dba1605 communication skills.pdf

DBA 1605 COMMUNICATION SKILLS

9Anna Universtiy Chennai

“ Your effectiveness depends on your ability

to reach others through the spoken or written word.”

Peter Drucker

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Managers have traditionally spent the majority of their time communicating

in one form or another (meetings, face-to-face discussions, memos, letters,

e-mails, reports, etc.). Today, however, more and more employees find

that an important part of their work is communication, especially now that

service workers outnumber production workers and research as well as

production processes emphasize greater collaboration and teamwork among

workers in different functional groups. Moreover, a sea-change in

communication technologies has contributed to the transformation of both

work and organizational structure. For these reasons, communication

practices and technologies have become more important in all organizations,

but they are perhaps most important in knowledge-intensive organizations

and sectors and, as such, are of great significance to science organizations

and to public science management.

UNIT 1 COMMUNICATION

IN BUSINESS


10 Anna Universtiy Chennai

Communication is the life source of organizations because organizations

involve people. People cannot interact with each other without

communication. In the absence of communication, everything would grind

to a halt. For example, if the workers in an organization would not know the

organization’s objectives they would not strive to achieve the organization’s

objectives. Similarly if the workers in an organization would not know what

their roles and responsibilities were, they would not be able to carry out

their daily tasks and duties. The managers would not be able to train their

workers if the workers did not possess the skills they needed to carry out

their jobs. The managers would not be able to inform workers of changes

and the list is endless…

On the whole, people are able to communicate with each other as this is a

basic human function. However successful organizations strive not only for

communication but for effective communication. In this chapter we will cover

the basic process of communication and then we will cover some of the

most difficult communication issues managers face in providing constructive

and effective feedback and performance appraisal.

1.2 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

• Identify the importance of communication skills.

• Describe the process of communication.

• Describe the barriers to effective communication and methods to over-

come those barriers.

• Discuss various communication systems in an organization.

• Discuss how information technology affects organizations.

• List the guidelines to be followed to achieve successful communication.

1.3 WHAT IS COMMUNICATION?

How do we define communication? “Communication is something so simple

and difficult that we can never put it in simple words” says C.S.Mathew.

Communication may be defined as giving, receiving or exchanging



information, opinions or ideas by writing, speech or visual means, so that

the material communicated is completely understood by everyone concerned.

According to W.H.Newman and C.F. Summer Jr: “communication is

exchange of facts, ideas, opinions, or emotions by two or more persons.”

William Scott defined communication as a process: “Administrative

communication is a process which involves the transmission and accurate

replication of ideas insured by feedback for the purpose of eliciting actions

which will accomplish organizational goals”.

This definition emphasizes four important points:

1. The process of communication involves the communication of ideas.

2. The ideas should be accurately replicated in the receiver’s mind.

3. The transmitter is assured of the accurate replication of the idea by

feedback.

4. The purpose of idea is to elicit action.

The term business communication includes all communication that occurs

in a business context. Knowledge of business communication presupposes

an understanding of both business and communication. Business

communication draws on information derived from a wide variety of other

disciplines, including linguistics (the study of language), semantics (the

branch of linguistics concerned with meaning), rhetoric (the art of using

words in speech or writing effectively), psychology (the study of mental

processes and behavior), sociology (the study of social relations and societal

change), graphic design (the use of visual images and typography to create

special effects), management (the study of controlling and directing

operations and personnel), marketing (the study of moving goods and

services from producer to consumer, including everything from advertising,

to packaging, to sales), economics (the study of the production, distribution,

and consumption of wealth), and information technology (the study of the

ways in which technology can be used to create, locate, store, retrieve, and

transmit information).

For this reason, different authors typically select specific aspects of

communication in business on which to focus. The following related areas

of study have evolved over time:



• Managerial Communication: The term, managerial communica-

tion, usually refers to an emphasis on communication strategies for set-

ting and achieving specific organizational objectives.

• Organizational Communication: Organizational communication

usually refers to established communication networks and the commu-

nication flow within organizations and an organization’s communication

climate.

• Human Relations and Team Building: Over the past 30 years or

so, business and industry have increasingly recognized the importance

of good interpersonal communication between and among those who

work together. Such skills are also important to the success of cus-

tomer relations programs and strategic alliances. By whatever name,

courses on these topics typically cover the fundamentals of understanding

other people, differences in perception, differences in motivation and

other common behavioral strategies, establishing rapport, developing

mutual respect, and reaching consensus.

• Sales Communication: Sales communication includes all commu-

nication specifically designed to produce sales, from media-based ad-

vertising, to telephone solicitation, to direct-mail advertising and direct

(face-to-face) sales.

• Report Writing: As the term suggests, report writing focuses on

written reports, typically including everything from short, informational

memos to letter reports (basically long letters that include headings and

other report-writing techniques), to complete analytical reports. Books

on this subject often include the fundamentals of primary and second-

ary research, techniques for data analysis, and analytical and presenta-

tion graphics.

• Communication Technology and Electronic Communication:

Whether word processing, page layout and graphic design, electronic

mail (email), electronic conferencing, Internet-based services, audio or

video conferencing, or multimedia presentations, the technology we use

to communicate—information technology—has changed radically over

the past few years.



These changes, especially since the advent of the computer, have altered

the way we think about communication, and we are yet to see the end of

these changes. The ways in which information (computer) technologies and

other communication technologies, such as enhanced telephone services,

are becoming increasingly interdependent is typically referred to as digital

convergence or technological convergence. Car phones, cell phones, and

pagers help ensure that one can communicate from virtually anywhere to

virtually anywhere else at any time, and email has recently become the

principal means of exchanging written communication in organizations.

As the volume of communication increases, the chance of information

overload also increases, which not only reduces the impact of individual

messages but also increases the need for effective communication skills,

including listening, speaking, reading, and writing.

• International Communication: International communication, also

referred to as intercultural communication, focuses on the ways in

which cultural differences influence communication expectations and

behavior, including the length of time it takes to establish business and

personal relationships, differences in the conception of time itself, dif-

ferences in nonverbal communication, and differences in perceptions

as they are influenced by language and culture.

1.4 METHODS OF COMMUNICATION

External Communication

Letter

Fax

Direct Mail

Internet

Video

Telephone

Advertising

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www.learnmanagement2.com

Internal CommunicationTeam briefingsNoticesReportsMemosFace to faceEmail

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Technology has rapidly expanded the types of internal and external

communication available to organizations. The diagram illustrates the vast

array of internal and external communication methods available. Combined

together, internal and external types of communications allow various sectors

of the local, national and international community to interact, liaise and

conduct business.

1.4.1 Choosing the means of communication

The medium chosen for communicating any message will depends on various

factors such as:

COST

Ø Consider how much the communication will cost in terms of the results

expected.

Ø Can internal message be handwritten or is a printed copy important?

Ø Is the postal service satisfactory, or is email or fax justified?

CONFIDENTIALITY

Ø Email or fax may be appropriate.

Ø A telephone call could be overheard.

Ø An internal memo may need to be enclosed in an envelope.

SAFETY AND SECURITY

Ø Should a special Post Office service be used, registered or recorded

delivery?

Ø Would a courier service be justified?

INFLUENCE

Ø To convey a certain impression, would a congratulatory telegram or

invitation be suitable?

Ø Multi-coloured letterheads on quality paper convey good image of a

company.



URGENCY

Ø Choose the method which will produce the desired results in the time

available.

Ø Perhaps the higher cost of a fax will be justified by the results obtained

through its speed.

DISTANCE

Ø Is communication within the building, the same town, or the other side

of the world?

TIME OF THE DAY

Ø This is particularly important when communicating with overseas coun-

tries.

RESOURCES

Ø Consider the equipment and staff available.

WRITTEN RECORD

Ø Written communication carries more authority and the proof of a

transaction.

RECEIPENT

Ø Consider who is sending/receiving the message.

Ø Personal contact may be appropriate on certain occasions.

Ø Verbal communication will not be appropriate where complex informa-

tion or bad news is conveyed.

Ø Choose language appropriately, considering the situation and the rela-

tionship between sender/recipient.

EXERCISE

Which communication method would you use in each of the following

situations?



a. Congratulating an employee on his/her promotion to higher position.

b. Informing employees about the annual get together.

c. Displaying the past five years’ sales figures and net profit.

d. Describing the location of the hotel where the company is hosting a

seminar.

e. Sending an urgent message to an overseas client.

1.5 COMMUNICATION PROCESS

This is defined as communication between two or more people and involves

the transfer of information (or message) from one person to the other(s).

The person transferring the information is called the sender or transmitter.

The people receiving the message are known as receivers. The transmitter

will need to send the information in a format that the receiver(s) will

understand. Converting the information into a format that the receivers will

understand is known as encoding. Messages can be encoded into a variety

of formats: oral, written or visual. After encoding, the message is transferred

via a medium called a channel, for example a letter, fax, phone call, or e-

mail. After transference the information will need to be interpreted by the

receiver. This process of interpretation is known as decoding. Finally the

receiver will send a message back to the transmitter confirming whether the

information sent has been understood. This back check is known as

feedback. The communication process involves seven key elements as

illustrated in the diagram below.

Sender Encoding

Message

Media Decoding Receiver

NOISE

Feedback Response

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To be an effective communicator and to get your point across without

misunderstanding and confusion, your goal should be to lessen the frequency of

these problems at each stage of this process with clear, concise,

accurate, well-planned communication. We follow the process given below:

1.5.1 Sender Conceives the Idea

The process of communication begins when the person with whom the

message originates – the sender – has an idea. The form of the idea will be

influenced by complex factors surrounding the sender: mood, frame of

reference, background, culture and physical makeup, as well as the context

of the situation and many other factors. The way you greet people on campus,

for example depends a lot on how you feel, whom you are addressing (a

classmate, a professor, a campus worker), and what your culture has trained

you to say (“Hi”, or “Good morning”) To establish yourself as an effective

communicator, you must first establish credibility. In the business arena, this

involves displaying knowledge of the subject, the audience and the context

in which the message is delivered. You must also know your audience/

receipent (individuals or groups to which you are delivering your message).

Failure to understand who you are communicating with will result in

delivering messages that are misunderstood.

1.5.2 Sender Encodes Idea in Message

This stage involves putting the information into an appropriate form suitable

to both the sender, the recipient and the aim. This means converting the

idea into words or gestures that will convey meaning. A major problem in

communicating any message verbally is that words have different meanings

for different people. When misunderstandings result from missed meanings,

it is called bypassing. Recognizing how easy it is to be misunderstood,

skilled communicators choose familiar words with concrete meanings on

which both senders and receivers agree. In selecting proper symbols,

senders must alter according to the receiver’s communication skills, attitudes,

background, experiences, and culture.



1.5.3 Message Travels over Channel

How will the selected words affect the receiver? For example, a Dr.Pepper

Cola promotion failed miserably in Great Britain because American

managers had failed to understand the audience. They had to change their

“I’m a Pepper” slogan after learning that pepper is British slang for

prostitute. Because the sender initiates a communication transaction, he or

she may have primary responsibility for its success or failure. Choosing

appropriate words or symbols is the first step.

Messages also have intellectual and emotional components, with intellect

allowing us the ability to reason out and emotion allowing us to present

motivational appeals, ultimately changing minds and actions.

The medium over which the message is physically transmitted is the

channel. Messages may be delivered by computer, telephone, letter,

memorandum, report, picture, spoken word, fax, pager, or through some

other channel. Different channels have different strengths and weaknesses.

For example, it’s not particularly effective to give a long list of directions

verbally, while you’ll quickly cause problems if you criticize someone strongly

by email.

Communication channels deliver both verbal and non-verbal messages;

senders must choose the channel and shape the message carefully. For

example, a company may use its annual report to deliver many messages to

stock holders. The verbal message lies in the report’s financial or

organizational news. But non-verbal messages, though, are conveyed by

the reporter’s appearance, layout, and tone.

1.5.4 Noise

Anything that interrupts the transmission of a message in the communication

process is called noise. Channel noise ranges from the static one that disrupts

a telephone conversion to typographical errors in a letter or e-mail message.

Such errors damage the credibility of the sender. Channel noise will even

include the annoyance a receiver feels when the sender chooses an improper

medium for sending a message, such as announcing a loan rejection via

postcard or firing an employee by circular.



1.5.6 Decodes the Message

The individual for whom the message is intended is the receiver. Translating

the message from its symbol form into meaning involves decoding. Only

when the receiver understands the meaning intended by the sender does

communication take place. Such success, however, is difficult to achieve

because no two people share the same life experiences and because many

barriers can disrupt the process.

1.5.7 Feedback Travels to Sender

The verbal and non-verbal responses of the receiver create feedback, a

vital part of the communication process. Feedback helps the sender to know

that the message received was understood. If, as a receiver, you hear a

message “How are you”, your feedback must consist of words (I’m fine) or

body language (a smile or a wave of the hand). Sender can encourage

feedback by asking questions such as, “Am I making myself clear?” and

“Is there anything you don’t understand?” Senders can further improve the

feedback by timing the delivery appropriately and by providing only as much

information as the receiver can handle.

1.5.8 Context

The situation in which your message is delivered is the context. This may

include the surrounding environment or broader culture (i.e. corporate culture,

international cultures, etc.).

1.6 RESEARCH ON THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS

Much of the research on the communication process in work environment

has focused on factors that can increase or decrease its effectiveness.

Among the factors that can affect the flow of communication from sender to

receiver are source factors, channel factors, semantic factors and audience

factors.

1.6.1 Source factors: These are the characteristics of the sender. One

such factor is status. Generally, the higher the organizational status of the

sender, the more likely the communication will be listened to and acted

upon.



Another source factor is credibility. If the source is trusted, it is more likely

that the message will receive attention

A final factor is the encoding skill of the sender. These skills include the

ability to speak and write clearly and to select the appropriate channel for

transmitting the information.

1.6.2 Channel factors: These are the characteristics of the vehicle of

transmission of a message that affects communication. Selection of the

proper channel can have an important effect on the accurate flow of

communication.

The channel selected can also affect the impact of the message. For example,

a face-to-face reprimand from a supervisor might carry more weight than

the same reprimand conveyed over the telephone.

Whenever possible, using multiple channels to present complicated

information will increase the likelihood that it will be attended to and retained.

1.6.3 Semantic factors are common channel factors that can lead to a

breakdown in communication. These problems may arise because different

people may interpret the meanings of words differently. Semantic problems

may also arise because of the use of technical language or jargon, the special

language that develops within a specific work environment. Jargon is typically

filled with abbreviated words, acronyms and slang. While jargon serves

the purpose of speeding up communication between those who speak the

language, it can create problems when the receiver is not “fluent” in its use.

The use of jargon can also present problems when a team of workers are

from different professional disciplines, all of which may use different jargons.

The choice of channel can affect important work-related outcomes like

job-satisfaction. Muchinsky (1977) conducted a survey using

questionnaires in a number of workplaces in America and found that the

frequency of face-to-face communication between supervisors and

subordinates was positively related to the workers’ job satisfaction, while

the frequency of written communications was negatively correlated with job

satisfaction.



