. When I am a principle, but it is better to be a teacher than head office. Because the responsibility is very broad, a lot of responsibility and the role of work has risks, there are risks.
Q. What support do you have from the government, community, and NGOs?A. There is structure. The support I receive from regional office as well as the Salaam Education Office. Therefore supporters from the structure of education. But sometimes we get support from the administration part.
Q. What was the process of election into your position?
87
A. Qualification. First I got bachelor, teach, then I get masters degree, then I got position and then I prepare for this position for three years. This structure is different. After three year I was director. [Translator: By the way, he was vice principle for the Woreda office for three years. For me it is very surprising for one-year teaching experience to become director]
Q. What is the level of community involvement? For example are they funding the buildings in the school?A. There are two committees, the community and PTA, they are contributors. They pay some money for the keepers of the ground, guards, the payment is from the parents. There are two buildings, the laboratory, and the class block. Therefore, they are built by the community. The other, the third block, is built by the community.
Q. How do they fundraise this money?A. The committee collects the money
Q. What are the members in your PTA? Of teachers, students and parents?A. 1 student, 3 teachers, director and the rest is from the community. There are monthly meetings. I provide work for the committee and they assess the teaching and learning process, looking at what are the problems and what are the solutions. We meet at this position and we discuss. Therefore we have to fulfil these problems, we take our role. If the problem rise from the community they take the responsibility to overcome the problem, because they oversight the school. If the problem arises from the teacher, then I take responsibility to fix the problem. We discuss how to find a solution.
Q. Does the government give you an annual budget?A. Yes, before this year we had two types of budget from the government, 20 birr for each student from the woreda. We also have from national, we take from woreda. Separate from this is GEQIP, from the World Bank. Then we save from that source of the budget, approximately 40 birr per student last year. This year only total 6,000 is allowed because it is transitioning. Whether this will continue or not, I don't know.
Q. What are your views of the performance of students, their grades, difference between boys and girls, and what challenges do they face in the class?A. The number of female at the bottom that achieve is greater than the number of boys, but at the top level they participate, they arrive first, second, third. In general they score worse than boys, but there are some that are top of score best.
Q. Why do you feel this is happening with your female students?A. The economic part, they learn by working on the opposite shift by themselves. They have no parents some, the girls, they have no father, or no mother. Because of this the area is affected by the military camp, therefore their father give out. There are a lot of children with no mother or father. As well, there is little support from the family.
Q. Is it possible to get information on drop out rates?A. Yes
Q. What do you think of the quality of the teachers you have in this school? Are they able to teach the students what you are expecting?A. As for qualification they are perfect, in actuality most of the teachers are mixed. They didn't master the content and the material.
88
Q. Do they receive any further training?A. We try with them sometimes, but sometimes with the head department, there is a network. We try to solve this network if they have a problem with peforming, and network, they work together, then they will have similar capacity. Continuous, we try to make continuous. But there is no training. No, no. There a few numbers who train for a few days but it is below, it could not work for the entire teachers.
Q. Do you get support from NGOs? From EYES, TDA, REST to the school?A. They only support the budget part, if there is gap in the communication with the community. They try to make small. They try to mobilise the community, they ask for reimbursement, and we celebrate, but with capacity they cannot help because it is not responsibility.
Name: Sisay WeredePosition: English Teacher
Q. How did you become a teacher at this school?A. I am an English teacher, I have 6 years of teaching and we teach our students English focusing in the service of language. We have good material from the British Council, who teach our students once a week. Basically our students are in a good position. However, we do have a lack of necessary materials. For example, the teacher grades because it's basic materials for us. We teach them how to guide them. To the students, for example we need to give material to the students, but it is a problem. We have an English department, but some English teachers are volunteers. We don't have a strong English performance, the students need to share their experience to the media. The staff administration does not help as much.
