deaf mainstreaming in america
TRANSCRIPT
Deaf Mainstreaming in America
by
Joshua E. Britton
Due: 11/24/04
Michael Dembrow
WR 123
Britton i
Abstract
This research paper explores the history of mainstreaming and the opposing
viewpoints that surrounded this educational, political, and social controversy. The paper
discusses the problems faced by parents, teachers, and deaf or hard of hearing children
when a deaf or hard of hearing child is mainstreamed. The paper gives solutions and
suggestions to the problems faced by parents, teachers, and deaf or hard of hearing
children during the mainstreaming process. The paper ends with a summary of the
paper and discussion on whether mainstreaming is successful.
Britton ii
OUTLINE
Thesis: How do parents, teachers, and children overcome the difficulties of
mainstreaming?
I. INTRO—Lead in with my experiences with Julian.
II. BODY—Examples of Mainstreaming
A. Section 1: Cause of Deaf Mainstreaming in the US
1. Problem: Disabled people felt their rights were being denied
a. Give brief summary of the history of Deaf Culture/Education.
2. Solution: Legislation was passed, allowing inclusion of deaf in
mainstream education.
a. Give 3 main viewpoints on inclusion
i. Mandatory Full Inclusion (Pro)
ii. Optional Mainstreaming (Pro and against)
iii. Against Mainstreaming (Against)
B. Section 2: Problems and Solutions for Educators when customizing a regular
classroom.
1. What are the Problems and Solutions facing regular Educators when
mainstreaming a regular classroom?
a. Ambient noise
b. Working with an interpreter
Britton iii
C. Section 3: What are the Problems and Solutions for Parents who Mainstream
their Deaf Child?
1. Lack of proper educational resources nearby (locally)
2. Ignorance of deaf culture and proper education techniques.
3. What role should and can parents play in their child’s education?
4. When should the parent “let go” and allow their child to make
mistakes?
5. Choosing the right path for educating their child (how much or how
little they should be mainstreamed)
D. Section 4: What are the Problems and Solutions for a Deaf or Hard of
Hearing
Child who is Mainstreamed?
1. Ambient noise
2. Need for a note taker
3. Reading level
4. Degree of hearing that is retained
5. Social problems
6. Frustration factor
7. Need for an interpreter (translator or transliterator)
Britton iv
III. SUMMARY/CONCLUSION
A. Summary
B. Answer Questions asked in Intro.
1. Is mainstreaming working?
2. Is it effective?
3. Does it isolate the child from the deaf community?
C. Final Words
INTRO
When I was 15, I began work at a print shop. It was there that I first met Julian,
who is completely deaf. Though Julian had to deal with people much of the day (he
worked in shipping), he remained isolated socially. Those that worked with him
developed a good repertoire, but since none of us could sign (or only in part), he was
often unable to join in when we had a group discussion. Julian could read lips, but
when two people are talking, it is hard to switch between them and catch all that is said.
Though he knew we weren’t trying to leave him out, it still caused him a great deal of
frustration and anger that would eventually culminate in an outburst.
I already knew the American Sign Language alphabet when I started working at
the print shop, and Julian taught me some words in ASL. So, I could communicate with
him on a limited basis, which I greatly enjoyed (Julian always had a funny remark
waiting). When I left the print shop, I left with an interest in sign language and deaf
culture that has never been fully explored. So, when I learned my paper was to be on
education, I jumped at the chance to explore deaf education. At the print shop, I was
able to witness Julian’s frustrations in the work environment first hand. As I thought
about my paper, I wondered what would problems and frustrations a deaf student would
have to overcome in a hearing classroom. In my research for this paper, I’ve discovered
a multitude of strategies to overcome classroom difficulties. I found guidelines for
teachers and for parents, strategies and resources to help a child socialize and build
confidence in himself. All of this I found fascinating. I had no idea there were so many
problems and challenges to be faced in mainstreaming a deaf child.
It is my purpose in this paper to explore the history of the mainstreaming
movement and the legislation that made mainstreaming a fact in American education. I
also wish to explore the differing viewpoints surrounding mainstreaming: mandatory
full inclusionists, customized education, and those opposed to mainstreaming altogether.
I will present the pros and cons in their arguments. The different problems educators
encounter as they customize a hearing classroom fascinates me. As does the different
problems faced by parents when planning their child’s future, and the difficulties that
children face as they learn and grow. The problems faced by these three groups, and the
strategies used by each to surmount the difficulties encountered will be discussed.
Finally, I wish to see how effectively mainstreaming is working. Does it really
help the child, and if so, in what ways? Was the child better prepared socially? Was the
child more confident, better equipped for all facets of life or just the hearing world? Did
mainstreaming a child isolate them from the deaf community or estrange them from it?
These questions and others will be answered.