1.6.4 Audience factors: These are elements related to the receiver, such

as the attention span and perceptual abilities. For example, it is essential

that training information is presented at a level that matches the audience’s

ability to understand it. Moreover, it may be critical to consider the

attention span of the target audience. All-day training sessions may be

appropriate for management trainees who are used to long sessions, but the

attention of assembly-line workers may be lost after an hour because of

their unfamiliarity with the format.

The relationship to the sender may also affect the communication process.

For example, if the receiver is subordinate to the sender, the message may

be better attended to because people are supposed to listen to their bosses.

Finally, decoding skills may influence the effectiveness of communication.

Research has shown that effective managers have good decoding skills in

listening and responding to the needs and concerns of their subordinates.

In fact, because most of the communication in work settings involves

spoken communications, oral decoding skills, often referred to as listening

skills, are considered to be the most effective decoding skills of all.

EXERCISE

Now imagine that you are the boss in an organization where you’ve worked

and you wish to announce a new policy that aims at improving customer

service. Examine the entire communication process from sender to

feedback: How will the message be encoded? What assumptions should

you make about your audience? How should you announce the new policy?

How can you encourage feedback? What noise may interfere with

transmission? What barriers should you expect? How can you overcome

them?

1.7 BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

There are a wide number of sources of noise or interference that can

enter into the communication process. This can occur even when people

know each other very well and should understand the sources of error. In a

work- setting, it is even more common since interactions involve people

who lack experience of working with each other, but communication is

complicated by the complex and often conflicting relationships that exist at



work. Recognizing barriers to effective communication is a first step in

improving communication style. Do you recognize these barriers from your

own personal and professional experience?

1.7.1 Encoding Barriers. The process of selecting and organizing symbols

to represent a message requires skill and knowledge. Obstacles listed below

can interfere with an effective message.

1. Lack of Sensitivity to Receiver. A breakdown in communication

may result when a message is not adapted to its receiver. Recognizing the

receiver’s needs, status, knowledge of the subject, and language skills assists

the sender in preparing a successful message. If a customer is angry, for

example, an effective response may be just to listen to the person vent his

feelings for a while.

2. Lack of Basic Communication Skills. The receiver is less likely to

understand the message if the sender has trouble choosing the precise words

needed and arranging those words in a grammatically correct sentence.

3. Insufficient Knowledge of the Subject. If the sender lacks specific

information about something, the receiver will probably receive an unclear

or mixed message. Have you shopped for an item such as a computer, and

experienced how some salespeople can explain complicated terms and ideas

in a simple way? Others cannot.

4. Information Overload. If you receive a message with too much

information, you may tend to put up a barrier because the amount of

information is coming so fast that you may have difficulty comfortably

interpreting that information. If you are selling an item with twenty-five

terrific features, pick two or three important features to emphasize instead

of overwhelming your receiver (ho-hum) with an information avalanche.

5. Emotional Interference. An emotional individual may not be able to

communicate well. If someone is angry, hostile, resentful, joyful, or fearful,

that person may be too preoccupied with emotions to receive the intended

message. If you don’t like someone, for example, you may have trouble

“hearing” them.



1.7.2 Transmitting Barriers: Things that get in the way of message trans-

mission are sometimes called “noise.” Communication may be difficult

because of noise and some of these problems:

1. Physical Distractions. A bad cellular phone line or a noisy restaurant

can destroy communication. If an E-mail message or letter is not for-

matted properly, or if it contains grammatical and spelling errors, the

receiver may not be able to concentrate on the message because the

physical appearance of the letter or E-mail is sloppy and unprofes-

sional.

2. Conflicting Messages. Messages that cause a conflict in perception

for the receiver may result in incomplete communication. For example,

if a person constantly uses jargon or slang to communicate with some-

one from another country who has never heard such expressions, mixed

messages are sure to result. Another example of conflicting messages

might be if a supervisor requests a report immediately without giving

the report writer enough time to gather the proper information. Does

the report writer emphasize speed in writing the report, or accuracy in

gathering the data?

3. Channel Barriers. If the sender chooses an inappropriate channel of

communication, communication may cease. Detailed instructions pre-

sented over the telephone, for example, may be frustrating for both

communicators. If you are on a computer technical support helpline

discussing a problem, it would be helpful for you to be sitting in front of

a computer, as opposed to taking notes.

4. Long Communication Chain. The longer the communication chain,

the greater the chance for error. If a message is passed through too

many receivers, the message often becomes distorted. If a person starts

a message at one end of a communication chain of ten people, for ex-

ample, the message that eventually returns is usually liberally altered.

1.7.3 Decoding Barriers. The communication cycle may break down at

the receiving end for some of these reasons:



1. Lack of Interest. If a message reaches a reader who is not interested

in the message, the reader may read the message hurriedly or listen to

the message carelessly. Miscommunication may result in both cases.

2. Lack of Knowledge. If a receiver is unable to understand a message

filled with technical information, communication will break down. Un-

less a computer user knows something about the Windows environ-

ment, the user may have difficulty organizing files if given technical in-

structions.

3. Lack of Communication Skills. Those who have weak reading and

listening skills make ineffective receivers. On the other hand, those

who have a good professional vocabulary and who concentrate on

listening, have less trouble hearing and interpreting good

communication. Many people tune out what is being said and mentally

rehearse what they are going to say in return.

4. Emotional Distractions. If emotions interfere with the creation and

transmission of a message, it can also disrupt reception. If you receive

a report from your supervisor regarding proposed changes in work

procedures and you do not particularly like your supervisor, you may

have trouble even reading the report objectively. You may read, not

objectively, but to find fault. You may misinterpret words and read

negative impressions between the lines. Consequently, you are likely

to misunderstand part or all of the report.

5. Physical Distractions. If a receiver of a communication works in an

area with bright lights, glare on computer screens, loud noises, exces-

sively hot or cold work spaces, or physical ailments, that receiver will

probably experience communication breakdowns on a regular basis.

1.7.4 Responding Barriers—The communication cycle may be broken

if the feedback is unsuccessful.

1. No Provision for Feedback. Since communication is a two-way

process, the sender must search for a means of getting a response from the

receiver. If a team leader does not permit any interruptions nor questions

while discussing projects, he may find that team members may not completely



understand what they are to do. Face-to-face oral communication is

considered the best type of communication since feedback can be both

verbal and nonverbal. When two communicators are separated, care must

be taken to ask for meaningful feedback.

2.Inadequate Feedback. Delayed or judgmental feedback can interfere

with good communication. If your supervisor gives you instructions in long,

compound-complex sentences without giving you a chance to speak, you

may pretend to understand the instructions just so you can leave the stress

of the conversation. Because you may have not fully understood the intended

instructions, your performance may suffer.

1.8 OVERCOMING OBSTACLES

Careful communication can conquer barriers in a number of ways. Half the

battle in communicating successfully lies in recognising the fact that the

entire communication process is sensitive and susceptible to breakdown.

One should keep anticipating problems in encoding, transmitting, and

decoding a message. Effective communicators also focus on the reciver’s

environment and frame of reference. They ask themselves questions such

as, “How is that individual likely to react to my message? Does the reciver

know as much about the subject as I do?”

A large part of suceesful communication is listening. Management advisor

Peter Drucker observed, “ too many executives think they are wonderful

with people because they talk well. They don’t realise that being wonderful

with people means listening well.”

Overcoming the interpersonal barriers often involves questioning your

preconceptions. Successful communicators continually examine their

personal assumptions, biases, and prejudices. An American software

company, for example failed unnecessarily in Japan because it simply

translated its glossy brochure from English into Japanese. The American

didn’t realize that in Japan such brochures are associated with low priced

consumer products. The software producer wrongly assumed that since

glossy was upscale in America, it would be similarly perceived in Japan.



Finally, effective communicators create an environment for useful feedback.

In oral communication this means asking questions such as “Do you

understand?” and “What questions do you have?” as well as encouraging

listeners to repeat instructions or paraphrase ideas. To a listener, it means

providing feedback that describes rather than evaluates. And in written

communication it means asking questions and providing access: “Do you

have my telephone number in case you have questions?”

EXERCISE

Communication is not successful unless the receiver understands the message

as the sender meant it. Analyze the following examples of communication

failures. What went wrong?

a. A supervisor issued the following announcement: “Effective immedi-

ately the charge for copying services in Repro will be raised 1 to 2

rupees each” . Receivers scratched their heads.

b. The pilot of a military airplane that was about to land decided that the

runway was too short. He shouted to his engineer, “Takeoff power!”.

The engineer turned off the engines; the plane crashed.

1.9 TIPS FOR SUCESSFUL COMMUNICATION

1. Read. Extend your knowledge of language by reading.

2. Listen intelligently. Communication is a two-way process. Listening is

just as important as speaking.

3. Think and plan. Think before you speak or write. Plan all your commu-

nications carefully, whether oral or written.

4. Use appropriate language. Use clear, simple language, and appreciate

the same used by others.

5. Be open minded. Consider other people’s viewpoints, be willing to

adapt and change methods or procedures if necessary.

6. Select appropriate media. Consider carefully the method to be used

for communicating your message.



7. Time your communication appropriately. Consider the best time for com-

munication.

8. Use appropriate language. Use words which are relevant to the topic

and which will be understood by the recipient.

9. Obtain feedback. Obtain feedback to ensure that the communication

was effective.

10. Aim high. Set and maintain high standards in all your methods of com-

munication, both in terms of language and presentation.

1.10 FORMAL VERSUS INFORMAL COMMUNICATION

Communication within an organization is often described as formal or

informal. Formal communication refers to communication that follows the

official chain of command or is part of the communication required to do

one’s job. For example,when a manager asks an employee to complete a

task, he or she is communicating formally.

So is the employee who brings a problem to the attention of his or her

manager. Any communication that takes place within prescribed

organizational work arrangements would be classified as formal.

Informal communication is organizational communication that is not defined

by the organization’s structural hierarchy. When employees talk with each

other in the lunch room, as they pass in hallways, or as they’re working out

at the company exercise facility, that’s informal communication. Employees

form friendships and communicate with each other. The informal

communication system fulfills two purposes in organizations: (1) It permits

employees to satisfy their need for social interaction, and (2) it can improve

an organization’s performance by creating an alternative, and frequently

faster and more efficient, channel of communication.

1.11 DIRECTION OF COMMUNICATION FLOW

Organizational communication can flow downward, upward, laterally, or

diagonally. Let’s look at each type.



1.11.1 Downward communication

This consists of messages sent from superiors to subordinates. Most

commonly they are: 1. Instructions or directions concerning job-performance

2. Information about organizational procedures and policies. 3. Feedback

to the subordinates concerning job performance 4. Information to assist in

the co-ordination of work tasks.

While much formal communication in organizations is downward, research

indicates that most organizations still do not have enough of this

communication. A number of studies indicate that workers would like more

information from their superiors about work procedures and about what is

happening elsewhere in the organization.

It also appears that certain types of downward communication may be

particularly limited, such as feedback concerning work performance. This

is especially true in companies that fail to conduct regular performance

appraisals.

1.11.2 Upward communication

This is the flow of messages from the lower levels of the organization to the

upper levels. It typically consists of information managers need in order to

perform their jobs, such as feedback concerning the status of lower-level

operations, which could include reports of production output or

information about any problems. The upward flow of information is critical

for managers, who must use this information to make important

work-related decisions. Upward communication can also involve

complaints and suggestions for improvement from lower-level workers and

is significant because it gives subordinates some input into the functioning of

the organization.

1.11.3 Lateral communication

This is the flow of communication between people who are on the same

level in an organization, and is particularly important when co-workers must

co-ordinate their activities in order to accomplish a goal. Lateral

communication can also occur between two or more departments in an



organization e.g. between the production and quality-control departments.

Lateral communication allows the sharing of news and information and helps

in developing interpersonal relationships. But too much of socializing on

the job can detract from effective job performance.

1.12 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS

The vertical and horizontal flows of organizational communication can be

combined into a variety of patterns called communication networks. There

are three common communication networks.

Types of Communication Networks

In the chain network, communication flows according to the formal chain

of command, both downward and upward. The wheel network represents

communication flowing between a clearly identifiable and strong leader and

others in a work group or team. The leader serves as the hub through whom

all communication passes. Finally, in the all-channel network,

communication flows freely among all members of a work team.

As a manager, which network should you use? The answer depends on

your goal. The effectiveness of the various networks according to four

criteria: speed, accuracy, the probability that a leader will emerge, and the

importance of member satisfaction. One observation is immediately apparent:

No single network is best for all situations. If you are concerned with high

member satisfaction, the all-channel network is best; if having a strong and

identifiable leader is important, the wheel network facilitates this; and if

accuracy is most important, the chain and wheel networks work best.

The Grapevine

We can’t leave our discussion of communication networks without

discussing the grapevine—the informal organizational communication

network. The grapevine is active in almost every organization. Is it an

important source of information? One survey reported that 75 percent of

employees hear about organizational matters first through rumours on the

grapevine. What are the implications for managers? Certainly, the grapevine

is an important part of any group or organization communication network



and well worth understanding. It identifies for managers those bewildering

issues that employees consider important and anxiety prone. It acts as both

a filter and a feedback mechanism, picking up on the issues employees

consider relevant. More importantly, from a managerial point of view, it is

possible to analyze what is happening on the grapevine -what information is

being passed, how information seems to flow along the grapevine, and which

individuals seem to be key conduits of information on the grapevine. By

being aware of the grapevine’s flow and patterns, managers can stay on top

of issues that concern employees and, in turn, can use the grapevine to

disseminate important information. Since the grapevine can’t be eliminated,

managers should “manage” it as an important information network.

Rumours that flow along the grapevine also can never be eliminated entirely.

What managers can do, however, is minimize the negative consequences of

rumours by limiting their range and impact. How? By communicating openly,

fully, and honestly with employees, particularly in situations in which

employees may not like proposed or actual managerial decisions or actions.

1.13 HOW TECHNOLOGY AFFECTS MANAGERIAL

COMMUNICATION

Technology, and more specifically Information Technology, has radically

changed the way organizational members communicate. For example, it

has significantly improved a manager’s ability to monitor individual or team

performance, it has allowed employees to have more complete information

to make faster decisions, and it has provided employees more opportunities

to collaborate and share information. In addition, information technology

has made it possible for people in organizations to be fully accessible, any

time, regardless of where they are. Employees don’t have to be at their

desk with their computer turned on in order to communicate with others in

the organization. Two developments in information technology seem to be

having the most significant impact on current managerial communication:

networked computer systems and wireless capabilities.



1.13.1 Networked Computer Systems

In a networked computer system, an organization links its computers together

through compatible hardware and software, creating an organizational

network. Organizational members can then communicate with each other

and tap into information whether they’re down the hall, across town, or

halfway across the world. Although we won’t get into the mechanics of how

a network system works, we will address some of its communication

applications including e-mail, instant messaging, voice mail, fax, electronic

data interchange, teleconferencing and videoconferencing, intranets and

extranets, and the talking Internet.