Q. Do you feel you are supported by the local government in training?A. Four months we had training, by the British Council. It was very interesting, but they did not come again. From our experience we need to give them feedback. The advantage and is a disadvantage but they don't come again. For example before the Mekelle University, they come, they train us, but now it has been interrupted.
Q. What about the government?A. This year the government is not giving any training in English [year begins in September].
Q. What about other departments?A. In the English department. We announce the advantage of English as a medium of instruction for all subjects, to the other subjects. We think English language in important inunderstanding chemistry, physics and mathematics. We encourage them to talk in English to each other, to express their own ideas in English. Sometimes from other departments they are sent to Addis Ababa to get methodology, it can be about transmitting skill. This can be anytime in the year.
Q. Who supports these sorts of programmes?A. Zonal administration in the region [the woreda].
Q. What do you think of the performance of the students here, what are the problems?
89
A. Almost 60 of the students are in good position but 49 are not. The problem is the lack of chairs and materials, for example civic books and technical drawings, no books are given, which hinders capacity. This is not only a problem in our school, but is also regional.
Q. Since you have worked here have you seen the quality of education improve?A. There is some improvement but not as much as expected
Q. Do you feel like you have any influence in the policies for education? Are you in any committees?A. Of course we work in collaborations with EDP. There is also a school board from the woreda. They influence the students to be good at their subjects, but they don't get a lot of feedback on time. They come and just give direction, they don't evaluate on the ground, this is a problem. When we fail to do something we do not get much support from them.
Q. Does the woreda have contact with the PTA here?A. No, no contact. When they come here to help us they don't have full power, because of lack of… [ommission]. For example this year woreda gets the regular budget, but we don't get the 200 birr, we don't know why? [Translator Maybe the proposal isn’t finished] There is a lack of budget, it is very difficult to accomplish, this is a big problem.
Q. How old are your textbooks?A. Books are new, and very good books.
Name: Mebrouhtu M/Slassie (M) & Luwam Ali (F)Position: Students
Q. Do you like coming to school and educationA. Yes, we enjoy (M). - Yes enjoy school (F).
Q. Can you tell us about your school?
A. As preparatory we only do natural science, because this prepatory means we prepare to join university. That's why before, we want to take the science subject, I like them very much (M).
Natural science class, I love all of them especially biology and chemistry. Next time I studybiology. From elementary I love all of them, if you are not good at chemistry you are no goodat biology, they go hand in hand – (F)
Q. And what job would you like in future? A. I want to study medicine because I need help my country, because we have a lack of doctors, everyone is in business. I want to help – (M)
[And you?] I don’t know – (F)
Q. How are the teachers? Problems?A. They are good but there are problems. We have a shortage of materials in the library, we have only library, materials books, one book for three peoples. We have a lot of microscopes. Most of the teachers are bias – (F).
90
Q. Are they boring? A. Yes, some – (F).
Teachers, there is some lack, there are differences among them. Some of them encourage, some teachers may ignore us and then there is no preparation. And if students ask some question they feel some problems, they don't like it. They don't want to be asked questions, that why we face problems, but most of the teachers are fantastic and prepare for school – (M).
Q. How many people in a class?A. In a class maximum about 60 – (M)
[And in your class?] About 45 – (F)
Q. Is it ok to have mixed class?A. It is good. Why not mix? – (M)
It is good, it builds confidence – (F)
Q. Any problems being a girl in school?A. No, because I am confident – (F)
Q. How about the toilets?A. I don't use the toilets, it sucks – (F)
The toilets, there are some. Some students misuse that's why when they misuse there is some problem with the toilets that why we need, you know, a well-done toilet and, um, not be destroyed after a short time, for long time. When they are designed to just work, we should if they administration plan for long use it would be great for the students – (M).
Q. What about other parts of the school?A. In the football field, it is for the community, for the whole city, because the whole city come here to play football, and we don't have another. Place needs to be especially for the football – (M).
Q. Do you have a favorite team?A. [Laughs] I like Arsenal – (M).
Q. How far do you travel to school? A. I come from the center of the city and I don't have a problem. For about 20 min walking –(M).
