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Information Processoror Information

Processing System

An information processor orinformation processing system, as its namesuggests, is a system (be it electrical,mechanical orbiological) which takes

information (a sequence of enumerated states) in one form andprocesses(transforms) it into another form, e.g. to statistics, by an algorithmic process.

An information processing system is made up of four basic parts, orsub-

systems:

input

processor

storage

output

An object may be considered an information processor if it receivesinformation from another object and in some manner changes the information

before transmitting it. This broadly defined term can be used to describe every

change which occurs in the universe. As an example, a falling rock could beconsidered an information processor due to the following observable facts:

First, information in the form of gravitational force from the earth serves as

input to the system we call a rock. At a particular instant the rock is a specific

distance from the surface of the earth traveling at a specific speed. Both the

current distance and speedproperties are also forms of information which forthat instant only may be considered "stored" in the rock.

In the next instant, the distance of the rock from the earth has changed due to

its motion under the influence of the earth's gravity. Any time the propertiesof an object change aprocess has occurred meaning that aprocessorof some

kind is at work. In addition, the rock's new position and increased speed is

observed by us as it falls. These changing properties of the rock are its"output."

It could be argued that[weasel words] in this example both the rock and the earth are

the information processing system being observed since both objects arechanging the properties of each other over time. If information is not beingprocessed no change would occur at all.

Transaction processing system

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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(Redirected from Transaction Processing System)

Jump to: navigation,search

A Transaction Processing System orTransaction Processing Monitor is aset of information which process the data transaction in database system that

monitors transaction programs (a special kind of program). The essence of atransaction program is that it manages data that must be left in a consistent

state. E.g. if an electronic payment is made, the amount must be either bothwithdrawn from one account and added to the other, or none at all. In case of a

failure preventing transaction completion, the partially executed transaction

must be 'rolled back' by the TPS. While this type of integrity must be providedalso forbatch transaction processing, it is particularly important for online

processing: if e.g. an airline seat reservation system is accessed by multiple

operators, after an empty seat inquiry, the seat reservation data must be lockeduntil the reservation is made, otherwise another user may get the impression a

seat is still free while it is actually being booked at the time. Without proper

transaction monitoring, double bookings may occur. Other transaction monitorfunctions include deadlockdetection and resolution (deadlocks may beinevitable in certain cases of cross-dependence on data), and transaction

logging (in 'journals') for 'forward recovery' in case of massive failures.

Transaction Processing is not limited to application programs. The 'journaledfile system' provided with IBMs AIX Unix operating system employs similar

techniques to maintain file system integrity, including a journal.

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Contents

[hide]

1 Types

o 1.1 Contrasted with batch processingo 1.2 Real-time and batch processing

2 Features

o 2.1 Rapid response

o 2.2 Reliability

o 2.3 Inflexibility

o 2.4 Controlled processing

3 ACID test properties: first definition

o 3.1 Atomicity

o 3.2 Consistency

o 3.3 Isolation

o 3.4 Durabilityo 3.5 Concurrency

4 Storing and retrieving

o 4.1 Databases and files

o 4.2 Data warehouse

o 4.3 Backup procedures

4.3.1 Recovery process

4.3.2 Types of back-up procedures 4.3.2.1 Grandfather-father-son

4.3.2.2 Partial backups

4.3.3 Updating in a batch 4.3.4 Updating in real-time

5 References

6 See also

[edit] Types

[edit] Contrasted with batch processing

Batch processingis not transaction processing. Batch processing involves

processing several transactions at the same time, and the results of each

transaction are not immediately available when the transaction is beingentered;[1] there is a time delay.

[edit] Real-time and batch processing

There are a number of differences between real-time and batch processing.These are outlined below:

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Each transaction in real-time processing is unique. It is not part of a group of

transactions, even though those transactions are processed in the same

manner. Transactions in real-time processing are stand-alone both in the entryto the system and also in the handling of output.

Real-time processing requires the master file to be available more often forupdating and reference than batch processing. The database is not accessible

all of the time for batch processing.

Real-time processing has fewer errors than batch processing, as transaction

data is validated and entered immediately. With batch processing, the data is

organised and stored before the master file is updated. Errors can occur during

these steps.

Infrequent errors may occur in real-time processing; however, they are often

tolerated. It is not practical to shut down the system for infrequent errors.

More computer operators are required in real-time processing, as the

operations are not centralised. It is more difficult to maintain a real-timeprocessing system than a batch processing system.

[edit] Features

[edit] Rapid response

Fastperformance with a rapid response time is critical. Businesses cannot

afford to have customers waiting for a TPS to respond, the turnaround time

from the input of the transaction to the production for the output must be afew seconds or less.