SECTION 1:
HISTORY OF DEAF MAINSTREAMING
Mainstreaming the deaf or hard of hearing in regular school classrooms didn’t
become an issue in American life until the early 1970’s, before that it was talked about
and considered. However, not until the 1975 law, Individuals With Disabilities
Education Act, was this made an educational reality. This law was designed to give all
children “free and appropriate public education” in the “least restrictive environment”
(Cohen 2). One of the groups strongly for mainstreaming, were those that support
mandatory full inclusion of all children with disabilities in regular classrooms. They
often cite this law to back up their argument that all children have the right to a
mainstream education. Though children have this right, mandatory inclusionists rarely
consider the fact that full inclusion may not be the best for the child.
This gives rise to those who support a customized education approach. An
approach that seeks to give the child the best education they can possible have, and
teach them the necessary language and social skills that the child will need to succeed in
the hearing world.
Then, there are those opposed to inclusion. They usually those who work at
special education institutions, though there are some parents that support this also
(Cohen 1-7). The special education teachers are an authority on how deaf or hard of
hearing students should be raised. One must remember, that they stand to lose their jobs,
or at least some work, if inclusion is (as it was) made possible. In general, they
staunchly support special education institutions.
These are the three main viewpoints that have shaped the mainstreaming debate.
Each has good points and is passionate for their cause. But in the end, only time will
tell if mainstreaming is working, and if so how well.
SECTION 2:
PROBLEMS FACING EDUCATORS
Ambient Noise and Lighting
When I started writing this paper, I didn’t fully grasp the amount of work it
takes to modify a hearing class to accommodate a deaf or hard of hearing student. One
problem that deaf or hard of hearing students face is ambient noise. Ambient noise
presents a problem, because a deaf child’s hearing aid amplifies ALL noise. It is the
first thing in the classroom that must be accounted for and changed. If the ambient noise
of the classroom is louder than the teacher’s voice, then the student won’t be able to
hear, or will hear with difficulty. According to Susan R. Easterbrook, “The American,
Speech, Hearing, and Language Association (1995) recommends that the ambient noise
level in a classroom without students should be no more than 30 to 35 dB and the signal
to noise ratio not poorer than +15 dB” (5).
So, what are some ways that ambient noise can be reduced? Easterbrook gives us a
list of suggestions:
Use acoustical ceiling tiles
Carpet the floors
Hang thick drapes or curtains
Keep fluorescent lighting systems and ventilation systems working well
Have well fitting doors and windows (and keep them closed)
Keep the children away from noise sources while you are instructing
(qtd. in Easterbrooks 6).
Lighting is another important area, the light cannot be reflecting off the board.
The child must be able to see clearly, since much information is acquired through sight
(Ogden 154). Seating arrangements are also important, because the deaf child needs a
clear view of the teacher and the board. Positioning the chairs in an arc is suggested as
the best way to maximize visibility of the teacher and board, while still keeping the
maximum number of students in the classroom. It is important that the teacher be aware
of the source of the glare (Ogden 155).
Hearing Aids
Aside from ambient noise and lighting, the teacher must have a certain level of
knowledge about their deaf students, the student’s culture (whether it be deaf culture or
otherwise), and specific problems that the students face. One problem common to many
deaf or hard of hearing students is when his hearing aid malfunctions. Since hearing aid
malfunctions are a common problem of deaf students, teachers should be comfortable
with hearing aids. They should be able to change the battery and adjust the volume, and
if they cannot do either, then educators should know where to send the student to have
their hearing aid fixed (Easterbrook 6)
Translators
Important adaptations to the classroom happen when a child has an interpreter. It
provides a new dynamic to the classroom. To be successful the teacher must be willing
work with the translator (and the translator with the teacher). Both need to establish
good communication. Once that is done, the teacher can then address the more technical
problems:
The type of translator (is he an interpreter or a transliterator)
The language to be translated (English or ASL) or the code to be used (ASL
signs, English signs, oral English, or Cued Speech)
The qualifications and certification of the interpreter
The responsibilities of the interpreter in the classroom
(Easterbrook 7,8)
The type of translator is important, because the language the interpreter uses
determines the meaning of the words. For example, an interpreter converts what the
teacher says into another language, such as English to ASL. A transliterator, however,
changes what the teacher says into a code, such as English to English signs, Cued
Speech, or oral transliteration. This is a more literal translation of what the teacher says.
It is stripped of non-essential words. So, it is very important that the teacher know what
language is being used, so that the teacher can communicate clearly.
When an interpreter is in the classroom, the following must be decided:
Where will the interpreter sit?
When and how should the interpreter tell the teacher the student didn’t
understand?
How much of a test should be interpreted?
These, and other questions that arise, must be addressed for the mainstreamed child
to get the best education possible. It is very important that the teacher and interpreter
establish and maintain a good working relationship.