15 min walking – (F)
Q. Are you part of any other activities in school?A. I like music, I sing, most of them are hip-hop, like Rihanna [Laughs] – (F).
Q. Do you live with your family?A. I live with my family – (F)
91
I don't live with my family, I live with my brother, my younger brother, because my father is not here and my mother died. He is younger. I work spare time outside school. I manage my time to work and get learning. I help strength, tutoring students and they give money – (M).
Q. How many brothers and sisters? A. As I said one younger brother and also one sister. She lives in countryside. Married and has children – (M).
I have four older brothers and sisters, and two younger sisters. They all go to school. My older sister is a nurse and other is electrical engineer – (F).
Q. What are the big problems of the school?A. I think there are big problems in this school. We have a laboratory, but it does not have full materials for learning. In this school we are learning theory but we do not practice because there is shortage of materials. If there is a welding, the laboratory it is good, because when you learn theoretically you forget it, but when you learn practically it is nice – (M).
There is a shortage of materials. The teachers are bored, and the laboratory – (F).
Ayder Preparatory Secondary SchoolName: Kibrom Tidel, Haile Borhe & Kitsila TarikePrinciple: Principle, Vice Principle & Coordinator of Teacher Development
Q. Can you give us a background of your school and your positions?A. School started in 1997, from grade 9 to grade 12. It had around 600 students – (P)
As Vice Principle I went to Mekelle University. My programme was in language. I have 20 years of teaching – (VP)
I have 6 years teaching as a teacher, 24 years principle from elementary to preparatory school. I have a master’s in instructional education – (P)
[What about you?] 8 years of experience, so in teaching I have 5 years experience and now I am the leader in management with my collogues. I am attending the master’s program in leadership. I am the coordinator of the teacher development program – (CoTD)
Both of us are coordinators – (VP)
Q. Does the local government help you with teacher training program? How? A. Yes, they do help us, they give training two ways, upgrading job training. The university gives us different training – (P).
Q. How do you know what kind of training the teachers’ need?A. By assessing the interest of the teachers, then communicate with the university and educational bureau for help. So now they are taking the training and relevant service (CoTD).
Q. How often to you do assessment?A. Every semester, every three months and quarter of the semester. Sometimes with have a shortage of finance. Some training we have planned in the new beginning of this year will be applied. What we did this year they make short analysis: what are our strengths and some
92
take classes. This is given to teachers and students and I gather that for plan. For example we look at how to plan activities in classrooms, and professional development. This is aligned with the teacher’s quality assessment. Here is a diagram you see? [Points at poster] Most of the teachers haven't skill about computer. Then with woreda civil service we do training, they take that, how to prepare a roster, a list, how to write a Microsoft Word, they take from that –(CoTD).
Q. Do you have enough computers for the teachers and students? A. We have 17 computers only for the students. No computers are available for the teachers. We met with the British Council, we pay 12,000 birr and they bring 29 computers with Internet. But they haven't come yet, they are coming. This is a problem where now we have one computer for 49 students – (P).
Q. Do you do shifts? A. Yes, different teachers for each shift, in some cases one teacher for both. They go out and return, both shifts – (VP).
Q. How many teachers do you have? Female/Male?A. 75 teachers, male 55, and female 19. Around there – (P).
Q. Do you have a parent teacher association?A. Two students, one chairman of the parents, one director, 3 parents, and 3 teachers. In total 10.
Q. How do you feel about the performance of the students?A. It is improving [pointing to diagram]. This is passing in 2002, this is 27% and in 2003, 50.3%, 2004, 38% from shortage of materials and in 2005, 50.3%. We applied a network for students and teachers, educational army [5-1 group dynamic] helping, and the teacher helping. For the quality of education, we budget, then this one for quality only for laboratory, materials and also buy latest books, like mathematics, for teachers and students, we have good level. They have it, the reading is very good, that is the best. The books are latest for preparatory, and all – (VP).