[edit] Reliability

Many organizations rely heavily on their TPS; a breakdown will disruptoperations or even stop the business. For a TPS to be effective its failure rate

must be very low. If a TPS does fail, then quick and accurate recovery must

be possible. This makes welldesignedbackup and recovery proceduresessential.

[edit] Inflexibility

A TPS wants every transaction to be processed in the same way regardless of

the user, the customer or the time for day. If a TPS were flexible, there would

be too many opportunities for non-standard operations, for example, acommercial airlineneeds to consistently accept airline reservations from a

range of travel agents, accepting different transactions data from different

travel agents would be a problem.

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[edit] Controlled processing

The processing in a TPS must support an organization's operations. For

example if an organization allocates roles and responsibilities to particular

employees, then the TPS should enforce and maintain this requirement.

[edit] ACID test properties: first definition

[edit] Atomicity

A transactions changes to the state are atomic: either all happen or none

happen. These changes include database changes, messages, and actions ontransducers.[2]

[edit] Consistency

A transaction is a correct transformation of the state. The actions taken as agroup do not violate any of the integrity constraints associated with the state.

This requires that the transaction be a correct program![2]

[edit] Isolation

Even though transactions execute concurrently, it appears to each transaction

T, that others executed either before T or after T, but not both.[2]

[edit] Durability

Once a transaction completes successfully (commits), its changes to the statesurvive failures.[2]

[edit] Concurrency

Ensures that two users cannot change the same data at the same time. That is,one user cannot change a piece of data before another user has finished with

it. For example, if an airline ticket agent starts to reserve the last seat on a

flight, then another agent cannot tell another passenger that a seat is available.

[edit] Storing and retrieving

Storing and retrieving information from a TPS must be efficient and effective.

The data are stored in warehouses or other databases, the system must be well

designed for its backup and recovery procedures.

[edit] Databases and files

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The storage and retrieval of data must be accurate as it is used many times

throughout the day. A database is a collection of data neatly organized, which

stores the accounting and operational records in the database. Databases arealways protective of their delicate data, so they usually have a restricted view

of certain data. Databases are designed using hierarchical, network or

relational structures; each structure is effective in its own sense.

Hierarchical structure: organizes data in a series of levels, hence why itis called hierarchal. Its top to bottom like structure consists ofnodes

and branches; each child node has branches and is only linked to one

higher level parent node.

Network structure: Similar to hierarchical, network structures also

organizes data using nodes and branches. But, unlike hierarchical, each

child node can be linked to multiple, higher parent nodes.

Relational structure: Unlike network and hierarchical, a relational

database organizes its data in a series of related tables. This gives

flexibility as relationships between the tables are built.

A hierarchical structure. A network structure. A relational structure.

The following features are included in real time transaction processing

systems:

Good data placement: The database should be designed to access

patterns of data from many simultaneous users. Short transactions: Short transactions enables quick processing. This

avoids concurrency and paces the systems. Real-time backup: Backup should be scheduled between low times of

activity to prevent lag of the server.

Highnormalization: This lowers redundant information to increase

the speed and improve concurrency, this also improves backups.

Archiving of historical data: Uncommonly used data are moved into

other databases or backed up tables. This keeps tables small and also

improves backup times.

Good hardware configuration: Hardware must be able to handlemany users and provide quick response times.

In a TPS, there are 5 different types of files. The TPS uses the files to storeand organize its transaction data:

Master file: Contains information about an organizations businesssituation. Most transactions and databases are stored in the master file.

Transaction file: It is the collection of transaction records. It helps to

update the master file and also serves as audit trails and transactionhistory.

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Report file: Contains data that has been formatted for presentation to a

user.

Work file: Temporary files in the system used during the processing.

Program file: Contains the instructions for the processing of data.

[edit] Data warehouse

Main article: Data warehouse

A data warehouse is a database that collects information from different

sources. When it's gathered in real-time transactions it can be used for analysis

efficiently if it's stored in a data warehouse. It provides data that areconsolidated,subject-orientated, historicaland read-only:

Consolidated: Data are organised with consistent naming conventions,

measurements, attributes and semantics. It allows data from a data

warehouse from across the organization to be effectively used in aconsistent manner.

Subject-orientated: Large amounts of data are stored across an

organization, some data could be irrelevant for reports and makesquerying the data difficult. It organizes only key business information

from operational sources so that it's available for analysis.

Historical: Real-time TPS represent the current value at any time, anexample could be stock levels. If past data are kept, querying the

database could return a different response. It stores series of snapshots

for an organisation's operational data generated over a period of time.