Note Taking
Note taking is a crucial aspect of adapting the classroom. Without the aid of a
note taker the integrated child will quickly fall behind. Unlike hearing students, the deaf
child cannot look down at his or her notes while listening. They must look at the teacher
or interpreter to know what is being said. To solve this problem, professional note
takers can be hired or another student can do it for the deaf child (depending on the
grade level). Another option is a volunteer. This solution can be especially effective if
the volunteer was a mainstreamed student prior to volunteering, because they’ve
experienced reliance on notes before and know what the student is going through. A
future solution, in today’s computer age, may be the use of “voice technology.”
Capturing every word that the teachers says, and showing it on a computer, leaving the
child free to read what is on the screen.
Summary
These are just the major considerations and problems faced by regular educators
who have modified their mainstream classrooms to accommodate deaf or hard of
hearing students. Accommodating the classroom to fit the needs of deaf or hard of
hearing students is not a light undertaking, and even after the classroom is modified the
teacher will have to work on adapting their teaching style to meet mainstreamed
students needs.
SECTION 3:
PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS FOR PARENTS OF A DEAF CHILD
Intro
You might be wondering whether a deaf or hard of hearing child can really
succeed in a mainstreamed classroom. Be assured that they can. Joan Miller’s daughter,
Cara, has been deaf since she was a baby, and has successfully mainstreamed. And,
Joan notes with no little pride, her daughter is a straight A student (1).
In her essay, “Living With Hearing Loss: A Lifelong Educational Process—A
Parents Perspective” Joan outlines the challenges that a parent will face and the
strategies that parents can adopt to be successful parents and raise a successful child.
She describes her family’s journey through the mainstreaming process in phases.
Pre-Identification Phase
The first phase the parent will face is Pre-Identification. It is after you have
returned from the hospital and when you begin to have doubts about your infant (Miller
2). Something, you sense, is wrong but you can’t put your finger on it. The answer to
this problems is INVESTIGATE! Find out what is wrong with your child, the sooner
you know the sooner you can deal with it! Once you learn that your child is deaf, you
will experience the grieving process. Paul Ogden characterizes the grieving process with
his “Response Cycle” (11). The Response Cycle has five stages: Shock, Recognition,
Denial, Acknowledgement, and Constructive Action.
Response Cycle
In the first stage you will, in all likelihood, accept the fact that your child is deaf,
but not fully comprehend it. Shock usually lasts from a few hours to a few days at the
most, and people deal with shock in their own way. After Shock, comes Recognition.
This is when you will feel emotionally devastated. Realizing the full implications of
your child’s deafness you will look ahead, seeing how it will shape you and your child’s
lives for years to come. You will grieve, as if a loved one had died. The life that you
and your child will never have, and the memories that will never be, shall be mourned.
Denial will follow; parents will seek relief from the oppressing knowledge that their
child is deaf. They will try to look at the world as if their child were not deaf. The
danger of this stage is if the parent (or parents) remains in denial. Acceptance or
Acknowledgement is the stage where you come to grips with the fact that your child is
deaf, and that you can live with it. Constructive Action is the last stage. Parents now
decide a course of action for raising and educating their deaf child.
Identification Phase
Once parents have completed the response cycle, they can go through the
Identification Phase. This is a crucial phase, because during this phase the parents will
learn the extent of their child’s hearing loss. Once that is discovered, they can then
begin to form a plan that will utilize their child’s abilities. Only the parents can decide
what is best for their child: Full mainstreaming, partial mainstreaming with special
education, or only special education. Only special education has a downside, in that the
child (depending on where you live) will be gone from your house and will live apart
from you. Special education can be expensive too. Because of these, and other
considerations, it is important that the parents discover what resources their community
has. One resource, provided by the government for every family, is an Individual
Education Plan (King 1-4).
IEP
To make a wise decision, parents must be knowledgeable of what mainstreaming
their child will entail. As Miller says, “Educational and psycho-social choices and
solutions are often subtle, rather than clear-cut” (6). As such, both parents must be fully
aware of all factors when making a decision. To help parents plan their child’s
educational future, J. Freeman King suggests that an Individual Education Program be
developed, between parents and teacher. An IEP seeks to provide for the unique
communication needs of the child (King 2). The IEP takes into consideration the
family’s preferred mode of communication, the child’s linguistic needs, the child’s
degree of hearing loss and the degree of residual hearing the child has, along with the
child’s academic level. The child’s social and emotional needs and cultural needs are
also addressed when developing the IEP (King 2,3). To ensure that the child is placed
at the appropriate grade level, so as to ensure the quality of their education, a number of
tests are used to determine the child’s academic and language skills. For example there
is the Stanford Achievement Test Hearing Impaired (Reading Comprehension),
Stanford Achievement Test-Hearing Impaired (Spelling), Manual Morphology Test, and
others (King 3). All can be used to determine where the child should be placed when
mainstreamed.