Q. Where do you get the books?A. Mekelle University and NGOs, People to People [NGO]. 25,000 thousand, they give us. Also this year 25,000 again. Our service is very high provision, and also to educate ourselves. Also funds from GEQIP, 248,000 birr from federal. For one students 20 bir. From this 25,000 we save for the library – (P).
Q. Do you get anything from the woreda level?A. 20 birr for student, per year. So 20 from federal, 20 from Woreda and 20 from people to people. Nothing from TDA – (P).
Q. Do you think the quality of education has improved?A. Improved, 50%. In our schools also we help the visually impaired students, from grade 9 -12. They are very high performers, they are very active – (VP).
93
Name: Hatteselassie Zemmariam (M) & Meron G/Yohannes (F)Position: Students
Q. What classes do you like?A. Biology and chemistry, I like all rather than communications – (F).
Math and physics, I like engineering – (M).
Q. Are you going to university after? A. Yes, for health – (F).
I want to do engineering – (M).
Q. Do you have a favourite teacher?A. My favourite past teacher was physics – (M).
I like my biology teachers especially when he teaches about genetics – (F).
Q. Are there teachers you don't like?A. Most of the students dislike a teacher if teacher does not understand them effectively, they start to hate them. Some of them I hate now, there are few teachers that listen. They don't see you as a friend, they are a teacher, and they are above you. They have arrogance in their heart and they attack the students – (M).
I like all my teachers, but there are some teachers that are careless and don't use their time wisely - (F).
Q. What are the sizes of your classes? A. 70 – (M).
Q. How do you feel about the facilities, like books, toilets...?A. Our library has different preferences, new additions. There are questions prepared by our teachers. Toilets are not as good – (F).
There are different books on different subject, but there is no initiative to use them. There is no water in the toilet – (M).
Q. Is there anything else you want to add? Or ask us?A. We are the leaders of the groups of 6 – (F).
There is a big difference between science and theory. We need collaboration with the university to come and understand, so that we get more theory. There is a shortage of willing, there are no initiative people around this school. We need help from other universities – (M).
Q. Do you use plasma teaching?A. No – (M).
Q. How do you feel about mixed classes between boys and girls?A. No problem. There are more girls than boys in class and I don't have any problems – (F).
94
Q. Do you think your teachers have good knowledge, or do you feel sometimes they don't know what they are teaching?A. Most of the teachers have full knowledge, how to express their opinions, they read – (M). Sometimes I think they are not fully trained. Mostly, prepared – (F).
Q. How long does it take for you to get to school?A. 10 min walking – (F).
15 min walking – (M)
Q. Are you from Mekelle and do you live with family here? A. Yes – (M).
Same – (F).
Q. Do you have any siblings? Do they all go to school?A. All of them go to school – (M).
Same – (F).
Q. Do you have any other problems with the school?A. The big problem is initiative, and training of teachers- (M).
I agree- (F)
Q. Are there any other questions you’d like to ask us? A. Just to please help our school, thank you – (F).
Saturday, May 10th 2014:
TDAName: Weldeslasie KelkayPosition: Director of Communications and PR
Q. Can you tell us about TDA? What do you do for secondary schools?A. This is a means of the association, while it was established in 1989, in the United States, at the states in was civil. Before, the infrastructure of the region was highly fractuous. Our operation area is Tigray. So the work in the United States, think and manage the organization, expanding education, supporting the health sector, supporting the cultures and hearts and empowering women, where you see unemployment. Then after TDA intervene widely in the education sector, specifically the quality of education, after doing that. The number of school in Tigray doubled, because the association internationally did that, because education is important. Up to now we constructed up to 500 primary schools, we have constructed and added blocks to 42 classrooms in secondary schools. So what we do is construct, furnish them, and hand over to the education bureau. The administration is the bureau. Before this students get an education to read. This is one of the major disadvantages because there were no secondary schools in rural area. There are a lot of challenges there, especially for girls, there was no high school. Then the women are supposed to go to attend their classes in Mekelle. So even the transport system was very poor not like this. The women also cultural:they are not supported by family to try beyond grade eight. When I say we constructed
95
52high schools, we have members and supporters. Women then, over 14 secondary schools in the… [omission] So this is what I can say about the intervention of TDA.