E-mail is the instantaneous transmission of written messages on computers

that are linked together. E-mail is fast and cheap and can be used to send

the same message to numerous people at the same time. It’s a quick and

convenient way for organizational members to share information and

communicate. Some organizational members who find email slow and

cumbersome are using instant messaging (IM). This is interactive real-

time communication that takes place among computer users who are logged

onto the computer network at the same time. IM first became popular among

teens and preteens who wanted to communicate with their friends online.

Now, it’s moving to the workplace. With IM, there’s no waiting around for

a colleague to read e-mail. Whatever information needs to be communicated

can be done so instantaneously. However, there are a couple of drawbacks

to instant messaging. It requires groups of users to be logged on to the

organization’s computer network at the same time. This leaves the network

open to security breaches.

A voice-mail system digitizes a spoken message, transmits it over the

network, and stores the message on disk for the receiver to retrieve later.

This capability allows information to be transmitted even though a receiver

may not be physically present to take the information. Receivers can choose

to save the message for future use or delete it. The speed and convenience

of e-mail has changed business communication forever. Along with the

enormous growth of intranets (internal electronic communications webs)

and other forms of electronic communication, the market for e-mail monitoring

systems has doubled in the last year and continues to surge.



Fax machines allow the transmission of documents containing both text and

graphics over ordinary telephone lines. A sending fax machine scans and

digitizes the document. A receiving fax machine reads the scanned information

and reproduces it in hard copy form. Information that is best viewed in

printed form can be easily and quickly shared by organizational members.

1.13.2 Electronic Data Interchange (EDI)

EDI is a way for organizations to exchange standard business transaction

documents, such as invoices or purchase orders, using direct computer-to-

computer networks. Organizations often use EDI with vendors, suppliers,

and customers because it saves time and money. How? Information on

transactions is transmitted from one organization’s computer system to

another through a telecommunications network. The printing and handling

of paper documents at one organization are eliminated as is the inputting of

data at the other organization. Meetings—one-to-one, team, divisional, or

organization-wide—have always been one way to share information. In the

absence of technology meetings took place among people in the same

physical location, but that’s no longer the case any more.

Teleconferencing allows a group of people to confer simultaneously using

telephone or e-mail group communications software. If meeting participants

can see each other over video screens, the simultaneous conference is called

videoconferencing. Workgroups, large and small, which might be in

different locations, can use these communication network tools to

collaborate and share information. Networked computer systems have

allowed the development of organizational intranets and extranets. An

intranet is an organizational communication network that uses Internet

technology and is accessible only by organizational employees. Many

organizations are using intranets as ways for employees to share

information and collaborate on documents and projects from different

locations. An extranet is an organizational communication network that

uses Internet technology and allows authorized users inside the organization

to communicate with certain outsiders such as customers or vendors.

Finally, we are all aware of the tremendous impact that the Internet has had

and continues to have on organizations. Now, instead of being a



communication medium just for text, colourful graphics, and the occasional

music and video clipping, the Internet is being used for voice

communication. Popular e-mail providers such as Yahoo! allows users to

chat verbally with each other. Many companies are also moving to

Internet-based voice communication. For instance, in the headquarters of

Merrill Lynch & Co., 6500 Internet phones have been installed for

employees to use in conference calls or for instant messaging

communication. On Compaq Computer Corporation’s Website, visitors can

click on an icon and speak live to a company representative.

Wireless Capabilities: While the communication possibilities for a manager

in a networked world are exciting, the real potential is yet to come!

Networked computer systems require organizations (and organizational

employees) to be connected by wires. Wireless communication depends

on signals sent through air or space without any physical connection using

things such as microwave signals, satellites, radio waves and radio antennas,

or infrared light rays. Wireless smart phones, notebook computers, and

other pocket communication devices have spawned a whole new way for

managers to “keep in touch.” In Japan and Europe, over nine million users

use wireless technology that allows them to send and receive information

from anywhere. Employees don’t have to be at their desks with their

computers plugged in and turned on in order to communicate with others in

the organization.

1.13.3 How Information Technology affects Organiszations

Employees—working in teams or as individuals—need information to make

decisions and do their work. It’s clear that technology can significantly

affect the way that organizational members communicate, share information,

and do their work. Communications and the exchange of information among

organizational members are no longer constrained by geography or time.

Collaborative work efforts among widely dispersed individuals and teams,

sharing of information, and integration of decisions and work

throughout an entire organization have the potential to increase

organizational efficiency and effectiveness. And while the economic

benefits of information technology are obvious, managers must not forget



to address the psychological drawbacks. For instance, what is the

psychological cost of an employee being constantly accessible? Will there

be increased pressure for employees to “check in” even during their off-

hours? How important is it for employees to separate their work lives and

their personal lives? While there are no easy answers to these questions,

they are issues that managers will have to face.

1.14 KEY FUNCTIONS OF COMMUNICATION

The literature on communication generally acknowledges that the basic

function of communication is to affect receiver knowledge or behavior by

informing, directing, regulating, socializing, and persuading. Neher (1997)

identifies the primary functions of organizational communication as:

· Compliance-gaining

· Leading, motivating, and influencing

· Sense-making

· Problem-solving and decision-making

· Conflict management, negotiating, and bargaining.

Neher (1997) and Rogers and Rogers (1976) emphasize the social and

organizational functions of organizational communication as a whole rather

than focusing on the functions of specific communication exchanges. Thus

they combine the functions of informing, directing, and regulating into the

broader category of behavioral compliance. They also give greater emphasis

to the role of communication in managing threats to organizational order

and control, identifying problem solving and conflict management, negotiation,

and bargaining as key functions of organizational communication.

Communication also has three primary functions:

· Coordination and regulation of production activities

This function of communication has changed a lot over time. In traditional

bureaucratic views of the organization, prescription – clearly communicating

behavioral expectations and the behavioral consequences associated with



complying or not complying with these expectations—and monitoring are

considered to be the basis of organizational order and control. This function

of organizational communication was seen as involving fairly proceduralized,

rule-oriented, one-way, top-down communication. Tasks in many

organizations have become more complex, less routine and repetitive, tightly

coupled, and interactive. Production activities of this nature require dynamic,

reciprocal, lateral communications between production workers and

managers. Communication as a means of coordination and regulation

becomes more important, complex, and difficult.

· Socialization

The socialization function of communication is stressed in the human relations

perspective of organizations which asserts that capturing the hearts and minds

of organizational members is necessary to effectively coordinate

organizational action in pursuit of collective organizational goals.

Communication directed at socializing organizational members focuses on

articulating and reinforcing organizational values and aligning individual goals

with organizational goals. It is directed at establishing an appropriate

organizational culture and climate. This form of communication cannot be

one-way or top-down. It must occur reciprocally between organizational

leaders and organizational members.

· Innovation

The organizational communication literature is increasingly addressing the

importance of communication in promoting innovation as well as control

and coordination. Communication to promote innovation is associated with

strong communication within and beyond the organization. This approach

focuses on the functional goals of organizational communication, rather than

on the near-term outcomes of particular acts of communication, such as to

make a decision, to persuade, or to resolve a conflict. The more specific

functions of specific acts of communication or sets of communication

exchange (decision-making, informing, persuading, negotiating,

problem-solving) are subsumed into each of the three higher-level

functional objectives.



1.15 BASIC COMMUNICATION SKILLS

Nearly every aspect of management requires that a manager comes in contact

with the public — through group meetings and review sessions, as well as

through one-on-one office appointments, writing, and telephone

conversations. Though most of these contacts are positive interactions, each

has the potential to become adversarial if handled inappropriately. While

interpersonal communication skills are rarely part of professional curricula,

they are so fundamental to public participation that we begin the description

of participation tools with some communication techniques.

One-on-one (interpersonal) skills

Success in most professions depends on effective one-to-one interaction.

While there is an entire industry dedicated to interpersonal communication

(e.g., Dale Carnegie’s “How to Win Friends and Influence People”), here

we simply outline some fairly obvious objectives. The challenge is to apply

these skills, especially when confronted with anxious, impatient, or

confrontational clients.

Be responsive

Be engaging

Be pleasant

Be patient

Be clear

Be positive

Be realistic

Be a problem solver

The first order of business is to be available, accessible, and

responsive. While this is often difficult with busy schedules, it is

important to serve the client: make time in your schedule to be

available, respond to phone calls, e-mails, and other inquiries in a

timely manner, develop back-up mechanisms for responding when

you are unavailable.

“Be an active listener.” Connecting with the client often takes some

work, and it is important to make the effort to focus attention on the

request or issues at hand. Paraphrasing and other methods are

helpful to assure clients that you hear and are interested in what they

say. Most often this approach leads to the most effective and

efficient outcome.

Work should be fun! A smile and some humour go a long way

toward breaking the ice, easing anxiety, defusing conflict, and

thereby increasingly the channels of communication.

“Treat impatient people with patience” is one of the most difficult

skills in interpersonal communication, but one of the most important

for public officials. Often times it is important to give clients the

opportunity to vent before trying to get to the root of the problem

and find solutions.

what next steps to take.

Clarity of communication is critical. Active listening and

paraphrasing are a critical first step. It is also important to leave the

client with a clear idea of where your stand, what to expect, and

It is easy to look at the “dark side” of any situation. One of the

important skills of interpersonal communication is to look at a

situation in a positive light, to empathize with the client, and to seek

solutions.

While it is important to be positive, it is critical to be realistic. If

there are difficult or insurmountable problems, the client needs to

know.

All of these skills amount to being a problem solver, or one actively

involved in trying to resolve a client’s concerns. Helping people

solve their problems through responsiveness, engagement, patience,

clarity, and a positive, empathetic and realistic approach is the best

way to perform the role of manager and to “win friends and

influence people.”



Be responsive

Be engaging

Be pleasant

Be patient

Be clear

Be positive

Be realistic

Be a problem solver

The first order of business is to be available, accessible, and

responsive. While this is often difficult with busy schedules, it is

important to serve the client: make time in your schedule to be

available, respond to phone calls, e-mails, and other inquiries in a

timely manner, develop back-up mechanisms for responding when

you are unavailable.

“Be an active listener.” Connecting with the client often takes some

work, and it is important to make the effort to focus attention on the

request or issues at hand. Paraphrasing and other methods are

helpful to assure clients that you hear and are interested in what they

say. Most often this approach leads to the most effective and

efficient outcome.

Work should be fun! A smile and some humour go a long way

toward breaking the ice, easing anxiety, defusing conflict, and

thereby increasingly the channels of communication.

“Treat impatient people with patience” is one of the most difficult

skills in interpersonal communication, but one of the most important

for public officials. Often times it is important to give clients the

opportunity to vent before trying to get to the root of the problem

and find solutions.

what next steps to take.

Clarity of communication is critical. Active listening and

paraphrasing are a critical first step. It is also important to leave the

client with a clear idea of where your stand, what to expect, and

It is easy to look at the “dark side” of any situation. One of the

important skills of interpersonal communication is to look at a

situation in a positive light, to empathize with the client, and to seek

solutions.

While it is important to be positive, it is critical to be realistic. If

there are difficult or insurmountable problems, the client needs to

know.

All of these skills amount to being a problem solver, or one actively

involved in trying to resolve a client’s concerns. Helping people

solve their problems through responsiveness, engagement, patience,

clarity, and a positive, empathetic and realistic approach is the best

way to perform the role of manager and to “win friends and

influence people.”

Writing Skills

Writing skills are critical to many aspects of management, since

decision-making processes generally involve a variety of reporting



methods, and both internal and external forms of correspondence.

Whilewriting techniques vary slightly with the type of document produced,

the following hints will generally help:

Presentation Skills

Research Know your audience and relate your talk to it.

Know your time limits and stick to them.

Know your context (other speakers and what they are saying).

Prepare Clarify 3-5 key points: introduce them, discuss them, conclude

with them.

Use effective audio-visual tools (overheads, slides, Power-Point,

handouts) to clarify your main points and to help the audience

visualize your message. Rules of thumb for slides:

- Limit words to 10-15 per slide

- Use several simple slides rather than one complicated one

- Dark backgrounds (with white or light lettering) and large type are

easier to read

Rehearse.

Present Engage your audience (eye contact, personalization, humour);

create excitement, challenge traditional thinking.

Neither read a presentation, nor deliver it “off the cuff.” Prepare

well so it appears you are simply talking with the audience

whether you are working from a prepared text or not.

Coordinate your slides with the talk. Don’t leave slide on screen

after you’ve covered it. Operate slide controls yourself (if

possible).



Research Know your audience and relate your talk to it.

Know your time limits and stick to them.

Know your context (other speakers and what they are saying).

Prepare Clarify 3-5 key points: introduce them, discuss them, conclude

with them.

Use effective audio-visual tools (overheads, slides, Power-Point,

handouts) to clarify your main points and to help the audience

visualize your message. Rules of thumb for slides:

- Limit words to 10-15 per slide

- Use several simple slides rather than one complicated one

- Dark backgrounds (with white or light lettering) and large type are

easier to read

Rehearse.

Present Engage your audience (eye contact, personalization, humour);

create excitement, challenge traditional thinking.

Neither read a presentation, nor deliver it “off the cuff.” Prepare

well so it appears you are simply talking with the audience

whether you are working from a prepared text or not.

Coordinate your slides with the talk. Don’t leave slide on screen

after you’ve covered it. Operate slide controls yourself (if

possible).

Making presentations to small or large groups is another essential task for

managers . Like writing skills, presentation skills are honed through

practice. Still, there are some “strategies” that enhance the quality and

effectiveness of presentations.

Facilitation Skills

Running and facilitating group meetings is an essential communication skill,

and one that often employs a number of participation skills and tools, and

especially an understanding of group dynamics (see also facilitating

(capacity building), public meetings, workshops, focus groups, stakeholder

collaboration).

A facilitator works with a group and provides procedural help in moving

toward consensus. The facilitator is neutral to the issues or topics under

discussion and operates with the consent of the participants. It is helpful if

the facilitator is also intimately familiar with the subject matter of the

discussion.

Since facilitated meetings typically involve representatives from a wide

variety of community groups or other stakeholders, these participants are

likely to hold different views on the issues under consideration. The

facilitator should encourage all participants to share their viewpoints and

participate in the discussion. Hypothetical questions sometimes help to get

the discussion moving. The facilitator elicits both facts and opinions and

helps the group distinguish between them.



Some hints for better facilitation:

1. Watch group vibes: If people seem bored or inattentive, you may have

to speed up the pace of the meeting. If people seem tense because of

unvoiced disagreements, you may have to bring concerns out into the

open.

2. Ask open ended questions: For instance, “We seem to be having trouble

resolving the matter. What do you think we should do?”

3. Summarize what others say: For instance, you might say, “It seems we

agree that . ..”

4. Make sure everyone gets a chance to speak. One way of ensuring

quiet people get a chance to speak is to initiate a round. In a round you

move around the table with everyone getting a few minutes to present

their views.