Read-only: Once data are moved into a data warehouse, it becomes

read-only, unless it was incorrect. Since it represents a snapshot of acertain time, it must never be updated. Only operations which occur in

a data warehouse are loading and querying data.

[edit] Backup procedures

A Dataflow Diagram of backup and recovery procedures.

Since business organizations have become very dependent on TPSs, a

breakdown in their TPS may stop the business' regular routines and thusstopping its operation for a certain amount of time. In order to prevent data

loss and minimize disruptions when a TPS breaks down a well-designed

backup and recovery procedure is put into use. The recovery process can

rebuild the system when it goes down.

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[edit] Recovery process

A TPS may fail for many reasons. These reasons could include a system

failure, human errors, hardware failure, incorrect or invalid data, computerviruses, softwareapplication errors or natural or man-made disasters. As it's

not possible to prevent all TPS failures, a TPS must be able to cope withfailures. The TPS must be able to detect and correct errors when they occur. A

TPS will go through a recovery of the database to cope when the system fails,it involves thebackup, journal, checkpoint, and recovery manager:

Journal: A journal maintains an audit trail of transactions and database

changes. Transaction logs and Database change logs are used, atransaction log records all the essential data for each transactions,

including data values, time of transaction and terminal number. A

database change log contains before and after copies of records that

have been modified by transactions.

Checkpoint: A checkpoint record contains necessary information to

restart the system. These should be taken frequently, such as several

times an hour. It is possible to resume processing from the most-recent

checkpoint when a failure occurs with only a few minutes ofprocessing work that needs to be repeated.

Recovery Manager: A recovery manager is a program which restores

the database to a correct condition which can restart the transactionprocessing.

Depending on how the system failed, there can be two different recoveryprocedures used. Generally, the procedures involves restoring data that has

been collected from a backup device and then running the transactionprocessing again. Two types of recovery are backward recovery andforward

recovery:

Backward recovery: used to undounwanted changes to the database. It

reverses the changes made by transactions which have been aborted. Itinvolves the logic of reprocessing each transaction, which is very time-

consuming.

Forward recovery: it starts with abackupcopy of the database. Thetransaction will then reprocess according to the transaction journal thatoccurred between the time the backup was made and the present time.

It's much faster and more accurate.

See also: Checkpoint restart

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[edit] Types of back-up procedures

There are two main types of Back-up Procedures: Grandfather-father-sonand Partial backups:

[edit] Grandfather-father-son

This procedure refers to at least three generations ofbackup master files. thus,

the most recent backup is the son, the oldest backup is the grandfather. It's

commonly used for a batch transaction processing system with amagnetictape. If the system fails during a batch run, the master file is recreated by

using the son backup and then restarting the batch. However if the son backup

fails, is corrupted or destroyed, then the next generation up backup (father) isrequired. Likewise, if that fails, then the next generation up backup

(grandfather) is required. Of course the older the generation, the more the data

may be out of date. Organizations can have up to twenty generations of

backup.

[edit] Partial backups

This only occurs when parts of the master file are backed up. The master file

is usually backed up to magnetic tape at regular times, this could be daily,

weekly or monthly. Completed transactions since the last backup are stored

separately and are calledjournals, orjournal files. The master file can berecreated from the journal files on the backup tape if the system is to fail.

[edit] Updating in a batch

This is used when transactions are recorded on paper (such as bills and

invoices) or when it's being stored on a magnetic tape. Transactions will becollected and updated as a batch at when it's convenient or economical to

process them. Historically, this was the most common method as the

information technology did not exist to allow real-time processing.

The two stages in batch processing are:

Collecting and storage of the transaction data into a transaction file -

this involves sorting the data into sequential order.

Processing the data by updating the master file - which can bedifficult, this may involve data additions, updates and deletions that

may require to happen in a certain order. If an error occurs, then the

entire batch fails.

Updating in batch requires sequential access - since it uses a magnetic tapethis is the only way to access data. A batch will start at the beginning of the

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tape, then reading it from the order it was stored; it's very time-consuming to

locate specific transactions.

The information technology used includes a secondary storagemedium whichcan store large quantities of data inexpensively (thus the common choice of a

magnetic tape). Thesoftware used to collect data does not have to be online -it doesn't even need a user interface.

[edit] Updating in real-time

This is the immediate processing of data. It provides instant confirmation of atransaction. This involves a large amount of users who are simultaneously

performing transactions to change data. Because of advances in technology

(such as the increase in the speed ofdata transmission and largerbandwidth),real-time updating is now possible.

Steps in a real-time update involve the sending of a transaction data to anonline database in a master file. The person providing information is usually

able to help with error correction and receives confirmation of the transactioncompletion.