Q. What ways do you help women to get into jobs and employment creation?A. TDA has four training centres in Axum, Kanafi and Ifemwe. Had machine rise, not now, but before 1999. So this machine rise and there were professionals collected, they offered skilled training, in pottery, construction and… [omission]…and in bakery. We managed to train over 7,000 girls who were unemployed. We had no impact assessment, but we see what they are doing, they were able to keep up with the economy.
Q. We know there are three public schools, what is it you do specifically in those schools?A. Ok, I'm not quite sure about that. I don't have information of what the specific projects do. We have a project helps 90 schools over three woredas. Uh, one of the Woreda in Mahale [?], Mekelle and… [omission]. It's not that much I think, kind of interesting. But the school has a budget. The project is five years by the way. So, I wish I had the program coordinator here with me. What we do is the kids attend classes, they work income-generating activities, like… or do something that generates an income, and the school monitors their activities. This is one thing. For girls: we hand them over education material, every semester. We give them some that you call course materials, that is very good. Intervention in high school, we collect books from our donors, members and from supporters, and general stakeholder from Europe. So we try to foster the library of the schools. This is of course the general practice of TDA. We distributed over 13,000 books to Ayder and at Yohannes. At Yohannes there is another branch for girls junior secondary. They’re four. We don't have an office in Yohannes, but we have a strength in the library and Ayder is constructing a second library. Therefore, one thing did that. Another thing is that we get donor shipments from our supporters in Ethiopia, we donate materials. We give books, to the books, which to schools. We are trying to construct some blocks at high school. We we are trying to assist in contributing in a sports field. We are trying to help each the quality of education. At Yohannes we offer a library to a group of students, they collect some laptops…6 laptop, we establish and finish it to create a link to the Internet.
Q. Can you talk more about how you ensure quality of education?A. There are a lot of factors. One is the teacher training, the other thing is that even the schools are very beneficial in capacity build. We have program, the best one is…[omission] Best school basic education is for six years attain cost of sixty million birr.
Q. How much to you contribute to schools? A. For about two thousand schools
Q. Is it possible to get access to these projects?A. I am new to the organization, but it will try. I have only been six months here. There was a data that construct, but we have a new database.
Q. Were these only for primary schools? A. We have for primary and big schools. The question that you ask, yes quality of education we do. And that, there are several factors. There is class ratio, if the student ratio is not proper. Therefore we have to expand the school. We have to construct additional blocks and classes to ensure quality of education. There is also the ratio between resources and students. If the student does not have reference materials they are not possible to do. Other thing is to get quality of education, we provide education. But the quality of education is ensured by
96
student class ratio. Therefore we expand schools. In addition what we are doing is creating a capacity feed into teachers starting from primary education. We have one program called the Habishadid programme. We are implementing this program in 70 primary schools around Tigray. They contribute to the quality of education, but this are not enough to support quality of education.
Q. What can you tell us about the level of job training students get? A. The ways have, some of the indicators we have, especially capacity. The main issue is the job training. Some schools mentioned they get on the job training.
Q. Is there anything you can tell us about how decentralization has affected the quality of education?A. I don’t know the concept, can you clarify the concept?