Flare-ups: When two members get into a heated discussion summarize

the points made by each, then turn the discussion back to the group. ·

Grand standing: Interrupt the one-man show with a statement that gives

him credit for his contribution, but ask him to reserve his other points for

later. Alternatively, interrupt with, "You have brought up a great many

points. Would anyone like to take up one of these points?" ·

Broken recording: When someone keeps repeating the same point,

assure them their point has been heard. If necessary ask the group if

they want to allow the person to finish making their point. ·

Interrupting: Step in immediately with, "Hold on, let X finish what they

have to say." If necessary, ask the person who tends to interrupt to act

as the recorder for the meeting.·

Continual criticizing: Legitimize negative feelings on difficult issues.

You might say, "Yes, it will be tough to reduce interpersonal conflicts, but there are

successful models we can look at." If necessary, ask the critical person to take on an

achievable task.

5. Inject humour: There a few better ways of overcoming cranky, niggling

or petty behavior.

6. Learn to deal with difficult behaviour.



7. Suggest options when time runs out: Identify areas of partial consen-

sus, suggest tabling the question, or create a small subcommittee to

deal with the matter at a time of their choice.

8. Consider a round at the end of the meeting: Going quickly around the

whole group gives people a chance to bring up matters not on the

agenda. You can also use a round to evaluate the meeting.

Facilitation and Facilitators

1. A facilitative individual is one who is easy to work with, a team player,

a person aware of individual and group dynamics. He or she is skilled in

communication, collaborative problem solving, consensus building, and

conflict resolution.

2. A facilitator is an individual who enables groups and organizations to

work more effectively and to collaborate. He or she is a “content neutral”

party who by not taking sides during the meeting, can advocate for fair,

open, and inclusive discussions to accomplish the group’s work.

3. A facilitative leader is one who is aware of group and organizational

dynamics; one who creates organization-wide involvement processes which

enable members of the organization to more fully utilize their potential to

help the organization articulate and achieve its vision and goals. There is a

difference between facilitating and leading and facilitative leaders often use

facilitators in their organizations.

4. A facilitative group (team, task force, committee) is one in which

facilitative mindsets and behaviors are widely distributed among the members.

Such a group is minimally dysfunctional, is easy to join, and works well

together and with other groups.

To sum up, effective communication is crucial in business. Those who are

effective communicators rise quickly in their organizations. As a professional

manager your task is to recognize and understand your strength and



weaknesses as a communicator. Until you identify those communication tasks

at which you are most and least skilled, you’ll have little opportunities for

improvement and advancement.

Review Questions

1. Define communication and explain its most critical factor.

2. Describe the steps in the process of communication.

3. What are the main functions of organizational communication?

4. How is communication defined?

5. List out any four barriers to communication and state how they can be

overcome?

THINKING ABOUT MANAGEMENT ISSUES

1. Which do you think is more important for the manager: speaking accu-

rately or listening actively? Why?

2. How can managers use the grapevine for their benefit?

3. Is information technology helping managers be more effective and

efficient? Explain your answer.



“ There are hundreds of languages in

the world and a smile speaks all of them.”

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Work requires communication. People communicate to plan products and

services; hire, train, and motivate workers; coordinate manufacturing and

delivery; persuade customers to buy and bill the products for sale. For

many businesses, and in nonprofit, community, and government

organizations, the “product” is information or service. Information and

services are created and delivered by communication. In every

organization, communication is the way people get their points across, get

work done, and get recognized for their contributions. In this unit, both

verbal and nonverbal aspects of oral communication are explored. To make

this learning meaningful and relevant to managers, communication is

discussed in the context of interpersonal communication, listening,

interviewing and presentations – all managerial activities.


v Learn interpersonal dynamics

v Explain how to become an effective listener

v Improve nonverbal communication skill

v Evaluate successful job interview strategies

v Acquire good speaking and oral reporting techniques

UNIT 2 COMMUNICATION

PROCESS



2.3 INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION

Definition of Interpersonal Communication

Interpersonal communication is the process that we use to communicate

our ideas, thoughts, and feelings to another person. Our interpersonal

communication skills are learned behaviours that can be improved through

knowledge, practice, feedback, and reflection.

Intrateam communication

Intrateam communication is a process through which team members

communicate with one another. It is made up of the communication strategies

and styles of each member of the team. Like interpersonal communication

skills, a team can improve its intrateam communication skills through

knowledge, practice, feedback, and reflection.

2.3.1 Principles of Interpersonal Communication

These principles underlie the workings in real life of interpersonal

communication. They are basic to communication which cannot be ignored.

Interpersonal communication is inescapable

The very attempt not to communicate communicates something. Not only

through words, but also through tone of voice (intonation), gesture,

posture, facial expression, etc., we constantly communicate to those around

us. Through these channels, we constantly receive communication from

others. Even when we sleep, we communicate. Remember a basic principle

of communication in general: people are not mind readers. In other words

people judge you by your behaviour, not your intent.

Interpersonal communication is irreversible

You can’t really take back something once it has been said. The effect mustinevitably remain. Despite the instructions from a judge to a jury to “disregard

that last statement the witness made,” the lawyer knows that it can’t help

but make an impression on the jury. A Russian proverb says, “Once a wordgoes out of your mouth, you can never swallow it again.”



Interpersonal communication is complicated

No form of communication is simple. Because of the number of variables

involved, even simple requests are extremely complex. Theorists note that

whenever we communicate there are really at least six “people” involved:

1) who you think you are; 2) who you think the other person is; 3) who you

think the other person thinks you are; 4) who the other person thinks /she

is; 5) who the other person thinks you are; and 6) who the other person

thinks you think s/he is.

Words (symbols) do not have inherent meaning; we simply use them in certain

ways, and no two people use the same word exactly alike.

Interpersonal communication is contextual

In other words, communication does not happen in isolation. There is:

Psychological context, which is who you are and what you bring to the

interaction. Your needs, desires, values, personality, etc., all form the

psychological context. (“You” here refers to both participants in the

interaction.)

Relational context, which concerns your reactions to the other person,

the “mix.”

Situational context deals with the psycho-social “where” you are

communicating. An interaction that takes place in a classroom will be very

different from one that takes place in a playground.

Environmental context deals with the physical “where” you are

communicating. Furniture, location, noise level, temperature, season, time

of day, all these are examples of factors in the environmental context.

Cultural context includes all the learned behaviours and rules that affect

the interaction. If you come from a culture (foreign or within your own

country) where it is considered rude to make long, direct eye contact, you

will avoid eye contact out of politeness. If the other person comes from a

culture where long, direct eye contact signals trustworthiness, then we have

a basis for misunderstanding in the cultural context.



2.3.2 Functions of Interpersonal Communication

Interpersonal communication is important because of the functions it achieves.

Whenever we engage in communication with another person, we seek to

gain information about them. We also give off information through a wide

variety of verbal and nonverbal cues.

Gaining Information

One reason we engage in interpersonal communication is that we can gain

knowledge about another individual. Social Penetration Theory says that

we attempt to gain information about others so that we can interact with

them more effectively. We can predict better how they will think, feel, and

act if we know who they are. We gain this information passively, by

observing them; actively, by having others engage them; or interactively,

by engaging them ourselves. Self-disclosure is often used to get information

from another person.

Building a Context of Understanding

We also engage in interpersonal communication to help us

understand better what someone says in a given context. The words we say

can mean very different things depending on how they are said or in what

context. Content Messages refer to the surface level meaning of a

message. Relationship Messages refer to how a message is said. The

two are sent simultaneously, but each affects the meaning assigned to the

communication. Interpersonal communication helps us understand each other

better.

Establishing Identity

Another reason we engage in interpersonal communication is to establish an

identity. The roles we play in our relationships help us establish identity. So

too does the face, the public self-image we present to others. Both roles

and face are constructed based on how we interact with others.

Interpersonal Needs

Finally, we engage in interpersonal communication because we need to

express and receive interpersonal needs. William Schutz has identified three

such needs: inclusion, control, and affection.



Inclusion is the need to establish identity with others. Control is the need to

exercise leadership and prove one’s abilities. Groups provide outlets for

this need. Some individuals do not want to be a leader. For them, groups

provide the necessary control over aspects of their lives. Affection is the

need to develop relationships with people. Groups are an excellent way to

make friends and establish relationships.

2.3.3 Interpersonal Relationship Models

Researchers have studied relationships to understand how they develop.

One of the most popular models for understanding relationship

development is Mark Knapp’s Relational Stages Model. Knapp’s model

works well to describe many types of relationships: romantic couples, friends,

business partners, room-mates, etc. Other models have also been discussed.

For instance, Stephen Duck’s Relationship Filtering Model is another way

of looking at how relationships begin. Read about these models and then

complete an interactive activity and short quiz to test your knowledge.

2.3.3.1 Knapp’s Relationship Escalation Model

Initiation

This stage is very short, sometimes as short as 10-15 seconds. In this stage,

interactants are concerned with making favorable impressions on each other.

They may use standard greetings or observe each other’s appearance or

mannerisms.

Experimenting

In the next stage, individuals ask questions of each other in order to gain

information about them and to decide if they wish to continue the

relationship. “Many relationships progress no further than this point.”

Intensifying

Self-disclosure becomes more common in the intensifying stage. The

relationship becomes less formal, the interactants begin to see each other

as individuals, and statements are made about the level of commitment each

has to the relationship.



Integrating

The individuals become a pair in the integrating stage. They begin to do

things together and, importantly, others come to see them as a pair. A shared

relational identity starts to form in this stage.

Bonding

During the bonding stage, a formal, sometimes legal, announcement of the

relationship is made. Examples include a marriage, “best friend” ritual, or

business partnership agreement. Few relationships reach this level.

2.3.3.2 Duck’s Relationship Filtering Model

Sociological / Incidental Cues

Duck’s model is a set of filters through which we make choices about the

level of relationship we wish to pursue with others. The first filter,

sociological/incidental cues, describes the constraints placed on our meeting

people due to where we live or work. In other words, given our sociological

location, there are some people we see a lot of and others we never meet.

Preinteraction Cues

Information we gain about people before we even interact with them leads

us to exclude or include individuals with whom we wish to have a relationship.

For instance, the appearance of some individuals will cause you to avoid or

approach them.

Interaction Cues

As we begin to interact with others, we make judgments about whether to

include or exclude them from possible relationships.

Cognitive Cues

At the deepest level, we make judgments about people based on their

personality and the degree to which we think it will match ours. As others

reach this level, we consider them “best friends.”



2.3.3.3 Self-Disclosure

Self-disclosure is seen as a useful strategy for sharing information with others.

By sharing information, we become more intimate with other people and

our interpersonal relationship is strengthened.

The Johari Window is used in creating better understanding between

Individuals and Groups The Johari Window is a communication model that

can be used to improve understanding between individuals within a team or

in a group setting. Based on disclosure, self-disclosure and feedback, the

Johari Window can also be used to improve a group’s relationship with

other groups

Developed by Joseph Luft and Harry Ingham (the word “Johari” comes

from Joseph Luft and Harry Ingham), there are two key ideas behind the

tool:

1. That individuals can build trust between themselves by disclosing infor-

mation about themselves; and

2. That they can learn about themselves and come to terms with personal

issues with the help of feedback from others.

By explaining the idea of the Johari Window to your team, you can help

team members understand the value of self- feedback. Done sensitively,

this can help people build more trusting relationships with one another, solve

issues and work more effectively as a team.

Explaining the Johari Window: The Johari Window model consists of a

foursquare grid (think of taking a piece of paper and dividing it into four

parts by drawing one line down the middle of the paper from top to bottom,

and another line through the middle of the paper from side-to-side).



This is shown in the diagram below:

Using the Johari model, each person is represented by their own four-

quadrant, or four-pane, window. Each of these contains and represents

personal information: feelings, motivation - about the person, and shows

whether the information is known or not known by themselves or other

people.

The four quadrants are:

Quadrant 1: Open Area

What is known by the person about him/herself and is also known by

others.

Quadrant 2: Blind Area, or “Blind Spot”

What is unknown to the person about him/herself but known to the

others. This can be simple information, or can involve deep issues (for

example, feelings of inadequacy, incompetence, unworthiness, rejection)

which are difficult for individuals to face directly, and yet can be seen by

others.



Quadrant 3: Hidden or Avoided Area

What the person knows about himself / herself that others do not.

Quadrant 4: Unknown Area

What is unknown to the person about himself/herself and is also unknown

to the others.

The process of enlarging the open quadrant vertically is called self-disclosure,

a give and take process between the person and the people he/she interacts

with. As information is shared, the boundary with the hidden quadrant moves

downwards. And as other people reciprocate, trust tends to build between

them.

The Johari Window in a Team Context

Keep in mind that established team members will have larger open areas

than new team members. New team members start with smaller open areas

because no knowledge about the new team member has been shared yet.

The size of the Open Area can be expanded horizontally into the blind space,

by seeking and actively listening to feedback from other group members.

Group members should strive to assist a team member in expanding his/her

Open Area by offering constructive feedback. The size of the Open Area

can also be expanded vertically downwards into the hidden or avoided space

by the sender’s disclosure of information, feelings, etc., about

himself / herself to the group and group members.

Also, group members can help a person expand his/her Open Area into the

hidden area by asking the sender about himself/herself. Managers and team

leaders play a key role here, in facilitating feedback and disclosure among

group members, and by providing constructive feedback to individuals about

their own blind areas.

Key Points: In most cases, the aim in groups should be to develop the

Open Area for every person. Working in this area with others usually

allows for enhanced individual and team effectiveness and productivity. The

Open Area is the ‘space’ where good communications and cooperation

occurs, free from confusion, conflict and misunderstanding.



Self-disclosure is the process by which people expand the Open Area

vertically. Feedback is the process by which people expand this area

horizontally. By encouraging healthy self-disclosure and sensitive feedback,

you can build a stronger and more effective team.

A useful way of viewing self-disclosure is the Johari window. The Johari

window is a way of showing how much information you know about yourself

and how much others know about you. The window contains four panes, as

shown below.

Known to self Unknown to self

Known to othersOpen Pane

known to self and others

Blind Pane

blind to self, seen by others

Unknown to others

Hidden Pane

open to self, hidden from

others

Unknown Pane

unknown to self and others

The Blind Pane includes information that others can see in you, but you

cannot see in yourself. You might think you are a poor leader, but others

might think that you exhibit strong leadership skills. The Hidden Pane

contains information you wish to keep private, such as dreams or

ambitions. The Unknown Pane includes everything that you and others do

not know about yourself. You may have hidden talents, for example, that

you have not explored. Through self-disclosure, we open and close panes

so that we may become more intimate with others.

Functions of Self-Disclosure

Self-disclosure performs several functions. It is a way of gaining

information about another person. We will be able to predict the thoughts

and actions of people we know. Self-disclosure is one way to learn about

how another person thinks and feels. Once a person engages in

self-disclosure, it is implied that the other person will also disclose personal

information. This is known as the norm of reciprocity. Mutual disclosure

deepens trust in the relationships and helps people understand each other

better. You also come to feel better about yourself and your

relationship when the other person accepts what you tell them.



Risks of Self-Disclosure

While there are several advantages to self-disclosure, there are also risks.

One risk is that the person will not respond favorably to the information.

Self-disclosure does not automatically lead to favorable impressions. Another

risk is that the other person will gain power in the relationship because of

the information he possess. Finally, too much self-disclosure or self-disclosure

that comes too early in a relationship can damage the relationship. Thus,

while self-disclosure is useful, it can also be damaging to a relationship.