Parents, though, must consider more than just the educational aspects of
mainstreaming their child. They must consider the social and emotional impact it will
have on their child’s development. Since one of the biggest problems facing a deaf
child in mainstreaming is the feeling of “fitting in,” it is imperative that the child be
aware of their deaf heritage.
Deaf Culture
It is imperative for parents to give their children an awareness and knowledge of
the deaf community. Joan Miller and her husband decided to learn about deaf culture
and ASL so that they could teach Cara about her deaf heritage (8). Their goal was to
find adult, deaf role models who had succeeded and use them to inspire Cara. Just as
important as adult role models are deaf peers. Parents can prevent their child from
feeling isolated by having their child develop friendships with others like them. The
parents are responsible for ensuring this interaction with other deaf children, and for
their child’s interaction with hearing children.
Confidence
Encourage your child to participate in extra-curricular activities, as these are
vital to the development of social skills and your child’s well being. They help build
confidence in the child, and give the child valuable life experience, helping them to
develop skills. Extra curricular activities are an excellent proving ground for a child’s
speech, communication, and listening abilities. It is more real world experience, out of
the shelter of the classroom. It will teach your child self-reliance, and most importantly,
build confidence in them self. This newfound confidence provides impetus for your
child to achieve the goals you set for them, and the goals they set for themselves.
Goals
Goals give perspective; they are a way of measuring how far you’ve come. It is a
way to prevent your child from being discouraged, because you will be able to measure
their progress. As opposed to the child, and the parent, feeling as though nothing has
been accomplished, you can show your child just how far they have come. Don’t be
afraid to set goals, for your child and for yourself. Goals can be as broad as: successful
mainstreaming, a great career, a great marriage and a family. Goal can be as specific as:
improving spelling and grammar, making the soccer team, or getting the pronunciation
of a word just right. It is vitally important that the child (and the parent) have
something to work towards.
Communication
The aforementioned tasks are not possible if you cannot communicate with your
child. Successfully mainstreaming your child requires a good relationship and good
communication. As a parent you must consult a translator and decide which language is
the best for child to learn with. To ensure that they could communicate with their child,
Miller and her husband learned Cued Speech. Cued Speech is a phonetically based, oral
method of communication (Miller 9). It consists of eight hand configurations with four
positions, of either hand, which are used as a visible representation of natural speech. It
is based on the fact that most sounds look alike, which allows for Cued Speech to go
beyond the limits imposed by oralism as a means of receptive communication (Miller
9). Anther option is American Sign Language, which uses had motions to represent
English words. Perhaps lip reading is what your child is good at. In all likelihood, you
and your child will communicate using a combination of methods; it is up to you to
discover which are the best.
It is essential that parents remember their deaf or hard of hearing child requires
much more patience and work than does a hearing child. Parents must focus their full
attention on the child. Don’t forget, when you are near losing your patience, just what
your child has gone through that day and what they must deal with the rest of their lives.
Since raising a deaf child is very stressful on the child and the parents, there is the
option of counseling.
Counseling
Since stress is inevitable, don’t be afraid of counseling. A deaf child undergoes a
great deal of stress, and it is necessary, at times, for you to seek professional help. And,
as a parent it may be necessary for you also. An experienced counselor can greatly
smooth tough transition periods in your child’s life. They can help the child to resolve
issues in their life, and they can help the parents with issues they are struggling with
also.
Summary
In summary, here are some lessons, from Joan Miller, for successfully raising your
deaf or hard of hearing child. They will help you to be a successful parent as you raise
your deaf child.
1. Be the best possible parent you can be.
2. Educate yourself by study and research. Read literature, subscribe to
professional journals, consult professionals, speak to parents of deaf or hard of
hearing kids, meet with hard of hearing kids and adults, know the laws, and seek
professional counseling when necessary.
3. Make regular assessments of your child. Don’t be afraid to evaluate new options,
make decisions and set goals.
4. Be flexible. Continually re-assess progress and set new goals.
5. Believe in the your child and your child’s future
(18).
SECTION 4:
PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS FOR A DEAF CHILD WHO IS
MAINSTREAMED
Intro
This section covers the most important person in the mainstreaming process, the
child who is being mainstreamed. It is so easy, when writing a paper like this, to lose
sight of what mainstreaming is all about. Mainstreaming is about providing a deaf or
hard of hearing child with the best education possible while preparing them to live on
their own in a hearing world.
Acceptance
So, what are the problems a deaf child faces when mainstreamed? First and
foremost, is accepting that they are different. Each and every day of their life, the child
will be faced with the fact that they are different. Eventually the child will come to
accept this fact (it is hoped). Second, a child must be accepted by accepted by his or her
classmates. But, for a deaf child to be able to be accepted, the child must be able to
communicate with his or her peers.