Q. We are asking, because the role of the government in education has changed, it is bottom up for more help from the community. A. Yes the community that is crucial. There is the Education Bureau which is supposed to expand schools because they have centralised budget, but they may do funding which is not appropriate. For example this region is one of the better regions. Some 100 kilometres away, /which is very poor, there is no education there. Therefore implement their own system the woreda needs to have their own money which they can control. In the early times we collected money from our members, we have over one million members in Tigray. Out of them government employees, 8,000 permanent members, they contribute their part. One person from their basic salary. Then every woreda is supposed to collect some sort of money from each employee. So what they did now, they send the money to the central office here and then we choose to implement some education program to what you call the poor regions. From 2002 we implement program which help 70, so 70% of the contribution in woreda. The woreda knew they had to invest that to education. But, 100 % was sent to TDA and the TDA distribute, which is not fair. So we change, we make 70% remain there and 30% to TDA. This is very helpful to ensure quality of education.
Q. How do you feel about the quality of education now? Better or worse?A. It needs a little study to say something. To give you my opinion there is a critical problem, one thing to improve on in primary education is that there are not enough classrooms, students do not attend their classes in shifts. When you go out of the big towns, even in secondary schools there aren't shifts. There is no strong presence in high schools, because in the early time the government didn’t focus on education quality because of MDGs. This creates not enough high schools in Tigray, so they are forced to build temporary classrooms which completely devastates the quality of education. Siting the number offshoots hook inTigray is minimum there is high pressure. The. This is huge pressure to the quality of education. The other is the pressure of the student teacher ratio and there is not enough material, most of the schools if you see there are out of date books. This affects the quality of education. This is my opinion off course, but there needs a study.
Q. This 70/30 budget you mentioned, can you tell us more about the role of the woreda in this? A. Our members are a mix of governors and farmers. We have 52 in the woreda. It is responsible for the amount of money donated. So the take the 70/30, send 30 for administration into books and other things. Officially they want to invest the money for thefuture, because it is their responsibility to intervene. But we need more accountability.
97
Q. Can you talk about the cultural context of women in education? And explain the change of women ratio between secondary schools and university? A. In primary education there are more girls than boys. While the grade increases, the number of girls decreases up to the university level. This is for one thing the culture. The women are supposed to do the house duties and support their men. Nowadays it is changing gradually. The society is getting better and more away from this because there is a push for gender equality. There are some girls at home because it is dangerous from the conflict before. But now there are more outdoor activities for girls. This is different to the culture 3 or 4 years ago. This, I think, is a universal change.
[Q. Can you tell them about the special TDA school? – Translator]A. It is called [omission]. What we do is administer an exam. Every year during the summer,students who complete grade 8 are supposed to complete an exam into our boarding school. It was created 10 years ago. The students are very smart and intelligent. We accept 90 students each year, 45 girls and 45 boys. In the school 500 graduated, 100 students no have medical degree. 70% of the students in natural science. They are working all over areas in Tigray and Ethiopia. There are also some working in England. This school is very special and we still continue.
Q. What is the initial passing mark to get into this school?A. It is not a grade, it is a competition. Maybe 90 student score one hundred. But me make favor for girls for equal ratio.
Name: BilenPosition: Mekelle University Alumni(Interview notes are not verbatim of responses)
Participation of women at university level is declining because of marriage and need to support their families, this means there is a decrease in the number of females going to university.
In her year there were 150 students, 21 were female, 109 male, but when she graduated with only 7 females remained.
Her family is supportive of her career, as she is outspoken and confident Has two brothers In her field of medicine she feels like she sometimes has to compete for patients and labs
where men usually dominate. There are both financial and social issues related to the low participation of females in
university It took her 6 years to complete school. Currently she is 35 years old, and is receiving
pressure from other women to have kids, but this trend is changing and improving. She sees more girls in senior secondary school than before – these girls are confident,
ambitious and high achieving. Notes that in her career of medicine there is a traditionally perceived maternal side to it. In the ‘70/30’ educational teaching policy, social sciences are perceived as being the easy
option. As a shorter course women often select social science. She feels like the government is biased towards the natural sciences.