Updating in real-time uses direct access of data. This occurs when data are

accessed without accessing previous data items. The storage device stores data

in a particular location based on a mathematical procedure. This will then becalculated to find an approximate location of the data. If data are not found at

this location, it will search through successive locations until it's found.

The information technology used could be a secondary storagemedium thatcan store large amounts of data and provide quick access (thus the commonchoice of a magnetic disk). It requires a user-friendly interface as it's

important for rapid response time.

Reservation Systems Reservation systems are used for any type of businesswhere a service or a product is set aside for a customer to use for a future time

Office automation

Office automation refers to the varied computermachinery andsoftware usedto digitally create, collect, store, manipulate, and relay office informationneeded for accomplishing basic tasks and goals. Raw data storage, electronic

transfer, and the management of electronic business information comprise the

basic activities of an office automation system.[1] Office automation helps inoptimizing or automating existing office procedures.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_technologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secondary_storagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secondary_storagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_tapehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Softwarehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Softwarehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_interfacehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Transaction_processing_system&action=edit&section=24http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_transmissionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bandwidth_(computing)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_accesshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_technologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secondary_storagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secondary_storagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_diskhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Softwarehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Softwarehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Office_automation#cite_note-0%23cite_note-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Office_automation#cite_note-0%23cite_note-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_technologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secondary_storagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_tapehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Softwarehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_interfacehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Transaction_processing_system&action=edit&section=24http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_transmissionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bandwidth_(computing)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_accesshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_technologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secondary_storagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_diskhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Softwarehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Office_automation#cite_note-0%23cite_note-0

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The backbone of office automation is a LAN, which allows users to transmit

data, mail and even voice across the network. All office functions, including

dictation, typing, filing, copying, fax, Telex, microfilm and recordsmanagement, telephone and telephone switchboard operations, fall into this

category. Office automation was a popular term in the 1970s and 1980s as the

desktop computer exploded onto the scene.[2]

Notes

1. ^ Office Automation2. ^ Computing Dictionary

Knowledge management system

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation,search

It has been suggested that this article or section bemerged withKnowledgeManagement. (Discuss)

This article needs additionalcitations for verification.Please helpimprove this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be

challenged andremoved.(November 2008)

This article may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality standards.Please improve this article if you can. (November 2008)

Knowledge Management System (KM System) refers to a (generally IT

based) system formanaging knowledge in organizations, supporting creation,

capture, storage and dissemination of information. It can comprise a part(neither necessary or sufficient) of aKnowledge Management initiative.

The idea of a KM system is to enable employees to have ready access to the

organization's documented base of facts, sources of information, and

solutions. For example a typical claim justifying the creation of a KM systemmight run something like this: an engineer could know the metallurgical

composition of an alloy that reduces sound in gear systems. Sharing this

information organization wide can lead to more effective engine design and it

could also lead to ideas for new or improved equipment.

A KM system could be any of the following:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LANhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Office_automation#cite_note-1%23cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Office_automation#cite_ref-0%23cite_ref-0http://business.enotes.com/small-business-encyclopedia/office-automationhttp://business.enotes.com/small-business-encyclopedia/office-automationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Office_automation#cite_ref-1%23cite_ref-1http://computing-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/office+automationhttp://computing-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/office+automationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_management_system#column-one%23column-onehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_management_system#column-one%23column-onehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_management_system#searchInput%23searchInputhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Merging_and_moving_pageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Merging_and_moving_pageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_Managementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_Managementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_Managementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk:Knowledge_Management_System#Merger_proposalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#Inline_citationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#Inline_citationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiabilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Knowledge_management_system&action=edithttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Knowledge_management_system&action=edithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Reliable_sourceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Reliable_sourceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Facthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Cleanuphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Stylehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Knowledge_management_system&action=edithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_Technologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_managementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_Managementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_Managementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LANhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Office_automation#cite_note-1%23cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Office_automation#cite_ref-0%23cite_ref-0http://business.enotes.com/small-business-encyclopedia/office-automationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Office_automation#cite_ref-1%23cite_ref-1http://computing-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/office+automationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_management_system#column-one%23column-onehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_management_system#searchInput%23searchInputhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Merging_and_moving_pageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_Managementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_Managementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk:Knowledge_Management_System#Merger_proposalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#Inline_citationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiabilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Knowledge_management_system&action=edithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Reliable_sourceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Facthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Cleanuphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Stylehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Knowledge_management_system&action=edithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_Technologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_managementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_Management

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1. Document based i.e. any technology that permits

creation/management/sharing of formatted documents such asLotus

Notes, web, distributed databasesetc.2. Ontology/Taxonomy based: these are similar to document

technologies in the sense that a system of terminologies (i.e. ontology)

are used to summarize the document e.g. Author, Subj, Organizationetc. as in DAML & other XML based ontologies

3. Based on AI technologies which use a customized representation

scheme to represent the problem domain.4. Provide network maps of the organization showing the flow of

communication between entities and individuals

5. Increasingly social computing tools are being deployed to provide a

more organic approach to creation of a KM system.