Relational Patterns

As relationships progress, patterns of interactions take shapes that we may

not recognize. This section describes some of these patterns. Complete the

interactive activity at the end of the unit and then take a quiz to test your

knowledge.

Rigid Role Relations

There are two basic types of behaviors in relationships: dominance and

submissiveness. Dominance is often referred to as one-up, while

submissiveness, one-down. In some relationships, the two are

complementary—one individual is one-up, the other one-down—and the

relationship is rewarding. Other relationships are symmetrical, where both

parties are one-up and both are one - down. Problems can result when

individuals feel trapped by their role as the dominant or submissive member

of the relationship. Flexibility can help both partners enjoy the relationship.

Disconfirmations

Whenever we communicate with someone else, we open ourselves up for

rejection. The other individual can accept what we say or reject what we

say. Researcher Evelyn Sieburg has identified seven “disconfirming”

responses that reject the other individual.

• Impervious: Failing to acknowledge the other person.

• Interrupting: Cutting the other’s message short.

• Irrelevant: Giving a response that is unrelated to what the other has

said.



• Tangential: Briefly responding to the other’s message.

• Impersonal: Responding by using formal, jargon-laden language.

• Incoherent: Responding with a rambling, difficult to understand mes-

sage.

• Incongruous: Giving contradictory verbal and nonverbal messages.

Spirals

A third type of relational pattern is ‘spiral’. In a spiral, one partner’s

behavior intensifies that of the other. Spirals can be progressive, in which

one partner’s behavior leads to increasing levels of satisfaction for the other.

Spirals can also be regressive, where one partner’s communication leads to

increasing dissatisfaction. Stopping regressive spirals from getting out of

control depends on the open communication between the two individuals.

Dependencies and Counter dependencies

A final type of relational pattern is dependencies and counter

dependencies. In a dependency relationship, one individual sees himself or

herself relying on another person for something. Soon, he or she agrees

with whatever the other says or does. In a counter dependency, one

individual sees himself or herself as not being dependent on the other. Thus,

he or she disagrees with the other quite frequently.

2.3.3.4 Interpersonal Conflict

Conflict is a part of almost every interpersonal relationship. Managing

conflict, then, is important if the relationship is to be long lasting and

rewarding. Learn how to manage conflict in your relationships and then

complete the activity.

Definition of Conflict

Conflict has been defined as “an expressed struggle between at least two

interdependent parties who perceive incompatible goals, scarce resources,

and interference from the other party in achieving their goals”. Important

concepts in this definition include “expressed struggle,” which means the



two sides must communicate about the problem for there to be conflict.

Another important idea is that conflict often involves perceptions. The two

sides may only perceive that their goals, resources, and interference are

incompatible with each other’s.

Common Problems in Conflict Management

Researchers have identified several problems that typically arise in conflict

situations22. First, the parties will simply avoid the conflict. This can be

damaging, because it can lead to greater problems in the future. It is usually

best that the individuals discuss their differences. Second, individuals

involved in conflict may blame others. Often, individuals go beyond the

specific behavior in question and blame the character of the other person.

When people use words such as, “He’s such a slob,” they are trying to

blame the behavior of the others. A final problem that is often encountered

in conflict management is adopting a win-lose mentality. Focusing on each

individual’s goals/outcomes will help avoid using a win-lose strategy.

Defensive climate

The climate in which conflict is managed is important. Dyads says that one

should avoid a defensive climate, which is characterized by these qualities:

• Evaluation: judging and criticizing other group members.

• Control: imposing the will of one group member on the others.

• Strategy: using hidden agendas.

• Neutrality: demonstrating indifference and lack of commitment.

• Superiority: expressing dominance.

• Certainty: being rigid in one’s willingness to listen to others.

Supportive Climate

Instead, individuals should foster a supportive climate, marked by these

traits:



• Description: presenting ideas or opinions.

• Problem orientation: focusing attention on the task.

• Spontaneity: communicating openly and honestly.

• Empathy: understanding another person’s thoughts.

• Equality: asking for opinions.

• Provisionalism: expressing a willingness to listen to the ideas of

others.

A few final tips can help ensure that conflict is successfully managed:

• Conflict can be constructive. Recognize that a conflict can strengthen

your relationships.

• Be Prepared. Plan how you will communicate about conflict in order to

create a supportive climate.

• Be Involved. Do not withdraw from the conflict or avoid conflict situa-

tions.

• Withhold Quick Retorts. Be careful about what you say and how you

say it.

• Review. Summarize what you have discussed and make plans to

continue the discussion. If time permits opt for immediate resolution.

Building Positive Relationships

• Use descriptive language

• Focus on solving problems, not on controlling others

• Be open, Don’t try to deceive

• Show empathy

• Don’t put on an air of superiority



• Listen with an open mind

• Praise sincerely

• Offer constructive criticism

To conclude, in today’s business world good interpersonal skills are

essential for success. No individual, no matter how brilliant or talented, can

hope to make it to the more coveted posts and stay there if he cannot work

harmoniously with a group of people. Not only individual success, even the

success of the organization as a whole depends to great extent on whether

the workforce has the necessary interpersonal skills to establish a positive

work environment.

2.3.3.5. a Let us check your understanding

1. —————— is a process through which team members communi-

cate with one another.

2. ———————— is the process which we use to communicate our

ideas, thoughts, and feelings to another person.

3. Whenever we communicate, there are at least ———— “people”

involved.

4. When individuals ask questions of the other in order to gain information

about them is called —————— stage.

5. Based on —————and ——————— the Johari Window can

be used to improve a group’s relationship with other groups.

6. In Johari model, each person is represented by his/her own ————

——— window.

7. One partner’s behavior intensifies that of the other is called ————

8. ——————— has been defined as “an expressed struggle between

at least two interdependent parties who perceive incompatible goals,

scarce resources, and interference from the other party in achieving

their goals”.



9. A defensive climate, is characterized by these qualities: —————

———— —————

10. A supportive climate, is characterized by these qualities: —————

———— —————

11. Does the Johari Window represent a visual picture of how comfortable

you are with asking for and encouraging self disclosure?

12. Is it wise to tell everything?

13. What are the questions you should ask yourself before disclosing per

sonal information?

14. How does perception affect your relational messages?

2.4 NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION

Non-verbal communication plays a central role in human behavior and it is

important to recognize that communication frequently involves more than a

verbal message. Effective communication requires that we understand the

role of non-verbal behavior as one dimension of communication competence.

What is non-verbal communication?

Definition (CBC): “non-verbal communication involves those nonverbal

stimuli in a communication setting that are generated by both the source

[speaker] and his or her use of the environment and that have potential

message value for the source or receiver [listener]” (Samovar et al).

Basically it is sending and receiving messages in a variety of ways without

the use of verbal codes (words). It is both intentional and unintentional.

Most speakers / listeners are not conscious of this. It includes — but is

not limited to:

• touch

• glance

• eye contact (gaze)



• volume

• vocal nuance

• proximity

• gestures

• facial expression. pause (silence)

• intonation

• dress

• posture

• smell

• word choice and syntax

• sounds (paralanguage)

Broadly speaking, there are two basic categories of non-verbal

language:

• Non-verbal messages produced by the body;

• Non-verbal messages produced by the broad setting (time, space,

silence).

Note the implications of the proverb: “Actions speak louder than words.”

In essence, this underscores the importance of non-verbal communication.

Non-verbal communication is especially significant in intercultural situations.

Probably non-verbal differences account for typical difficulties in

communicating.

Why is non-verbal communication important?

Basically, it is one of the key aspects of communication (and especially

important in a high - context culture). It has multiple functions:

• Used to repeat the verbal message (e.g. point in a direction while

stating directions).



• Often used to accent a verbal message. (e.g. verbal tone indicates the

actual meaning of the specific words).

• Often complement the verbal message but also may contradict.

E.g.: a nod reinforces a positive message (among Americans); a “wink”

may contradict a stated positive message.

• Regulates interactions (non-verbal cues convey when the other person

should speak or not speak).

• May substitute for the verbal message (especially if it is blocked

by noise, interruption, etc) — i.e. gestures (finger to lips to

indicate need for quiet), facial expressions (i.e. a nod instead of a yes).

2.4.1 Cultural Differences in Non-verbal Communication

General Appearance and Dress

All cultures are concerned about how they look and make judgements based

on looks and dress. Americans, for instance, appear almost obsessed with

dress and personal attractiveness. Consider differing cultural standards on

what is attractive in dress and on what constitutes modesty. Note how dress

is used as a sign of status.

Body Movement

We send information towards a person by our 1) attitude (facing or leaning

towards another), 2) emotional statue (tapping fingers, jiggling coins), and

3) desiring to control the environment (moving towards or away from a

person).

More than 700,000 possible motions are made by us — so impossible to

categorize all of them. But we just need to be aware that body movement

and position is a key ingredient in sending messages.



Posture

Consider the following actions and note the cultural differences:

• Bowing (not done, criticized, or affected in US; shows rank in Japan)

• Slouching (rude in most Northern European areas)

• Hands in pocket (disrespectful in Turkey)

• Sitting with legs crossed (offensive in Ghana, Turkey)

• Showing soles of feet (Offensive in Thailand, Saudi Arabia)

• Even in the US, there is gender difference on acceptable postures

Gestures

Impossible to catalog all the gestures. But we need to recognize: 1)

incredible possibility and variety and 2) what is acceptable in one’s own

culture may be offensive in another. In addition, amount of gesturing varies

from culture to culture. Some cultures are animated; others are restrained.

Restrained cultures often feel that animated cultures lack manners and overall

restraint. Animated cultures often feel that restrained cultures lack emotion

or interest. Even simple things like using hands to point and count differ.

Pointing : US with index finger; Germany with little finger; Japanese with

entire hand (in fact most Asians consider pointing with the index finger to be

rude).

Counting: Thumb signifies 1 in Germany, 5 in Japan, middle finger for 1 in

Indonesia.

Facial Expressions

While some say that facial expressions are identical, the meaning attached

to them differs. Majority opinion is that these do have similar meanings

world-wide with respect to smiling, crying, or showing anger, sorrow, or

disgust. However, the intensity varies from culture to culture. Note the

following:



Many Asian cultures suppress facial expressions as much as possible.

Many Mediterranean (Latino / Arabic) cultures exaggerate grief or sadness

while most American men hide grief or sorrow. Some see “animated”

expressions as a sign of a lack of control. Too much smiling is viewed as a

sign of shallowness. Women smile more than men.

Eye Contact and Gaze

In interpersonal and group communication, we are generally

communicating something by looking or not looking at someone. When eye

contact does occur, it may perform one or more functions. The eyes can

indicate thought processes, or the cognitive function. It is common for many

people to glance away when they are thinking. Eyes can also perform a

monitoring function. From interpersonal to public speaking situations, we

can monitor our communication effectiveness by looking at others and

monitoring their feedback. As mentioned previously in this teaching note,

eye contact also helps to regulate the flow of communication. If a professor

asks a question and you did not wish to respond, you will most likely avoid

establishing eye contact; direct eye contact suggests a willingness to

respond. The eyes can also offer insight to emotions and feelings as part of

their expressive function.

In USA, eye contact indicates: degree of attention or interest, influences

attitude change or persuasion, regulates interaction, communicates

emotion, defines power and status, and has a central role in managing

impressions of others.

Western cultures see direct eye to eye contact as positive (they advise

children to look a person in the eyes). But within USA, the

African-Americans use more eye contact when talking and less when

listening while the reverse is true for Anglo-Americans. This is a possible

cause for some sense of unease between races in US. Arabic cultures

make prolonged eye-contact since they believe it shows interest and helps

them understand truthfulness of the other person. (A person who doesn’t

reciprocate is seen as untrustworthy). In Japan, Africa, Latin America, and

the Caribbean eye contact is avoided to show respect.



Touch

Question: Why do we touch, where do we touch, and what meanings do

we assign when someone else touches us?

Illustration: An African-American male goes into a convenience store recently

taken over by new Korean immigrants. He gives a $20 bill for his purchase

to Mrs Cho who is the cashier and waits for his change. He is upset when

his change is put down on the counter in front of him. What is the problem?

Traditional Koreans (and many other Asian people ) don’t touch strangers

especially between members of the opposite sex. But the

African-American sees this as another example of discrimination (not touching

him because he is Black). Basic answer: Touch is culturally determined!

But each culture has a clear concept of what parts of the body one may not

touch. Basic message of touch is to affect or control — protect, support,

disapprove (i.e. hug, hit, kick). In the USA the handshake is common

(even for strangers); hugs and kisses are for those of opposite gender or of

family (usually) on an increasingly more intimate basis. Note the

differences between African-Americans and Anglo-Americans in USA.

Most African Americans touch on greeting but are annoyed if touched on

the head (because it conveys good boy, good girl overtones). In the Islamic

and Hindu religious cultures: don’t touch with the left hand. To do so is a

social insult. Left hand is assumed to be reserved for toilet functions. It is

mannerly in India to break your bread only with your right hand (sometimes

difficult for non-Indians) Islamic cultures generally don’t approve of any

touching between genders (even handshakes). But they consider such

touching (including hand holding, hugs) between same sex to be

appropriate.

Smell

USA — fear of offensive natural smells (billion dollar industry to mask

objectionable odors with what is perceived to be pleasant ) — again

connected with “attractiveness” concept. Many other cultures consider

natural body odors as normal (Arabic). Asian cultures (Filipino, Malay,

Indonesian, Thai, Indian) stress frequent bathing — and often criticize

Americans of not bathing often enough!



Distance during interaction

The mutual distances people choose during interactions has several goals.

Distance plays a role in signaling the beginning and the end of a

conversation. It also signals something about how intimate and how

personal we experience the relationship and the topic of discussion. The

appropriate use of distance between talking partners is regulated by quite a

lot of (unwritten) social rules and cultural norms. When we talk to a senior

person, normally one will maintain some distance than the normal one. But

when we are conveying something to a friend definitely he/she is not

bothered about the distance & posture.

Zones Edward Hall, an American anthropologist, has divided interper

sonal space into four zones:

• The intimate zone (0 - 45 cm)

• The personal zone (45 - 120 cm)

• The social zone (120 - 360 cm)

• The public zone (360 - 750 cm or more)

Closeness

The physical distance we keep from others and our reaction to how other

people approach us has a major influence on our discussions and the

accompanying connections with these people. The amount of personal space

we appreciate is strongly influenced by our culture. This also counts for the

mutual distance in which we feel confident during a business meeting.

If somebody comes closer to us than we are used to, thereby invading our

personal space, he can give us an uneasy feeling. We feel inclined to take a

step backward to establish the original personal space with which we are

comfortable again. In general, people need a certain amount of personal

space to feel optimally okay. This also indicates our wish to trace out our

personal territory. When we are not at home we sometimes make a kind of

temporary territory - a temporary space which we secure with our personal

belongings. In this way we create a kind of personal air-bubble around us.

Whoever enters in there without being invited can count on a rejecting or

angry response.