Communication
Communication is a very difficult struggle for a child, and the quickness of their
learning to communicate depends on:
Social skills
Reading ability
Degree of residual hearing that is left
Parent and teacher support and encouragement
A willingness to learn
(Easterbrook 3)
The benefits of successful communication are tremendous. The child will make
friends, feel accepted, develop social skills, have more life experiences, and build
confidence in them self.
Frustration
Accepting the fact that they are deaf, coupled with learning to communicate causes
frustration. There are other sources of frustration, but these two are the root causes.
Eventually frustration brings explosions and temper tantrums. But part of growing up, is
a child learning how to express their anger and deal with it.
A counselor might be necessary for the child to deal with frustration. Therapy can
help the child resolve issues that arise at different times in their lives. But usually
parents must work through these difficulties with their child. And parents must keep in
mind, that despite the problems that arise, kids need to be kids. Frustration is a natural
part of the learning process.
Summary
In closing, for a child to successfully mainstream, the child must be a child.
They need stimulating experiences. A child’s personality must be developed, their likes
and dislikes discovered. They should be encouraged to play sports, do art, sing, act, and
(above all) BE THEMSELVES!
All the role models in the world and goals set cannot successfully mainstream a
child. Only if the child is willing, the parents educated and loving, and the resources
available, can child be successfully mainstreamed.
CONCLUSION
In this paper, I have explored the beginnings of the mainstreaming movement,
the legislation that made it real. And, I’ve covered the three major viewpoints of the
mainstreaming issue: mandatory full inclusionists, customized education, and those in
favor of special education. The pros and cons of each argument have been discussed, as
well as the implications inherent in each stance. Then I explored the problems faced by
educators, parents, and deaf or hard of hearing children during the mainstreaming
process. I’ve have looked at the many solutions that have arisen to deal with these
problems and how these strategies have been employed.
Now, is mainstreaming effective? It is, if the parents are committed, the children
willing and able, and the teachers and schools have the necessary resources. A
successfully mainstreamed child has a significant advantage over a non-mainstreamed
child, in that they have had more experience with the hearing world, they can operate
more effectively in the job market, and their language skills are better developed.
Mainstreamed children are often confident and are more prepared for life among the
hearing.
But, this raises an interesting question. Is a mainstreamed child, though better
adapted to the hearing world, deprived of their deaf heritage? Not, if the child is
mainstreamed correctly. If correctly then the mainstreamed child will be involved in the
deaf community, some mainstreamed children have even advocated for the deaf
community before the US Congress (Miller 14).
So then, one is left with the conclusion that mainstreaming, like everything else,
is successful if done correctly.
WORKS CITED
Cohen, Oscar P. “The Adverse Implications of Full Inclusion for Deaf Students.”
Paper presented at the 18th International Congress on Education of the Deaf.
July 16-20 1995. ERIC. Accessed 10/26/04.
Easterbrooks, Susan R. “Adapting the Regular Classroom for Students who are
Dear/Hard of Hearing.” Paper Presented at the Annual Convention of the
Council for Exceptional Children. Minneapolis, MN. 18 April 1998. ERIC
Accessed 10/17/04.
King, J. Freeman. “Program and IEP: Meeting Students’ Needs” Perspectives in
Education and Deafness. (November/December 1996). ERIC Accessed
10/9/2004. <http://clerccenter.gallaudet.edu/products/perspectives/nov-dec96/
iep.html>
Miller, Joan E. Heller. “Living With Hearing Loss: A lifelong Educational
Process—A Parents Perspective.” 18th International Congress on Education of
the Deaf. Tel Aviv, Israel. 16-20 July 1995. ERIC Accessed 10/ 14/04
Ogden, Paul W., and Susanne Lipsett. The Silent Garden: Understanding the
Hearing Impaired Child. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1982.
ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY
OF DEAF MAINSTREAMING IN AMERICA
Aaroe, L., & Nelson, J. R. “Views about key curricular matters from the
perspectives of students with disabilities.” Current Issues in
Education Vol. 1. # 8. (18 Nov. 1998): ERIC Accessed 10/14/04.
<http://cie.ed.asu.edu/volume1/number8/>
Article gives the results of surveys on the opinions of deaf students toward
curriculum they’ve experienced. Covers deaf students opinions of: service-
delivery setting, activity preference, and instructional modifications. Narrow
scope, only wants to know the opinions of deaf students on the literature and
curriculum they’ve experienced themselves. Credible source. Aaroe and Nelson
are from Arizona University and this article appeared in Current Issues in
Education. Useful source, because it gives the perspective of deaf students.