KMS systems deal with information (although Knowledge Management as a

discipline may extend beyond the information centric aspect of any system) so

they are a class of information system and may build on, or utilize otherinformation sources. Distinguishing features of a KMS can include:

1. Purpose: a KMS will have an explicit Knowledge Management

objective of some type such as collaboration, sharing good practice or

the like.2. Context: One perspective on KMS would see knowledge is

information that is meaningfully organized, accumulated and

embedded in a context of creation and application.

3. Processes: KMS are developed to support and enhance knowledge-intensive processes, tasks or projects of e.g., creation, construction,

identification, capturing, acquisition, selection, valuation,organization, linking, structuring, formalization, visualization, transfer,distribution, retention, maintenance, refinement, revision, evolution,

accessing, retrieval and last but not least the application of knowledge,

also called the knowledge life cycle.4. Participants: Users can play the roles of active, involved participants in

knowledge networks and communities fostered by KMS, although this

is not necessarily the case. KMS designs are held to reflect that

knowledge is developed collectively and that the distribution ofknowledge leads to its continuous change, reconstruction and

application in different contexts, by different participants with

differing backgrounds and experiences.5. Instruments: KMS support KM instruments, e.g., the capture, creation

and sharing of the codifiable aspects of experience, the creation of

corporate knowledge directories, taxonomies or ontologies, expertiselocators, skill management systems, collaborative filtering and

handling of interests used to connect people, the creation and fostering

of communities or knowledge networks.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lotus_Noteshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lotus_Noteshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lotus_Noteshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributed_databasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributed_databasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Network_map&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_computinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lotus_Noteshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lotus_Noteshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributed_databasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Network_map&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_computing

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A KMS offers integrated services to deploy KM instruments for networks of

participants, i.e. active knowledge workers, in knowledge-intensive business

processes along the entire knowledge life cycle. KMS can be used for a widerange of cooperative, collaborative, adhocracy and hierarchy communities,

virtual organizations, societies and other virtual networks, to manage media

contents; activities, interactions and work-flows purposes; projects; works,networks, departments, privileges, roles, participants and other active users in

order to extract and generate new knowledge and to enhance, leverage and

transfer in new outcomes of knowledge providing new services using newformats and interfaces and different communication channels.

The term KMS can be associated to Open Source Software, and Open

Standards, Open Protocols and Open Knowledge licenses, initiatives and

policies.

Contents[hide]

1 Benefits of KM Systems 2 See also

3 External links

4 References

[edit] Benefits of KM Systems

Some of the advantages claimed for KM systems are:

1. Sharing of valuable organizational information.2. Can avoid re-inventing the wheel, reducing redundant work.

3. May reduce training time for new employees

4. Retention of Intellectual Property after the employee leaves if such

knowledge can be codified.

Management information system

A management information system (MIS) is a subset of the overallinternalcontrols of a business covering the application of people, documents,technologies, and procedures bymanagement accountants to solving business

problems such as costing a product, service or a business-wide strategy.

Management information systems are distinct from regular informationsystems in that they are used to analyze other information systems applied in

operational activities in the organization.[1] Academically, the term is

commonly used to refer to the group of information management methods tied

http://toggletoc%28%29/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_management_system#Benefits_of_KM_Systems%23Benefits_of_KM_Systemshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_management_system#See_also%23See_alsohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_management_system#External_links%23External_linkshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_management_system#References%23Referenceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Knowledge_management_system&action=edit&section=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_controlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_controlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_controlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Management_accountanthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Management_accountanthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Management_information_system#cite_note-obrien-0%23cite_note-obrien-0http://toggletoc%28%29/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_management_system#Benefits_of_KM_Systems%23Benefits_of_KM_Systemshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_management_system#See_also%23See_alsohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_management_system#External_links%23External_linkshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_management_system#References%23Referenceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Knowledge_management_system&action=edit&section=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_controlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_controlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Management_accountanthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Management_information_system#cite_note-obrien-0%23cite_note-obrien-0

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to the automation or support of human decision making, e.g. Decision Support

Systems, Expert systems, andExecutive information systems.[1]

Contents

[hide]

1 Overview

2 Definition

3 See also

4 References

5 External links

[edit] Overview

At the start, in businesses and other organizations, internalreporting wasmade manually and only periodically, as a by-product of the accounting

system and with some additional statistics, and gave limited and delayed

information on management performance.