She believes there needs to be more support for women entering into university. Before final exams there is a tutorial, describing the levels of affirmative action involved in the
98
entrance into university. Entrance exam into university is based on grades. The higher you score the greater your chance of getting into your first choice. Once you graduate you have to give service to the government, especially as there is a shortage of doctors in the working sector. The government will then ask for fees back at the end of the course. Learning is for free and the government gives grants to help pay for upkeep.
There is jobs security for students taking natural sciences, but this is not the same in social sciences where there is no real gender divide.
There are some problems with the employment the management, accounting and law graduates. To be a judge for example you have one year of training but the government posts them to rural areas. Private firms only want master degree law students.
Women are not actively hunting for jobs because they are responsible for “reproducing future labour”. This means that unemployment is worse for women.
She is used to living in a male-orientated surrounding due to her upgrading (her father used to be the president of the university).
She feels on campus women’s voices were not heard as much. On the main campus there was a shortage of dormitories for women, so classes were held where they had dorms.
Men did not support women’s rights on campus. There have been some issues harassment, and some women didn’t want to walk to the library that was 3km away from dorms.
Having a medical doctorate she has received a high level of social acceptability, but being a female doctor is still very rare. Men sometimes still assume she is a cleaner and not a doctor despite her wearing a white coat. There is still a cultural idea of women being the nurses and carers, but this perspective is changing incrementally.
There is still a problem when women want to see female doctors for personal issues because of the shortage of female doctors. However this is changing, and she sees women getting employed steadily into the medical sector.
She had the opportunity to teach individuals about the harmful consequences of FGM, which was instigated a huge reaction from the community. There is still a cultural resistance against doctors and medicine in the community.
She feels there is a high demand for female doctors, as there are more patient and look out for the interests of the patients. Men in general are not emotionally connected to their patients. Because of this she thinks medicine will eventually become a female orientated job, which is why equal access for both sexes is important.
Referring to her brother’s experience at university, there were initially 2,000 students in his engineering course, only 1/3 or 300 being women. Most of these women came from urban areas. By the second year of engineering the number of female students dropped to 100 students.
On the business campus there are some cases of sexual harassment between teachers and students in order to get good grades. Teachers invite female students to coffee (a euphemism for sexual advances), and if they refuse she gets a bad grade. These cases are not reported to the news or media.
At university females are not confident or academically strong. Most are not brave enough to step forward against these teachers. Even after these teachers are fired they continue to harass female students. There needs to be a change in this system.
In her medical career this is not an issue because of high levels of professionalism. Realises that she has more of a voice compared to other females due to her father
previously being the university president.
99
Informal Interviews with Students at Mekelle University
Pair of engineering students:
Q. Are you from the engineering department? What year are you in? A. Yes, in the engineering department, both fourth year out of five.
Q. Are there any issues with your studies?A. There are a lot of missing classes. We need more practical work.
Q. Are you happy with the marks that you get?A. No, not happy. There is a difference between marks from different schools.
Q. How many boys and girls are there in your class? A. 15 female students in this course out of 60.
Q. Do you think there are enough jobs after you graduate, does the university help you?A. After graduation the university give us no role. There is a lot of opportunity. We get work.
Four students (2 boys/2 girls) from the Electricity Department:
Q. What can you tell us about the quality of your education, is there any problems that you are facing?A. The quality of education is bad, we have problems because not everyone had laptops and access to the internet so we come here – (F).
Q. How many students are there in your course?A. 50 – (F).
Q. And how many are boys? How many are girls?A. There are 15 girls in the class – (F). Q. How are your professors? Are there any problems?A. There are some problems because there is a shortage of teachers, we are still being taught by assistants so our knowledges is old.
Students studying management, 3rd year (not verbatim):
- It’s very difficult to find jobs due to lack of experience. The courses are all about theories, without any practical training. Also there is no chance to have internships. Companies look for experienced employees. Most graduates go to banks which provide training for new employees.
- There are 50 females and 70 males in management class, but there would be more males in natural science, such as engineering, medicine, IT and so on. They have internship or more practicing opportunities than social science students. Thus, it is also easier for them to find jobs.