Articles newest source was from 1996. Includes: contact information to reach
the authors and a works cited page.
Banks, Jeri. All of Us Together. Washington, D.C.: Gallaudet University Press,
1994.
Follows the effects of mainstreaming at John H. Kinzie Elementary School in
SW
Chicago. Chronicles the integration of children with sensory-neural hearing loss
into regular classrooms from 1982 to 1992. Credible source. Alternates between
children’s perspective and administrator’s/teacher’s perspective. Useful for
those
who want a more ‘human’ side of the mainstreaming issue. Jeri Banks is
Principal of John H. Kinzie Elementary School in Chicago, Illinois. Includes:
about the author information.
Bertling, Tom, ed. An Intellectual Look at American Sign Language. Wilsonville,
OR: Kodiak Media Group, 2001.
Collection of essays about American Sign Language. Covers the influence and
effects of teaching the English language to the deaf, ethical issues concerning
cochlear implants, and the role of state residential schools for the deaf. Credible
source, backers include: Prof. Frances M. Parsons of Gallaudet Univ., Prof.
Gerilee Gustason, PhD, San Jose Univ., etc. Gives an intellectual perspective,
broadens view of the subject. Includes: Reference Page.
Block, Martin E. A Teacher’s Guide to Including Students with Disabilities in
Regular
Physical Education. London: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co., 1994.
Guideline to teachers on how to include disabled children in regular physical
education. Introduces: inclusion idea, plans for inclusion, and steps for
implementing plans. Covers children with blindness, cerebral palsy, mental
retardation, deafness, etc. from elementary school through high school. Credible
source, Block is Asst. Prof. of the Program Area of Health and Physical
Education
at the University of Virginia, Charlottesville. Useful for those whose focus is
physical education for children with a wide range of maladies. Includes:
Reference Page, Index, and several tables and evaluation forms for different age
kids.
Bolander, Anne M. and Renning, Adair N. I Was # 87. Washington, D.C.:
Gallaudet
University Press, 2002.
Chronicle of Anne Bolander, a deaf child misdiagnosed as mentally retarded and
institutionalized. Tells of abuse from family and ‘friends’ and the damage it left
on her as a grown woman. Written to prevent other deaf children from being
misdiagnosed. Credible source but relies strongly on emotions. Published by
Gallaudet University Press. Anne Bolander has been an employee of General
Motors, Inc. for 25 years and lies in Westland Michigan; the book is about her
life. Co-author Adair Renning lives in Milan, Mich. and occasionally writes for
bird magazines. Useful for those studying abuse in institutions. Includes:
Information about the Authors.
Going to School: Ir A La Escuela. Dir. Richard Cohen. Richard Cohen, 2001.
Documentary about inclusion, diversity, and empowering children with
disabilities. Chronicles Richard Martinez’s 7th and 8th grade years of being
integrated in a regular school. Focuses on his struggle to learn and make friends
and his mothers struggle to get him quality education. Lacks credibility and is
one-sided. Only covers middle-school aged children and gives the parents and
child’s views. Useful for those arguing integration. Includes: Director’s contact
information.
Bullis, Michael. “The School-to-Community Transition Experiences of Hearing
Young Adults and Young Adults who are Deaf.” Journal of Special
Education. Vol. 28 Issue 4 (Winter 1995). ERIC. Accessed
10/9/04.
Study on the transition experiences that hearing and deaf students had when they
moved from school to community. Focus is the impact had on the students, not
the community they entered. Covers the last years of high school, and the first
years of living in the community. Includes both hearing and deaf, giving it a
broader perspective. Credible source; the article is from the Journal of Special
Education. Michael Bullis is has a Ph.D. in Special Education and
Rehabilitation
and is a Prof. at University of Oregon. Not useful for those researching
education, because the focus is on transition. Includes: Several tables outlining
the
results of the test and a references page.
Carter, Steven. “A Snag in the Mainstream.” The Oregonian 10 Nov. 2004, local
ed.:
C1 +.
Tells how mainstreaming disabled children in Portland, Oregon has been top
rapid. Teachers are lacking the necessary education to deal with the incoming
disabled children. Gives snippets of interviews of parents and teachers. Narrow
scope; covers only the Portland area. Credible. Includes: author contact
information.
Cohen, Oscar P. “The Adverse Implications of Full Inclusion for Deaf Students.”
Paper presented at the 18th International Congress on Education of the
Deaf.
July 16-20 1995. ERIC. Accessed 10/26/04.
Persuasive argument paper against mandatory integration of deaf students into
mainstream schools, because it would limit the child’s right to choose their own
type of education. Focuses on elementary age children. Credibility is
questionable, because author might lose his job (He’s a superintendent of the
Lexington School for the Deaf) if integration is made mandatory. Useful for
providing the opposing side of the Deaf Mainstreaming debate. Includes: Brief
author information and reference page.