Paralanguage

Vocal characterizers (laugh, cry, yell, moan, whine, belch, yawn). These

send different messages in different cultures (Japan - giggling indicates

embarrassment; India – belch indicates satisfaction) Vocal qualifiers

(volume, pitch, rhythm, tempo, and tone). Loudness indicates strength in

Arabic cultures and softness indicates weakness, loudness indicates

confidence and authority to the Germans; it indicates impoliteness to the

Thais; it indicates loss of control to the Japanese. (Generally, one learns not

to “shout” in Asia for nearly any reason!). These are gender based as well:

women tend to speak in higher pitch and more softly than men. vocal

segregates (un-huh, shh, uh, ooh, mmmh, humm, eh, mah, lah).

Segregates indicate formality, acceptance, assent, or uncertainty.

2.4.2 PARALINGUISTICS

Paralinguistics is concerned with factors of how words are spoken, i.e. the

paralinguistic differences can be responsible for , mostly subconscious or

stereotyped, confusion. For example the notion that Americans are talking

“too loud” is often interpreted in Europe as aggressive behaviour or can be

seen as a sign of uncultivated or tactless behaviour. Likewise, the British

way of speaking quietly might be understood as secretive by Americans.

The speed of talking is equally different in various cultural settings. For

example Finnish is spoken relatively slowly in comparison to other

European languages. This form of speaking has often resulted in the Finnish

as being regarded somewhat ‘slow’ .

Further, importance is given to the amount of silence that is perceived as

right during a conversation. A Japanese proverb says “Those who know do

not speak - those who speak do not know”; Whereas among the

Americans even a slight silence is often seen as embarrassing, and hence is

filled up with speaking, this is often perceived as hypomanic by the Japanesse.

Similarly, but different in usage, is the avoidance of silence in Arabic

countries, where word games are played and thoughts repeated to avoid

silence.



On the surface, language consists simply of words, linked by grammatical

rules to convey meaning. In fact, there are many other devices that also

help indicate and support meaning. These include:

• Paralinguistic features such as intonation, emphasis, volume and pace;

• Non-verbal norms such as physical distance, touch and eye contact;

• Cultural features, for example ways of indicating agreement, of being

polite.

When people learn a second language they usually retain certain

paralinguistic, cultural and non-verbal features of their mother tongue. As a

result, they may unintentionally offend or give the wrong impression. These

misunderstandings can be difficult to sort out because the cause is rarely

recognized. We assume that people sound how they mean to sound.

Misunderstandings are particularly likely when people are anxious, distressed

or under pressure.

Difficulties can also occur when people speak a different variety of English;

for example, Indian English, Caribbean English or West African English.

Each of these has its own particular paralinguistic features - intonation,

rhythm, accent and vocabulary - as well as cultural and non-verbal devices.

These often differ from those of British English. So, even though people

who speak different varieties of English use the same words, they may

misunderstand each other’s intentions or attitudes. British-English speakers

also sometimes assume that other forms of English are inferior and that

people who speak them are stupid or under-educated. In fact, each is a

complete and fully developed language in its own right (d’ Ardenne and

Mahtani 1989).

‘I was simple enough to think that the British people were all the same, all

speaking the same sort of language, the language which I learnt at English

school in India. I was surprised I couldn’t understand the English nurse and

was even more surprised because she did not understand English - my

English’: Indian man (Ahmed and Watt 1986).



Paralinguistic features

Intonation

To see how paralinguistic features work, try saying this sentence, ‘She says

she’s been in agony for three hours’ in four different ways:

• As a straight statement

• As a question

• Indicating that you don’t believe her

• Indicating that you are shocked that this has been allowed to happen

Notice how your intonation, emphasis and volume differed each time, so

that although you used exactly the same words and grammar, you conveyed

very different meanings. In British English, certain paralinguistic features

convey the speaker’s intentions and feelings, including politeness, apology,

anger, sorrow, anxiety, uncertainty, interest or lack of it, disagreement,

criticism or urgency. People who do not understand the paralinguistic features

of British English may not perceive these messages and may seem insensitive,

rude or stupid. Their own use of paralinguistic features may clash with British

expectations, and they may be wrongly perceived as angry, resentful,

uncertain, excited or uninterested.

Emphasis and pace

British English uses emphasis to signal important or new information, or to

contradict: for example, ‘I told her to take it three times a day’,

‘Mrs. Smith is coming on Monday’. Emphasis also indicates emotions such

as anger or excitement. In other languages, importance may be indicated by

speaking faster or more slowly, by adding words or phrases, by repetition

or by good deal of room for mutual misunderstanding.

Linguistic tunes

Each language has its own intonation or tune. In British English it is normal

for the voice to rise and fall in friendly conversation. Changing the tune can

also modify the meaning of a phrase or sentence. A raised tone at the end of



a statement can turn it into a question: ‘You’ve done your blood sample?’

And raising the tone of the whole sentence is often associated with intense

emotion such as anger, shock or excitement: ‘You’ve won the Nobel prize!’

or ‘You’ve flooded the whole ground floor!’ In other languages a raised

tone over the whole sentence may indicate importance or friendliness rather

than intense emotion.

British English and other northern European languages use a relatively

limited range of tunes in normal speech: speakers of other languages and

other forms of English may use a far greater range. To British English

speakers, they may sound excitable and excessively emotional, even

unreliable. To other people, British English speakers may sound

uninterested, insincere, bored or condescending.

Volume

Normal volume varies a good deal in different cultures. Native English

speakers speak with less volume when compared to people from other

parts of the world. They often feel disconcerted or upset by people who

raise their voices. They may even feel that the other person (who is

speaking perfectly normally in their own terms) is angry, over-emotional,

threatening, irrational or simply bad mannered.

Structuring conversation

In most European languages it is customary to state the main point in an

argument first, and then to illustrate or expand upon it. In many other

languages, it is common to set out the preliminary arguments and

illustrations first, working up to the main point as a conclusion.

British English speakers, used to hearing the main point early on, may

become bored and impatient when listening to a patient or colleague who

uses the other system. They may conclude that he or she has nothing

important to say or is stupid and switch off before the key point is reached

(Roberts 1985).



Turn-taking and listening signals

Conversation requires people to take turns. Different languages use

different conventions to indicate when one person has finished and another

can begin. For example, person A may lower their voice and slow down to

indicate that it is person B’s turn; they may begin to repeat themselves; or

they may pause for person B to begin. Latin Americans generally take and

expect very short pauses; North-American-English speakers take slightly

longer pauses; British English speakers take still longer ones. Problems arise

when people use different turn-taking signals. Person B may feel that they

are never given a chance to talk; person A may wonder why person B isn’t

saying anything. They may then label each other pushy, shy, unco operative

or unfriendly (Tannen 1992).

In British English it is considered normal and polite for only one person to

speak at a time and for people to pause to allow each other to speak. In

some cultures talking at the same time as another person and talking over

them (‘high-involvement style’) is regarded as friendly and polite, and proof

that you are really listening; in Northern Europe it is generally regarded as

aggressive and pushy (Tannen 1991).

In British English it is also important to indicate that you are listening by

nodding occasionally and making encouraging noises. It is also important to

make intermittent eye contact. In some languages people show that they

are listening by keeping still and remaining completely silent. They may also

look away. English speakers used to eye contact and other signals during

conversation may feel that they are not being listened to if these are absent

(Lago and Thompson 1996).

Silence

Silence is more tolerated in some cultures than in others. It also means

different things. In some cultures younger and more junior people use

silence to indicate respect and affection. In some it is normal for people to

sit in silence for long periods before they say anything, or to take long pauses

while they are speaking; this indicates that matters are being taken

seriously. In English culture, silence is generally most acceptable between

people who are close; in other circumstances it can feel awkward or rude

and people may feel impelled to speak (Lomax 1997).



Misunderstandings and blame

The key point about paralinguistic features is that most of us wrongly assume:

• that the cues and features we are used to and their meanings are uni-

versal; and

• that they reliably tell us something about a person’s behaviour or their

personality.

If a person raises their voice and talks faster, for example, we may conclude

that they are angry or hostile. If their voice goes up and down a lot we may

conclude that they are excited or over-reacting, or we may simply be puzzled.

If they are silent we may think they are disapproving, unco-operative, insolent

or withdrawn. But such judgements are unreliable when people speak

different first languages or different forms of English (Tannen 1992). The

paralinguistic features of a different language are the most difficult things to

learn. Native speakers are generally unaware of them and rarely explain

them to people who get them wrong, partly because it is often unclear

whether a person is using them intentionally.

2.4.4 ORGANISATIONAL BODY LANGUAGE

Like individuals, organizations too have their own body language. It is said

that physical facilities in a business organization constitute the first step in

communicating with the customers and visitors, As such an organization

expresses itself through the following features :

• Design and Layout

• Office Arrangement

• Space Management

• Distance and Locations

• Color Statements

• Imagery



Each one of these, by design or otherwise, conveys a certain meaning or

impression to every visitor.

Design and Layout : The structure of the building, the design of the

counters, the layout of the office, convey a message. People talk about

solid and imposing structures, conservative and modern designs and

nowadays, eco-friendly buildings. Every business or profession carries a

certain impression and the design or the layout quite often reinforces it.

Whether it is a bank, hospital or a departmental store, there is a pattern that

becomes evident. For a long time, till recently bank buildings and banking

halls in U.K. and Europe were known for their conservative and imposing

structures. Designed to impress the elite sections of society, in terms of

physical appearance, they were more awe - inspiring than inviting. The early

banking halls exhibited a certain aloofness and carried a forbidding

atmosphere. The solidity of the structures, so to say, reflected the security

of the funds deposited by the affluent public. The advent of mass banking

and retail focus have, however, brought about a friendly and inviting look to

bank branches. Every business strives to create a certain ambience that

conveys a positive message about itself.

Office arrangements : Businesses have their own offices, outlets, stores,

and such other physical centers where work is done, business is transacted

and interactions take place. Seating arrangements, signboards and name

plates, lighting, access and exit, visitors’lounge are to be decided keeping

in view employee comfort and customer convenience. Under manual

environments, office layout and arrangements had to facilitate efficient paper

or file movement. Under computerized conditions, lighting, dust-free

environment and cabling have to receive attention. When employees work

at a stretch for long hours, it is very essential that office arrangements and

physical facilities are congenial. Similarly, as far as the customers are

concerned, customer counters constitute the face of the business and people

at large judge them by this face. Design, layout and physical arrangements

have to be well planned so that the people concerned perceive them to be

not only operationally convenient, but also pleasant.



Space Management : Business organizations are commercial entities.

Governed by the profit motive, they are always under pressure to optimize

their resources and cut costs. Given this scenario, space management or

efficient utilization of available space assumes significance. While not

wasting space, business organizations should ensure that their offices and

outlets are not cramped. Many businesses have front offices and back offices

and these have different specifications. There should be

adequate lung space for the employee and customers. To give a positive

message, businesses should also demonstrate their concern for the people,

especially women, children and the elderly persons. For example, offices

frequently visited by senior citizens should as far as possible, be located on

the ground floor, so that they do not have to climb stairs. Similarly, there

should be adequate parking space so that visitors do not have to walk long

distances. Given the spiralling rentals and real estate prices, space

management becomes a challenging task.

Distances and Locations : Distances and locations too assume

significance in the process of communication. Unreasonably long distances

between two connected departments and offices, for example, do not

convey a positive message. Other things remaining the same, lesser the

distance, more frequent the communication. Proximity facilitates effective

communications. When the need for communication between any two groups

is frequent, as far as possible, they should be located in proximity to each

other. Another noteworthy feature concerns location. The location of an

office, a functionary, a department or unit is also subject to interpretation.

There are also perceived and generally accepted status symbols. An

executive floor to house the offices of general managers or presidents, an

executive floor or lift or passage for the chairman or chief executive and

such other location specific messages are also prevalent in certain business

organizations. When a persons is elevated and occupies those offices, the

person is seen to have “arrived”. Distances and locations also convey

another message, i.e., accessibility. There are offices with an easy access

and there are others where the access is restricted.



Imagery : Business organizations in a highly competitive environment are

very particular about their image — whether it is positive or negative, friendly

or otherwise. There is a constant effort on the part of businesses to see that

a good image is built up and sustained. Imagery includes pictures,

photographs, etc., and refers to the image that one conjures up at the

mention for the name. Imagery is the language that produces pictures in the

minds of people reading or listening. Communication becomes effective

when the mention of the name evokes a favorable picture – friendly,

efficient, dependable, etc., Signs, symbols , logo, emblem, etc., should

help convey the right message.

Colour Statements : Like flowers, it is possible to “say it with colours”.

Colours too make their own statements. Different colours communicate

different feelings.

• WHITE - serene, sober, peaceful

• RED - passion

• GREEN - growth, brightness

• BLUE - competence

• GREY - strength

• BLACK - dark

And so on.

Colours are seen to convey boldness and aggression, conservatism,

tranquility, quiet, efficiency, loudness and so on. Businesses which are keen

on effective communication ensure that the colors they use for their offices

and buildings as well as the colours for their personal use do not conflict

with the other messages brought out. The sign boards, interiors, uniforms,

ties, stationery, vehicles and such other items which are in the public eye

should be consciously designed to make the right colour statements.



From the above paragraphs, it is evident that there are many ways in which

an organization communicates with its stakeholders and other public. People

add up all these features and form their judgements — efficient, laid back,

friendly, robust, and so on. It is to be remembered, however, that these

interpretations and judgements are constantly changing. That which was

considered flashy and bold yesterday, may not be so today. Competition,

changing lifestyles, advancements in science and technology bring in an

element of dynamism to the process of non - verbal communication. Banks,

railway platforms, government offices, supermarkets, petrol stations,

theatres and a host of other businesses take extra care to present

themselves as friendly places. Since communication is goal - oriented, all

such efforts are directed at making the right statements.

Non-verbal communication is highly believable and at least as important as

verbal communication. While it is useful to observe non-verbal behaviour, it

is important to remember that:

• the context of non-verbal behaviour is relevant

• individuals respond differently to different situations

• cultural norms affect peoples’ reactions to non-verbal cues.

To conclude, the field of non-verbal communications has grown rapidly over

the last few decades, and it has applications in business, media,

international relations, education, and indeed any field which significantly

involves interpersonal and group dynamics. Certainly there is a need for

more psychological study in all these realms.

Review Questions

1. What types of non-verbal behavior are observed in all cultures?

2. What are the characteristics that apply to verbal and non-verbal

communication ?

3. Is non-verbal behavior subjective or objective and why?



2.5 EFFECTIVE LISTENING

“We were given two ears but only one mouth.

This is because God knew that listening was twice as hard as talking”.

What is Listening?

Like most people think, a good communicator is someone who can speak

well. Speaking, however, is just part of the total process of communication.

In order for speakers to get their message across, someone must also be

listening.

Listening is the most neglected communication skill. While all of us have

had instruction in reading, writing, and speaking, few have had any formal

instruction in listening. This void in our education is especially interesting in

light of research showing that most of us spend seven of every 10 minutes

we are awake in some form of communication activity. Of these seven

minutes (or 70 percent of the time we are awake), 10 percent is spent

writing, 15 percent reading, 30 percent talking, and 45 percent listening.