In their infancy, business computers were used for the practical business ofcomputing thepayroll and keeping track ofaccounts payable and accounts

receivable. As applications were developed that provided managers with

information about sales, inventories, and other data that would help in

managing the enterprise, the term "MIS" arose to describe these kinds ofapplications. Today, the term is used broadly in a number of contexts and

includes (but is not limited to): decision support systems, resource and peoplemanagement applications,project management and database retrievalapplication.

[edit] Definition

An 'MIS' is a planned system of the collecting, processing, storing and

disseminating data in the form of information needed to carry out thefunctions of management. According to Philip Kotler"A marketing

information system consists of people, equipment, and procedures to gather,

sort, analyze, evaluate, and distribute needed, timely, and accurate information

to marketing decision makers."[2]

The terms MISand information systemare often confused. Information

systems include systems that are not intended for decision making. The area

of study called MIS is sometimes referred to, in a restrictive sense, asinformation technology management. That area of study should not be

confused with computer science.IT service management is a practitioner-

focused discipline. MIS has also some differences withEnterprise Resource

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decision_Support_Systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decision_Support_Systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expert_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Executive_information_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Executive_information_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Management_information_system#cite_note-obrien-0%23cite_note-obrien-0http://toggletoc%28%29/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Management_information_system#Overview%23Overviewhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Management_information_system#Definition%23Definitionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Management_information_system#See_also%23See_alsohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Management_information_system#References%23Referenceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Management_information_system#External_links%23External_linkshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Management_information_system&action=edit&section=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reportinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reportinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accountinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Payrollhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accounts_payablehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accounts_receivablehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accounts_receivablehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accounts_receivablehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inventorieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_managementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Databasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Management_information_system&action=edit&section=2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_Kotlerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_Kotlerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Management_information_system#cite_note-Kotler-1%23cite_note-Kotler-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Management_information_system#cite_note-Kotler-1%23cite_note-Kotler-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_technology_managementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_technology_managementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_sciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_sciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IT_service_managementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enterprise_Resource_Planninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enterprise_Resource_Planninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decision_Support_Systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decision_Support_Systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expert_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Executive_information_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Management_information_system#cite_note-obrien-0%23cite_note-obrien-0http://toggletoc%28%29/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Management_information_system#Overview%23Overviewhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Management_information_system#Definition%23Definitionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Management_information_system#See_also%23See_alsohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Management_information_system#References%23Referenceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Management_information_system#External_links%23External_linkshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Management_information_system&action=edit&section=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reportinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accountinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Payrollhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accounts_payablehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accounts_receivablehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accounts_receivablehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inventorieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_managementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Databasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Management_information_system&action=edit&section=2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_Kotlerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Management_information_system#cite_note-Kotler-1%23cite_note-Kotler-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_technology_managementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_sciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IT_service_managementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enterprise_Resource_Planning

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Planning (ERP) as ERP incorporates elements that are not necessarily focused

on decision support.

ProfessorAllen S. Lee states that "...research in the information systems field

examines more than the technological system, or just the social system, or

even the two side by side; in addition, it investigates the phenomena thatemerge when the two interact."[3].

Decision support system

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation,search

This article may need to be rewritten entirely to comply withWikipedia's quality standards.You can help. The discussion page may

contain suggestions. (May 2009)

Decision support systems constitute a class of computer-basedinformation

systems includingknowledge-based systemsthat support decision-making

activities.

Contents

[hide]

1 Definition

2 History

3 Taxonomies

4 Architectures

o 4.1 Development Frameworks

5 Classifying DSS

6 Applications

7 Benefits of DSS

8 References

o 8.1 References not yet tagged in text

9 See also

10 External links

[edit] Definition

Decision Support Systems (DSS) are a specific class of computerized

information systems that supports business and organizational decision-

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making activities. A properly-designed DSS is an interactive software-based

system intended to help decision makers compile useful information from raw

data, documents, personal knowledge, and/or business models to identify andsolve problems and make decisions.

Typical information that a decision support application might gather andpresent would be:

an inventory of all of your current information assets (including legacyand relational data sources, cubes, data warehouses, and data marts),

comparative sales figures between one week and the next,

projected revenue figures based on new product sales assumptions;

the consequences of different decision alternatives, given pastexperience in a context that is described.