Easterbrooks, Susan R. “Adapting the Regular Classroom for Students who are
Dear/Hard of Hearing.” Paper Presented at the Annual Convention of the
Council for Exceptional Children. Minneapolis, MN. 18 April 1998. ERIC
Accessed 10/17/04.
Focuses on how to instruct regular and special ed. teachers about the changes
that
need to be made to the classroom for students with hearing loss/impairment.
Context is within the classroom and it aims to make educators aware of the
resources necessary and available to them to maximize effectiveness. Credible
source, it was a paper presented at the Annual Convention of the Council for
Exceptional Children. It isn’t the newest source (it was published in 1998),
which
could detract from its relevancy. Includes: a reference list and copies of all the
overheads used when presenting the paper.
Goldberg, Donald. “Educating Children who are Deaf or Hard of Hearing:
Auditory-Verbal.” ERIC Digest # E552. ERIC Clearinghouse on
Disabilities
and Gifted Education. Reston, VA. August 1997. ERIC Accessed 10/17/04.
Overview of the auditory-verbal technique of teaching communication skills to
deaf or hard of hearing children. Goal of the article is for these children to grow
up and be independent citizens who contribute to mainstream society. Has a
narrow scope and it is rather short. Approaches it from a teacher’s point of view,
almost business like. All about getting results. Source is credible, put out by the
ERIC Clearing House on Disabilities and Gifted Education; sponsoring agency
is the Office of Education Research and Improvement in Washington, D. C.
Useful source for those researching deaf mainstreaming. Focuses on teaching
strategies, gives some great guidelines for teaching auditory-verbal
communication skills. Includes: a list of the Principles of Auditory-Verbal
Practice, a Reference Page, and a list of Additional Resources.
King, J. Freeeman. “Program and IEP: Meeting Students’ Needs” Perspectives in
Education and Deafness. (November/December 1996). ERIC Accessed
10/9/2004. <http://clerccenter.gallaudet.edu/products/perspectives/nov-dec96/
iep.html>
“Program and IEP” is about Individual Education Plans for deaf or hard of
hearing children. Outlines the problems that must be addressed when
mainstreaming a deaf child, what strategies are necessary to overcome these
problems, and gives suggestions for handling side issues, such as family and the
child’s emotional growth. Covers Deaf and Hard of Hearing children; the IEP is
specifically addressed to these types of children and their families and teachers.
Narrow scope, if you’re looking at education in general. Credible source; King
has an Ed. D., and is a professor at Utah State University. ‘Reference Page’ lists
Educational and Developmental Deafness from Gallaudet University. Article is
from 1996, so information might be outdated. Includes: Reference Page and a
list of ‘Tests for Deaf Students.”
Lane, Harlan. The Mask of Benevolence: Disabling the Deaf Community. New
York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1992.
Book aimed at exposing the suppression of the deaf and deaf community and
their culture by “experts” in the areas of science, medicine, and education.
Covers the paternalistic nature of the hearing towards the deaf, failure of
mainstreaming, and politics of deaf education. Useful for understanding the
anti-hearing/mainstreaming worldview. Credibility is doubtful, because author
is clearly and highly biased. Author is a professor at Northeastern University and
a specialist in the psychology of language and linguistics.
Includes: Notes for each section of the book and an index.
Longmore, Paul K., and Larui Umansky, eds. . The New Disability History. New
York: New York University Press, 2001.
Collection of essays about disability in America’s history. Broad spectrum, deals
with issues like: “Disability and the Justification Inequality in American
History” all the way to “American Disability Policy in the Twentieth Century.”
Credibility is hard to determine, because there are many authors. Useful for
those researching disability in America. Includes: list of contributors and index.
Miller, Joan E. Heller. “Living With Hearing Loss: A lifelong Educational
Process—A Parents Perspective.” 18th International Congress on
Education of the Deaf. Tel Aviv, Israel. 16-20 July 1995. ERIC Accessed 10/
14/04
Persuasive argument paper written by the parent of a deaf child. Covers
childrearing, coping, elementary education, inclusive schools, mainstreaming,
and social integration. Main points are full inclusion of deaf children in the
hearing world, while stressing the need for the child to experience deaf culture
and have adult role models who are deaf. Credible source, Joan Miller has an
Ed. M. and first hand experience. Useful source, because it gives the parents
perspective and (valid) opinion of the way a child should be integrated in school.
Shows how families cope and the strategies they used to cope. Includes: A list of
strategies that parents should use to be the best parent possible for their deaf
child.
Miller, Regina. The Developmentally Appropriate Inclusive Classroom in Early
Education. Boston: Delmar Publishers, 1996.