- Payment for newly graduate students are not high, usually 4000 birr per month. Females in rural areas face more pressure. It is more difficult for them to find jobs. Culture and social values lead to early marriage. After grade 12, lots of rural girls
100
drop out to marriage or work in Arabian countries to make money supporting their families.
- Compared to job and making money, higher education is less interested for their families or them.
- Not happy with university infrastructure and facilities, such as food provided in canteen is terrible, dormitory, toilets, beds are all very poor. There is no relaxing/quiet room. Some students don’t have laptop. Computers are not enough for students. There is also a lack of books, especially new recent released books.
- There is no assistant program to help graduates to find jobs.
Monday, 12th May 2014:
Mekelle UniversityName: N/APosition: Head of Accounting
Q. Can you tell us about the job market for graduates in accounting? A. Getting a job is as competitive as other fields in the business. Because of the economic development and business corporations, there opportunity for our students to get a job. And even within this college our departments are very valuable for job opportunities.
Q. What sort of business do they usually go into? Micro-finance? A. For the financial sector, insurance commonly, governing organisations and micro finance. These are all over the country.
Q. Do the majority go to Addis or stay in Mekelle? A. Mainly students stay in this region. Most of the students get a job from a bank, specifically commercial bank government owns. So the students who have a cumulative of 2.75 the government organizations observe them.
Q. What is the split between the admittance of males and females in your department? A. It is even for the female students, 2.5 for female students, for male students 2.75.
Q. Do think the women studying in the department find the same sort of jobs as men after graduating? A. Yes, in the government and private sector.
Q. Have there been any changes in the ratio of boys to girls over the years?A. No, the majority men.
Q. We've been interviewing secondary schools in the area, what sort of grades do you expect from these students? A. The quality of education is deteriorating at secondary school. So the students coming in are poor performers. Students from private schools are better performers, but in the rural area is very poor.
Q. If your students are under performing is there any ways they can seek advice? Are there any special programs for female students that are having problems? A. There is a remittance class for all female students.
101
Appendix 4
Analytical framework: The relationship between decentralisation and poverty reduction:
Source: OECD (2004)
102
Appendix 5.
Table of photographic findings
103
Appendix 6Enrolment and graduation of under and post graduate students, Ministry of Education
104
Appendix 7. University of Mekelle staff by gender
College/institutePhD Masters BA/Bsc Diploma Total sum
M F T M F T M F T M F T M F TEthiopia College of Technlogy-Mekelle
12 0 12 118 6 124 61 5 66 15 3 18 206 14 220
College of Computational Science
17 0 17 106 4 110 36 9 45 16 5 21 175 18 193
College of Health Science
4 0 4 171 34 205 110 22 132 12 4 16 297 60 357
Institute of Paleo-Environment and Heritage Conservation
0 0 0 6 1 7 9 1 10 2 0 2 17 2 19
College of Dry Land, Agriculture and Natural Resources
17 3 20 77 10 87 51 7 58 8 1 9 153 21 174
College of VeterinaryScience
1 0 1 27 1 28 11 2 13 8 0 8 47 3 50
College of Business and Economics
9 0 9 98 10 108 34 4 38 0 0 0 141 14 155
College of Language and Social Sciences
4 0 4 116 7 123 21 4 25 1 0 1 142 11 153
105
Institute of Pedagogical Science
3 0 3 20 4 24 0 0 0 0 0 0 23 4 27
College of Law and Governance
0 0 0 68 2 70 12 2 14 0 0 0 80 4 84
Institute of Environment, Gender and Development Studies
0 0 0 2 1 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 1 3
Institute of Water and Environmental Studies
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Institute of Geo-information and Observation Science
0 0 0 5 2 7 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 2 7
Institute of Technology
1 0 1 24 24 14 14 3 1 4 42 1 43
grand total 68 3 71 838 82 920 359 56 415 65 14 79 1330 155 1485
106