[edit] History

In the absence of an all-inclusive definition, we focus on the history of DSS

(see also Power[1]). According to Keen [2], the concept of decision support hasevolved from two main areas of research: the theoretical studies of

organizational decision making done at the Carnegie Institute of Technology

during the late 1950s and early 1960s, and the technical work on interactivecomputer systems, mainly carried out at theMassachusetts Institute of

Technologyin the 1960s. It is considered that the concept of DSS became an

area of research of its own in the middle of the 1970s, before gaining inintensity during the 1980s. In the middle and late 1980s, executive

information systems (EIS), group decision support systems (GDSS), and

organizational decision support systems (ODSS) evolved from the single userand model-oriented DSS.

In 1987 Texas Instrumentscompleted development of the Gate Assignment

Display System (GADS) forUnited Airlines. This decision support system is

credited with significantly reducing travel delays by aiding the management of

ground operations at various airports, beginning with O'Hare InternationalAirport in Chicago and Stapleton Airport in DenverColorado. [3][4]

Beginning in about 1990, data warehousingand on-line analytical processing

(OLAP) began broadening the realm of DSS. As the turn of the millennium

approached, new Web-based analytical applications were introduced.

It is clear that DSS belong to an environment with multidisciplinary

foundations, including (but not exclusively) database research,artificial

intelligence, human-computer interaction,simulation methods,softwareengineering, and telecommunications.

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The advent of better and better reporting technologies has seen DSS start to

emerge as a critical component ofmanagement design. Examples of this can

be seen in the intense amount of discussion of DSS in the educationenvironment.

DSS also have a weak connection to the user interfaceparadigm ofhypertext.Both the University of VermontPROMIS system (for medical decision

making) and the Carnegie Mellon ZOG/KMS system (for military andbusiness decision making) were decision support systems which also were

major breakthroughs in user interface research. Furthermore, although

hypertextresearchers have generally been concerned with informationoverload, certain researchers, notablyDouglas Engelbart, have been focused

on decision makers in particular. There is no way to confirm/deny this.

[edit] Taxonomies

As with the definition, there is no universally-accepted taxonomyof DSSeither. Different authors propose different classifications. Using the

relationship with the user as the criterion, Haettenschwiler[5] differentiatespassive, active, and cooperative DSS. Apassive DSSis a system that aids the

process of decision making, but that cannot bring out explicit decisionsuggestions or solutions. An active DSScan bring out such decision

suggestions or solutions. A cooperative DSSallows the decision maker (or its

advisor) to modify, complete, or refine the decision suggestions provided bythe system, before sending them back to the system for validation. The system

again improves, completes, and refines the suggestions of the decision maker

and sends them back to her for validation. The whole process then starts

again, until a consolidated solution is generated.

Another taxonomy for DSS has been created by Daniel Power. Using the

mode of assistance as the criterion, Power differentiates communication-driven DSS, data-driven DSS, document-driven DSS, knowledge-driven DSS,and model-driven DSS.[6]

A model-driven DSS emphasizes access to and manipulation of a

statistical, financial, optimization, or simulation model. Model-driven

DSS use data and parameters provided by users to assist decisionmakers in analyzing a situation; they are not necessarily data-intensive.

Dicodess is an example of an open source model-driven DSS generator[7].

A communication-driven DSS supports more than one person

working on a shared task; examples include integrated tools like

Microsoft's NetMeeting orGroove[8]

A data-driven DSS or data-oriented DSS emphasizes access to and

manipulation of a time seriesof internal company data and,

sometimes, external data.

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A document-driven DSS manages, retrieves, and manipulates

unstructured information in a variety of electronic formats.

A knowledge-driven DSS provides specializedproblem-solvingexpertise stored as facts, rules, procedures, or in similar structures.[6]

Using scope as the criterion, Power[9]

differentiates enterprise-wide DSSanddesktop DSS. An enterprise-wide DSSis linked to large data warehouses and

serves many managers in the company. A desktop, single-user DSSis a smallsystem that runs on an individual manager's PC.

[edit] Architectures

This article may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality standards.

Please improve this article if you can. (December 2007)

Once again, different authors identify different components in a DSS. Forexample, Sprague and Carlson[10]identify three fundamental components of

DSS: (a) the database management system (DBMS), (b) the model-base

management system (MBMS), and (c) the dialog generation and managementsystem (DGMS).

Haag et al.[11] describe these three components in more detail:

The Data Management Component stores information (which can be further

subdivided into that derived from an organization's traditional data

repositories, from external sources such as theInternet, or from the personalinsights and experiences of individual users); the Model Management

Component handles representations of events, facts, or situations (using

various kinds of models, two examples being optimization models and goal-seeking models); and the User Interface Management Component is, of

course, the component that allows a user to interact with the system.

According to Power[6], academics and practitioners have discussed

building DSS in terms of four major components: (a) the userinterface, (b) thedatabase, (c) the model and analytical tools, and (d)

the DSS architecture and network.