Introduces developmentally appropriate curriculum, gives plans for
implementing the curriculum, plans for including and defining the role of family
in the child’s education, and techniques for assessing the effectiveness of the
strategies and curriculum employed. Broad scope, but provides specific details
in each subcategory. Credible source, author has a Ph.D. from the University of
Hartford. Too broad to be useful for those researching deaf mainstreaming.
Includes: References, additional reading, early childhood video resources, and
organization contact information.
Nowell, Richard; Innes, Joseph. “Educating Children who are Deaf or Hard of
Hearing: Inclusion.” ERIC Digest # E557. ERIC Clearinghouse on
Disabilities and Gifted Education. Reston, VA. August 1997. ERIC
Accessed 10/17/04.
Summarizes the basic issues of including deaf and hard of hearing children in
mainstream classrooms. Covers history of the inclusion movement and
identifies the two positions of the debate. Education from an educator’s
perspective, focusing on the mainstreaming of deaf and hard of hearing children,
with an emphasis on preschool and elementary age. Narrowly focused article.
Credible source, it comes from the ERIC Clearing House on Disabilities and
Gifted Education and its sponsoring agency is the Office of Educational
Research and Improvement in Washington, DC. Gets at the central issues of the
mainstream movement. Includes: A reference page and author contact
information.
Ogden, Paul W., and Susanne Lipsett. The Silent Garden: Understanding the
Hearing Impaired Child. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1982.
Explains how parents are to understand their deaf child. Tells what parents need
to do, how to create a healthy family environment, the different modes of
communication, and how to help the child in school. Book is aimed at educating
parents, not useful for educators. Credible source; has good suggestions. Very
useful for someone studying deafness from a parents point of view. Credible
source, Ogden has a Ph.D. and is Associate Professor of Communicative
disorders at California State University. Includes: appendix with resources and
suggestions for parents and an index of terms.
Siegal, Lawrence. “The Educational and Communication needs of Deaf and Hard
of Hearing Children: A Statement of Principle Regarding Fundamental
Systemic Educational Changes.” American Annals of the Deaf Vol. 145(2).
(April 2001). ERIC Accessed 10/14/04.
Persuasive paper arguing that deaf and hard of hearing children deserve a
communication rich environment in which they can flourish and one that will
develop their language skills. Goes point by point over its argument, with
numerous sources and reasons why those ideas should be implemented. Covers
aspects of education that need to be changed to accommodate deaf and hard of
hearing children. Lists recognition of the need, a paradigm shift to change
direction, and (if that wasn’t clear enough) a description of the paradigm needed
to effectively teach deaf children. Describes what needs to be done and how.
Broad but useful. Credible source, Gaulladet University and National
Association of the Deaf are a few of its sources. Lawrence Siegal is Director of
the National Deaf Education Project, received his A.B. and M. A. degrees from
the Univ. of California at Berkeley and his J.D. from Hastings College of Law.
Large size of paper limits usefulness. Includes: Footnotes with commentary on
sources.
Winzer, Margaret A. The History of Special Education: From Isolation to
Integration. Washington, D. C.: Gallaudet University Press, 1993.
Covers the history of people with disabilities from 400 B. C. to today. Covers
all types of disabilities. Main focus is on the treatment of disabled people during
history, the types of institutions that arose to accommodate disabled people
during history, and the progress made from 400 BC to now in educating disabled
people. Very useful for those writing about the history of people with
disabilities. Credible source; Winzer is a Professor of Special Needs Education
at the University of Lethbridge, Canada. Includes: bibliography, index and
authors index.
Common Classroom Problems
As aforementioned in Section 2, ambient noise can present a serious problem to a
child’s learning process in the classroom. Hearing aids amplify ALL sounds, not just
what the teacher is saying. It is imperative that the room be designed to reduce as much
ambient noise as possible (Ogden 154).
One mustn’t assume that the child is simply mad because they are deaf, it may be
because their mom left to go shopping without them, maybe they want to help cook
dinner but aren’t allowed, maybe they just can’t communicate something and blow up.
Give the child deaf role models, people to look up to. Give them goals to aspire
too, get them involved in activity. Involve them in deaf culture. Let them know there is
a whole community and culture out there for people just like them.
The one thing that cannot be allowed to happen to a child, is for them to become
isolated.
Give your child the best hearing aids possible. Challenge your child, keep them
from giving up.
Learning will be more difficult for your child, because there won’t be direct
communication. It will come through an interpreter or translator. The child will have to
learn to rely on a note taker.
What cultural considerations must be taken into account? What is the child’s
ethnicity? Will the child be properly assessed? This is a problem, if the school doesn’t
have adequate testing resources or if the educator is unaware of how to use the
resources.
Eventually the child will reach a stage where they will want independence, and
as a parent it must be decided what is best.
http://spot.pcc.edu/~mdembrow/wr123draft4.htm