Listening is not an easy task. Everyone does not know how to listen

effectively. Effective listening involves more than just hearing, or the

reception of sound. To be a good listener you must also understand and

interpret sound in a meaningful way. A good deal of thinking must go on in

effective listening. When messages are misunderstood, it is easy to blame

the speaker, however, the listener must also share the responsibility. The

average person misses about 75 percent of what he or she hears.

Listening effectively takes skill, self-motivation, and practice. Effective

listening means concentrating on what the speaker says rather than on how

it is said.

After all, lack of attention and respectful listening can be costly, leading to

mistakes, poor service, misaligned goals, wasted time and lack of

teamwork.



You can’t sell unless you understand your customer’s problem; you can’t

manage unless you understand your employee’s motivation; and you can’t

gain team consensus unless you understand each team member’s feelings

about the issue at hand. In all of these cases, you must listen to others.

However, listening is less important than how you listen. By listening in a

way that demonstrates understanding and respect, you cause rapport to

develop, and that is the true foundation from which you can sell, manage or

influence others.

2.5.1 OBJECTIVES OF LISTENING

We listen for four general objectives of listening: (1) to be entertained, (2)

to empathize, (3) to learn, and (4) to critique. In all cases, we are active

listeners. In each case why we listen differs. We listen to the comedian for

enjoyment: we may appreciate what she has to say. We listen to our friend

to understand him, to put ourselves in his place, and to comfort him. We

listen to the lecture to learn: we want to comprehend and retain the

information because we see it is useful to us. We listen to the political speech

to judge and evaluate: we listen critically in order to decide whether or not

it is in our best interests to be persuaded.

Listening can be broken down into five types, depending on the message of

the sender and intent of the receiver. The five types are:

a. Informative: In this type, the listener is primarily concerned with

understanding the message. In order to be more successful, listeners

should hone their vocabulary, concentration, and memorization skills.

b. Relationship: This type of listening refers to the improvement of

relationships among people. It’s the kind of listening where the listener

allows the speaker to “vent;” to talk out a problem or situation. In this

type of listening, it’s important to pay attention to the speaker, and to

be supportive: to keep the message in confidence, and to not be

judgmental. It’s also important to glean whether the speaker wants you

to suggest a solution, or simply to listen.



c. Appreciative: This type of listening refers to the listening we do for the

pure enjoyment of it. Each one of us spends much money on cassettes,

CDs, and concerts, as well as much time listening to the radios in our

cars, because we enjoy music. Many of us also enjoy a good comedy

act. The message of the song or routine may not be important to us, but

we like the musician, music style, or comic. In this type, listening is a

form of relaxation.

d. Critical Listening: In this type, we listen to form an opinion or make

a decision. In forming an opinion or making a decision based on a

message, we pay attention to three things: the speaker’s credibility, the

logic of the argument, and the psychological appeal of the message. If

one of those areas is lacking, we may make the judgement based on

that void.

e. Discriminative: By this type we don’t mean excluding speakers based

on any trait. It means to be able to pick out the electric guitar from the

bass in a song, or to filter words from static on the radio. What we

mean by discriminative listening is the ability to identify and filter verbal

and non-verbal cues, to get to the bottom of the message. This type of

listening, as Dr. Kline has said, is the foundation to all other types of

listening, because we can use it to infer both the speakers message and

their intentions. Now that you can define what effective listening is, and

are familiar with the different types of listening, it’s time to discuss

different techniques that you can use to improve you listening skills.

2.5.2 REASONS FOR LEARNING EFFECTIVE LISTENING

You will Avoid Misunderstandings. You will be able to avoid

misunderstandings by becoming an active listener. You will also be able to

do things right the first time when you listen effectively. Problems are solved

quicker by being an “active listener”.

You Will Get Along Better with Others. Listening actively will show

that you sincerely care. It is a very high compliment when you listen to

others, because it gives the speaker the sense of self worth and confidence.



You Will Learn More About the World. Television, radio, and

conversations with adults and peers aid in your understanding your

immediate environment and the world in general. The more knowledge you

gain, the more you will enjoy the things around you.

You Will Be More Successful in School and on the Job. Your grades

and interest in school activities will increase as a result of effective

listening. These good listening skills will also affect your future (i.e. getting

the job and salary you want come about by listening). Many jobs require

good listening skills such as telephone operators, nurses, doctors, auto

mechanics, teachers, lawyers, etc.

2.5.3 LISTENING PROCESS

Listening is a seven stage process of :

• Hearing

• Selecting

• Attending

• Understanding

• Evaluating

• Remembering

• and Responding actively with feedback

This process can be summarized into four steps.

The Four Steps of Listening

Hearing is the first step in the process. At this stage, you simply pay

attention to make sure you have heard the message. If your boss says,

“Mohan, I need the CAD drawings on my desk by Friday noon,” and you

can repeat the sentence, then you have heard her.

The second step is interpretation. Failure to interpret the speaker’s words

correctly frequently leads to misunderstanding. People sometimes interpret

Selecting :

Choosing

stimuli

Hearing :

receiving

raw data

Responding:

feedback

Remembering:

drawing on

memory

Evaluating:

analyzing

and judging

Understanding:

assigning

meaning

Attending:

focusing

attention



words differently because of varying experience, knowledge, vocabulary,

culture, background, and attitudes.

A good speaker uses tone of voice, facial expressions, and mannerisms to

help make the message clear to the listener. For instance, if your boss speaks

loudly, frowns, and puts her hands on her hips, you know she is probably

upset and angry. During the third step, evaluation, you decide what to do

with the information you have received. For example, when listening to a

sales pitch, you have two options: you choose either to believe or to

disbelieve the salesperson. The judgments you make in the evaluation stage

are a crucial part of the listening process.

The final step is to respond to what you have heard. This is a verbal or

visual response that lets the speaker know whether you have gotten the

message and what your reaction is. When you tell the salesperson that you

want to place an order, you are showing that you have heard and believe his

message.

Critical attributes

The process of effective listening has three critical attributes and these

attributes are: to receive, to attend, and to understand the message being

sent.

To receive means to be attuned to the sender - to be ready to listen.

Physical deficits such as deafness often require prosthetic devices to assist.

For those with sound hearing, the process is more mental. You have to want

to listen. You must come to the conversation with few, if any, expectations

or judgements over what may be said.

To attend simply means to pay attention to the person and message. At any

given time we are bombarded by messages. We must, therefore, prioritize

the messages sent to us — paying attention to what we believe is important

and discarding the others. In effective listening, the thing to pay attention to

is the person talking to you.



2.5.4. MYTHS ABOUT LISTENING

“Listening looks easy, but it’s not simple. Every head is a world.”

- Cuban proverb

Listening is a natural skill.

No. Good, effective listening requires your conscious effort.

Listening is passive.

Listening is very much an active skill. It requires concentration, focus and

effort.

Interrupting someone you are listening to is bad form.

Abrupt interruptions are not polite, but you should try to clarify things the

speaker says that you don’t understand.

Once you have the general idea, you can stop listening.

Not a good idea. Without listening to the entire message, you may be

making wrong assumptions.

Listening and hearing are the same.

No

2.5.4. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN HEARING AND LISTENING.

Although it does take all three observable components— transmitter,

receiver, and messages—for communication to occur, communication is a

receiver-oriented phenomenon. It is the receiver who inputs cues from a

speaker and makes sense out of them. But too often we tend to confuse

hearing with listening. Although the two activities are closely related, they

are not synonymous.

Hearing is a passive process; it refers simply to the reception of auditory

cues. Sometimes we are only faintly aware of these cues. For example,

many of us study with music playing softly in the background. We are not



consciously aware of the music, although we notice it if our roommate turns

it off. Sometimes we are a bit more conscious of the message, but at a later

time we cannot recall what it was. Most of us have responded to a parent

and then promptly forgotten what we have agreed to do.

Listening, however, is an active process. Not only are the auditory cues

received, but they have also made an impression upon our consciousness.

We have processed the message: thought about it, drawn inferences from it,

remembered and recalled it.

There is a real distinction between merely hearing the words and really

listening to the message. When we listen effectively we understand what the

person is thinking and/or feeling from the other person’s own perspective.

It is as if we were standing in the other person’s shoes, seeing through his/

her eyes and listening through the person’s ears. Our own viewpoint may be

different and we may not necessarily agree with the person, but as we

listen, we understand from the other’s perspective. To listen effectively, we

must be actively involved in the communication process, and not just

listening passively.

Effective listeners are able to:

• value listening as a means of learning and enjoyment

• determine their own purpose(s) for listening

• recognize their responsibility to the speaker and listen without distract-

ing the speaker

• concentrate and not become distracted

• send appropriate feedback to the speaker (e.g., restate directions and

explanations, ask questions)

• prepare to react or respond to what the speaker says

• make connections between their prior knowledge and the information

presented by the speaker



• evaluate the speaker’s message and motive

• try to predict the speaker’s purpose and determine the speaker’s plan

of organization

• identify transitional/signal words and phrases, and follow the sequence

of ideas spoken

• observe and interpret the speaker’s non-verbal cues (e.g., smiles,

frowns, body movements) and use them to enhance their understanding

of the speaker’s message

• recognize the speaker’s main point(s) or idea(s) and identify the sup-

porting details and examples

• distinguish fact from opinion, determine bias, stereotyping, and propa-

ganda

Several other possible benefits occur with active listening:

• Sometimes a person just needs to be heard and acknowledged before

the person is willing to consider an alternative or soften his /her posi-

tion.

• It is often easier for a person to listen to and consider the other’s posi-

tion when that person knows the other is listening and considering his/

her position.

• It helps people to spot the flaws in their reasoning when they hear it

played back without criticism.

• It also helps identify areas of agreement, so that the areas of

disagreement are put in perspective and are diminished rather than

magnified.

• Reflecting on what we hear each other say, gives everyone a chance to

become aware of the different levels that are going on below the

surface. This helps to bring things into the open where they can be

more readily resolved.



• If we accurately understand the other person’s view, we can be more

effective in helping the person see the flaws in his/her position.

• If we listen, we can accurately understand the other’s view, we can

also be more effective in discovering the flaws in our own position.

2.5.5 VERBAL AND NON-VERBAL BARRIERS

The most important facet is to understand the message being transmitted.

When verbal messages are sent, both verbal and nonverbal signals are sent.

Verbal barriers

There are two primary verbal barriers to effective listening:

Words mean different things to different people: Sometimes, what you

say may be misunderstood because the person you are speaking to assigns

a different meaning or value to the words you choose.

Using different words while saying the same thing: By the same token,

you may hold the same opinion as the person speaking with you, and not

realize it because they are saying it differently. How many times have you

said, “You know, I think we are trying to say the same thing?” Stop for a

moment, and examine what the other person says to you, perhaps they are

simply using different words than you would choose to get the same idea

across.

Non-Verbal barriers

In addition, there are several non-verbal barriers to effective listening, and

these are as dangerous as the verbal ones:

Misinterpretation of action: What does it mean when you are speaking

with someone and they look at their watch, and quickly depart? They may

either be leaving because they lost track of time, or they are sending you a

non-verbal signal that they do not want to listen anymore. How would you

interpret someone yawning? It could be that they did not have a good night’s

sleep. Or it could be that they are bored. Pay attention to the non-verbal

signals your audience is giving you, and search for their true

meaning.



Misinterpretation of non-action symbols: How people dress, where

they live, the car they drive, and how they carry themselves all communicate

messages about who they are. Dr. Kline gives an example about how one

would interpret another’s being late for an appointment. What do you think

would happen if you showed up minutes late for a job interview? The non-

verbal message the interviewer may be receiving is that you are

unreliable? That message surely will contrast with the message you want to

send to the interviewer.

Misinterpretation of the voice: It’s natural for you to want to glean the

speaker’s mood from their voice, but it sometimes can be misleading. Some

people naturally speak in a loud or shrill tone. If you are just meeting

someone, or that someone happens to be your boss, you may believe that

they are angry with you when they are really not. In contrast, others may

have a naturally soft voice, or speak in a monotone, so you may not listen to

the urgency in their message. Listen past the voice quality and seek the

message.

In order to be an effective listener, you must master the skills of attuning

yourself to the speaker, attending, or pay attention to the message, and

finally, you must take steps to truly understand the message being sent to

you.

2.5.6 ROADBLOCKS TO EFFECTIVE LISTENING

Roadblocks to effective listening can be external or internal. External

roadblocks include noise, an uncomfortable temperature or seating, or an

inappropriate location. Try to be aware of external roadblocks and offset

them if possible.

Internal roadblocks include a variety of conditions or reactions within the

speaker or audience, such as:

• Emotional interference.

• Defensiveness.

• Hearing only facts and not feelings.



• Not seeking clarification.

• Hearing what is expected instead of what is said.

• Stereotyping.

• The halo effect (i.e., the tendency for something to be influenced by a

loosely associated factor)

• Automatic dismissal (e.g., “We’ve never done it that way before.”)

• Resistance to change.

2.5.6.1 Recognizing Barriers to Listening

Noise: Anything that blocks or distorts the message that a speaker is trying

to send across to the listener is a barrier to the communication process.

These barriers can be sounds of traffic, machinery, a dance band, etc.

Distractions: Anything that turns the attention of the listener is a

distraction. It may be environmental, a radio or television playing, or even

the temperature of the room.

Daydreaming: Daydreaming is an internal distraction. This is when your

mind wanders off and you miss most of what the speaker is saying. A

speaker articulates about the rate of 150 words per minute. Listeners can

understand at a rate of 380 words per minute. Listeners can often complete

a sentence that a speaker is saying mentally before the sentence is actually

complete.

Close-mindedness: People who refuse to expose themselves to ideas

that are different from their own are basically close-minded. An open-

minded person does more listening than speaking. This person may hold

an opinion, but will listen to another’s opinion. A good listener should be

open-minded.

Overemphasizing the Source: This is when the listener is only influenced

by their feelings about the speaker or the speaker’s reputation, and they

don’t listen to what is said. Some people listen only which is very easy for

them to understand.



Becoming an Active Listener makes sure you get the most out of your

listening experience. These are things you can do to be an “Active

Listener”.

Prepare to Listen: In order to hear and understand everything a speaker

has to say, you must be ready to listen from the beginning. This means

arriving early, getting sufficient rest, or finding out as much about the speaker’s

topic before you arrive. Expand Your Vocabulary: Increasing your

vocabulary will help you understand better and benefit more from what you

hear. Since words are symbols that a speaker uses to convey ideas, the

listener must be familiar with the vocabulary that the speaker uses in order

to understand what is being conveyed. Apply the Message to Yourself:

As an active listener, you must also apply the speaker’s message to yourself

as you listen. Try to look for circumstances that you could use the

information that you’re hearing. Ask the following questions when hearing

a speech

• Do I believe what the speaker is saying?

• How can I put this information to use?

• Do I feel differently about this subject than the speaker does?