Httenschwiler[5] identifies five components of DSS:

(a) users with different roles or functions in the decision making process(decision maker, advisors, domain experts, system experts, data collectors),

(b) a specific and definable decision context,

(c) a target system describing the majority of the preferences,

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(d) aknowledge basemade of external data sources, knowledge databases,

working databases, data warehouses and meta-databases, mathematical

models and methods, procedures, inference and search engines, administrativeprograms, and reporting systems, and

(e) a working environment for the preparation, analysis, and documentation ofdecision alternatives.

arakas [12]proposes a generalized architecture made of five distinctparts:

(a) the data management system,

(b) the model management system,

(c) the knowledge engine,

(d) the user interface, and

(e) the user(s).

[edit] Development Frameworks

DSS systems are not entirely different from other systems and require astructured approach. A framework was provided by Sprague and Watson

(1993). The framework has three main levels. 1. Technology levels 2. People

involved 3. The developmental approach

1. Technology Levels

Sprague has suggested that there are three levels of hardware andsoftware that has been proposed for DSS.

a) Level 1 Specific DSS

This is the actual application that will be used to by the user. This isthe part of the application that allows the decision maker to make

decisions in a particular problem area. The user can act upon that

particular problem.b) Level 2 DSS Generator

This level contains Hardware/software environment that allows peopleto easily develop specific DSS applications. This level makes use of

case tools or systems such as Crystal,AIMMS, iThink andClementine.

c) Level 3 DSS Tools

Contains lower level hardware/software. DSS generators includingspecial languages, function libraries and linking modules

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2. People Involved

Sprague suggests there are 5 roles involved in a typical DSS

development cycle.a) The end user.

b) An intermediary.c) DSS developer

d) Technical supportere) Systems Expert

3. Developmental

The developmental approach for a DSS system should be strongly iterative.

This will allow for the application to be changed and redesigned at variousintervals. The initial problem is used to design the system on and then tested

and revised to ensure the desired outcome is achieved.

[edit] Classifying DSS

There are several ways to classify DSS applications. Not every DSS fits neatlyinto one category, but a mix of two or more architecture in one.

Holsapple and Whinston [13]classify DSS into the following six frameworks:

Text-oriented DSS, Database-oriented DSS, Spreadsheet-oriented DSS,

Solver-oriented DSS, Rule-oriented DSS, and Compound DSS.

A compound DSS is the most popular classification for a DSS. It is a hybrid

system that includes two or more of the five basic structures described byHolsapple and Whinston [13].

The support given by DSS can be separated into three distinct, interrelated

categories [14]: Personal Support, Group Support, and Organizational Support.

Additionally, the build up of a DSS is also classified into a few characteristics.

1) inputs: this is used so the DSS can have factors, numbers, and

characteristics to analyze. 2) user knowledge and expertise: This allows thesystem to decide how much it is relied on, and exactly what inputs must be

analyzed with or without the user. 3) outputs: This is used so the user of the

system can analyze the decisions that may be made and then potentially 4)make a decision: This decision making is made by the DSS, however, it isultimately made by the user in order to decide on which criteria it should use.

DSSs which perform selected cognitive decision-making functions and are

based on artificial intelligence orintelligent agentstechnologies are called

Intelligent Decision Support Systems (IDSS)[15].

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The nascent field ofDecision engineering treats the decision itself as an

engineered object, and applies engineering principles such as Designand

Quality assurance to an explicit representation of the elements that make up adecision.

[edit] Applications

As mentioned above, there are theoretical possibilities of building such

systems in any knowledge domain.

One example is the Clinical decision support system formedicaldiagnosis.Other examples include a bank loan officer verifying the credit of a loan

applicant or an engineering firm that has bids on several projects and wants to

know if they can be competitive with their costs.

DSS is extensively used in business and management. Executive dashboard

and other business performance software allow faster decision making,identification of negative trends, and better allocation of business resources.

A growing area of DSS application, concepts, principles, and techniques is inagricultural production, marketing for sustainable development. For example,

the DSSAT4 package[16][17], developed through financial support of USAID

during the 80's and 90's, has allowed rapid assessment of several agricultural

production systems around the world to facilitate decision-making at the farmand policy levels. There are, however, many constraints to the successful

adoption on DSS in agriculture[18].

A specific example concerns the Canadian National Railway system, whichtests its equipment on a regular basis using a decision support system. Aproblem faced by any railroad is worn-out or defective rails, which can result

in hundreds of derailments per year. Under a DSS, CN managed to decrease

the incidence of derailments at the same time other companies w