Pick Out the Central Ideas: Listeners should pick out the key ideas or

central ideas. The main ideas or central ideas are often mentioned at the

beginning and near the end of the speech, thus pay close attention to the

introduction and the conclusion of a speech. The rest of the speech

develops these central ideas by giving supporting reasons.

Provide Feedback: Good listeners will always “encourage” the speaker

by providing feedback. They do this by actively responding to what they

hear. Smiles, frowns, laughs, and nodding of heads help the public speaker

know the listeners are following what is being said. Remember What You

Hear: One of the main reasons for learning to be a better listener is to

acquire new information. It is important that you remember what you hear,

and this is done if you have a strong reason to remember it (example:

remembering information that will be on a test).



2.5.6.2 TEN COMMANDMENTS OF GOOD LISTENING

“ Communication is the most important skill in life.” — Stephen Covey, The

Seven Habits of Highly Effective People.

Listening is a process involving the reception and interpretation of messages

spoken by others. A common misconception about listening is that it is easy.

In fact, the opposite is true. Studies have shown that good listeners show

increase in their physical activity when they are listening to others. Since the

effectiveness of communications depends so heavily on good listening, it is

important to develop our listening skills. “The Ten Commandments of Good

Listening” is a good place to start:

1. Stop talking. Obvious, but not easy.

2. Put the speaker at ease. Create a permissive, supportive climate in

which the speaker will feel free to express himself or herself.

3. Show a desire to listen. Act interested and mean it.

4. Remove distractions. External preoccupation is less likely if nothing

external is present to preoccupy you.

5. Empathize. Try to experience to some degree the feelings the speaker

is experiencing.

6. Be patient. Give the speaker time to finish; don’t interrupt.

7. Hold your temper. Don’t let your emotions obstruct your thoughts.

8. Go easy on argument and criticism. Suspend judgment.

9. Ask questions. If things are still unclear when a speaker has finished,

ask questions which serve to clarify the intended meanings.

10. Stop talking in case, you missed the first commandment.

(K. Davis, Human Behavior at Work, McGraw Hill, 1972)



Additional listening techniques:

• Preparation. If you know what the topic is ahead of time, learn some-

thing about it so you will not be an ignorant listener. Even some careful

thinking will allow you to listen more accurately when the communica-

tion actually begins.

• Seek intent. Try to discover the intent of the source; why is he or she

saying these things?

• Seek structure. Look for an organizational scheme of the message. If

the speaker is an accomplished one, you won’t have to look very hard;

it will be obvious. But if the speaker is less skilled, the responsibility

falls on you.

• Analyze. Do not accept what you hear at face value; analyze what the

speaker is saying and pay attention to body language.

• Focus. Keep the main topic of the message in mind at all times, using it

to bring focus to the information which the speaker supplies.

2. 5. 6 EXERCISE

Identify some of your bad listening habits and make a list of ways you could

correct them.

How do you show that you are listening?

What is active listening? Give an example.

2.6 FEEDBACK

Introduction

Effective feedback is absolutely essential to organizational effectiveness;

people must know where they are and where to go next in terms of

expectations and goals yours, their own, and the organizations.

Feedback taps basic human needs: to improve, to compete, to be accurate;

people want to be competent. Feedback can be reinforcing; if given

properly, feedback is almost always appreciated and motivates people to



improve. But for many people, daily work is like bowling with a curtain

placed between them and the pins; they receive little information. Be aware

of the many reasons why people are hesitant to give feedback; they include

fear of causing embarassment, discomfort, fear of an emotional reaction,

and inability to handle the reaction.

It is crucial that we realize how important feedback can be and overcome

our difficulties; it is very essential and can be very rewarding but it requires

skill, understanding, courage, and respect for yourself and others.

The Purpose of Feed back

For supervisors to improve and make appropriate decisions concerning their

behavior and management practices, they need accurate information about

how their employees currently see them functioning. As in guided missile

systems, feedback allows people to check how “on target” their actions

and behaviour are and thus enables them to modify or correct their actions.

Feedback is communication from others that presents data to a person

about what the others are experiencing and how this impacts them.

Given this feedback, a new awareness is created within the receiver. It is

up to the receiver to decide what he or she learns from the feedback and

what he or she chooses to do with that knowledge.

When giving or receiving feedback, it’s essential to remember that what

people are experiencing does not necessarily make it true that it happened

that way. Perceptions are very important data – but not necessarily reality.

Characteristics of Effective Feedback

Effective Feedback has most of the following characteristics:

• descriptive (not evaluative)(avoids defensiveness.) By describing one’s

own reactions, it leaves the individual free to use it or not to use it as he

sees fit.

• avoid accusations; present data if necessary.



• describe your own reactions or feelings; describe objective consequences

that will occur; focus on behaviour and your own reaction, not on other

individual or his or her attributes.

• suggest more acceptable alternative; be prepared to discuss additional

alternatives; focus on alternatives

• specific rather than general.

• focused on behavior not the person. It is important that we refer to

what a person does rather than to what we think he is. Thus we might

say that a person “talked more than anyone else in this meeting” rather

than say that he is a “loud-mouth.”

• It takes into account the needs of both the receiver and giver of feed-

back. It should be given to help, not to hurt. We too often give feed-

back because it makes us feel better or gives us a psychological advan-

tage.

• It is directed toward behavior which the receiver can do something

about. A person gets frustrated when reminded of some shortcoming

over which he has no control.

• It is solicited rather than imposed. Feedback is most useful when the

receiver himself has formulated the kind of question which those

observing him can answer (or when he actively seeks feedback).

• Feedback is useful when well-timed (soon after the behavior-depend-

ing, of course, on the person’s readiness to hear it, support available

from others, and so forth). Excellent feedback presented at an

inappropriate time may do more harm than good.

• sharing of information, rather than giving advice allows a person to de-

cide for himself, in accordance with his own goals and needs. When we

give advice we tell him what to do, and to some degree take away his

freedom to decide for himself.

• It involves the amount of information the receiver can use rather than

the amount we would like to give. To overload a person with feedback

is to reduce the possibility that he may be able to use what he receives

effectively. When we give more than what can be used, we are merely

satisfying some need of our own rather than helping the other person.



• It concerns what is said and done, or how, not why. The “why”

involves assumptions regarding motive or intent and this tends to

alienate the person, generate resentment, suspicion, and distrust. If we

are uncertain of his motives or intent, this uncertainty itself is feedback,

however, and should be revealed.

• It is checked to insure clear communication. One way of doing this is to

have the receiver try to rephrase the feedback. No matter what the

intent, feedback is often threatening and thus subject to considerable

distortion or misinterpretation.

• It is checked to determine degree of agreement from others. Such

“consensual validation” is of value to both the sender and receiver.

• It is followed by attention to the consequences of the feedback. The

supervisor needs to become acutely aware of the effects of his

feedback.

• It is an important step toward authenticity. Constructive feedback opens

the way to a relationship which is built on trust, honesty, and genuine

concern and mutual growth.

Part of the feedback process involves understanding and predicting how

the other person will react. Or in the case of our receiving feedback, we

need to understand ways that we respond to feedback, especially

threatening feedback.

People often react negatively to threatening feedback. This reaction can

take a number of forms including:

• selective reception and selective perception

• doubting motive of the giver

• denying validity of the data

• rationalizing

• attack the giver of the data



Following the guidelines to effective feedback can go a long way to limit

these kinds of reactions but nonetheless we need to be conscious of them

and be ready to react appropriately.

When we are on the receiving end of feedback we should be careful to

avoid these pitfalls. Try to keep these points in mind.

• try not to be defensive

• check on possible misunderstanding (“Let me restate what I am

hearing”)

• gather information from other sources

• don’t overreact

• ask for clarification

2.6.1 GIVING CONSTRUCTIVE FEEDBACK

For feedback to be most useful, it must be presented in such a way that the

receiver does not feel threatened or attacked by the information. Listed

below are some guidelines for giving constructive feedback:

ØØØØØ Direct feedback toward behavior one can do something about,

not the person.

Information about what a person does helps that person make choices

about that behavior. On other hand, assessments about a person’s

“personality traits” or “personal qualities” usually increase their defen-

siveness. (E.g., “You arrived ten minutes late” vs. “You’re irrespon-

sible.”)

ØØØØØ Take the needs of the receiver into account first.

Focus the feedback on the value and usefulness it may provide to the

receiver rather than the “release” it provides the giver, i.e., you.

ØØØØØ Make use of “I” Statements to let the receiver know how you

perceive, experience or feel about the behaviour. Avoid “we” or “most



people” statements. By saying, “I get upset when you…,” you help

promote a productive dialogue. No one can dispute that that’s how

you feel! Whereas, saying “You make me upset” is more likely to lead

to an argument and less communication.

ØØØØØ Focus on what was said and done (actions) rather than why it was

said or done (motives).

Feedback that relates to what, how, when, and where is based on

observable events; while opinions or judgments about the other’s

motive or intent relates to interpretations and conclusions drawn from

what was observed.

ØØØØØ Make feedback descriptive rather than evaluative and

judgmental.

By giving an objective description of what occurred and your reactions

to the situation, you leave the receiver free to use the feedback as he/

she sees appropriate. Being judgmental entails a subjective evaluation

of the other based on your personal values.

ØØØØØ Make feedback specific rather than general and abstract.

Feedback is generally more useful if it can be tied to a specific time,

place and action. It is far more useful to say, “I noticed that you broke

in twice while I was speaking during the meeting” than “You are always

interrupting people.” Give examples.

ØØØØØ Share information rather than give advice.

To give advice takes away a person’s freedom of choice as well as

responsibility for future actions.

ØØØØØ Be sensitive to timing and selection.

It is important that the giver of feedback is sensitive to both when it is

appropriate to give feedback and how much to give the receiver. The

receiver needs to be ready to hear and deal with the data. Only give an

amount of feedback that a person can use.



ØØØØØ Check whether the receiver understood your feedback.

One way of doing this is to ask the receiver to rephrase the feedback

to see if it corresponds to what the sender had in mind.

ØØØØØ Request what you’d like them to do differently.

Your request lets them know exactly what you are asking them to do. They

are free to accept, decline, or counter-propose. You can’t change them,

but by asking, you help them see what they could do to help the

organization according to your view point.

2.6.2 RECEIVING AND RESPONDING TO FEEDBACK CON-

STRUCTIVELY

ØØØØØ Accept and Manage Your Emotions

Most people tend to react to constructive feedback, especially if it is

feedback they don’t particularly like, with a little surprise or shock, quickly

followed by anger and then rejection or denial. We’re all humans in here!

Observe your emotions and give yourself time to let them move through

you. Talk with someone about your feelings, if that helps you. After denial,

we usually shift into acceptance and even contentment. Don’t try to respond

to the feedback giver until your “fight or flight” response has settled down!

ØØØØØ Reflect on the Feedback

Take time to analyze the feedback and determine what you think it means

to you.

ØØØØØ Talk With the Feedback Giver(s)

Talking with the person(s) who gave you feedback is the most important

part of the process. This is because feedback is part of building and

maintaining healthy working relationships. By showing the feedback giver(s)

that you care about their perceptions and needs, and that you’re committed

to making changes that help them do their work better, you’ll do a lot to

strengthen the trust, respect, and confidence in your relationship with them.



Ø Tell the feedback giver(s) that you’d like to discuss their feedback

with them. Set a time and place, and follow through.

Ø Demonstrate your openness by sharing your feedback results with

your workgroup as well as your interpretation of what the data means

to you. This will help open the lines of communication between you and

your workgroup.

Ø Show them that you are interested in listening to whatever they

want to say.

Why managers are often reluctant to provide feedback

As important as feedback is, this critical managerial task remains one of the

most problematic. Many managers would rather have a root canal work

done on them than provide feedback to another person, especially feedback

that might be viewed as critical. Why are managers so reluctant to provide

feedback? The reasons are many:

• fear of the other person’s reaction; people can get very defensive and

emotional when confronted with feedback and many managers are very

fearful of the reaction.

• the feedback may be based on subjective feeling and the manager may

be unable to give concrete information if the other person questions the

basis for the feedback.

• the information on which the feedback is based (eg. performance ap-

praisal) may be a very flawed process and the manager may not totally

trust the information.

• many managers would prefer being a coach than “playing God.”

Other factors that get in the way of effective communication or feedback

sessions are:

• defensiveness, distorted perceptions, guilt, transference, distortions from

the past



• misreading of body language, tone

• noisy transmission (unreliable messages, inconsistency)

• receiver distortion: selective hearing, ignoring non-verbal cues

• power struggles

• self-fulfilling assumptions

• language and different levels of meaning

• managers’ hesitation to be candid

• assumptions: assuming that others see the situation in the same manner

as you, has same feelings as you

• distrusted source, erroneous translation, value judgment, state of mind

of two people

Four Responses

Below are few responses to feedback that demonstrate you are listening:

Ø Paraphrase: After listening carefully to a person, paraphrase or

summarize their ideas in your own words.

Ø Summarize: Restate in a succinct fashion the information you gathered.

This is used to confirm a shared understanding of what has been said or

decided. It gives a feeling of closure to a conversation.

Ø Ask Open-ended Questions: Open-ended questions usually begin with

words like: What, Who, Where, When, and How and are difficult to

answer with a simple “yes” or “no” response. E.g., “What do you think

about that?” Open-ended questions indicate your interest in learning

more about the issues, ideas, and reasoning that are important to the

feedback giver(s). Avoid asking “why” type questions that can put a

person in a spot, e.g., “Why do you think that way?”



Ø Use Silence: Wait for the other person to respond and finish talking.

Then pause rather than respond right away. These pauses are not

intended to be embarrassing. By not filling the vacuum, you let the

other person know that you are listening and are interested in what he/

she is saying and that you are making space for more.

Ø Listen for understanding and information, without thinking about your

response. Avoid countering, judging or evaluating what is being said.

“Seek first to understand, then to be understood” (Stephen R. Covey).

Ø Don’t try to read minds. A lot of our anxiety comes from what we read

into things and not from what people actually say. Your goal is to

remain unaffected by the criticism directed at you so that you can

discover what needs to be done to improve the situation.

Ø Admit ignorance or confusion when you do not understand what is

being said or are somewhat confused. Nothing is gained if you don’t

understand what is being said and do nothing about it. You gain people’s

respect by being “big enough” to admit that you are not quite on top of

the conversation.

Ø Avoid getting defensive. If others attack or criticize you or your

actions, calmly acknowledge the possibility that there may be some

truth in the criticism or their point of view. This allows you to receive

any criticism without becoming anxious or defensive. Yet, it still allows

you to be the final judge of what you are going to do next.

If You Believe You Were In Error, Admit It.

If a problem was caused by you or by something you said or did, admit it

and move on. Don’t get defensive over something that you did or

something that did not work out as you expected. By stating your errors

you will be able to recognize and accept your errors as errors, and once

you accept the error, you can move forward, rather than becoming bogged

down by self-criticism. At the same time, don’t be overly apologetic. Treat

it as another learning experience.



Find Out What Changes On Your Part Would Most Help The

Feedback Giver(s) Be More Effective In Their Work.

Be sure to get clear feedback from the givers on exactly what they are

asking you to do differently. If there are several things, ask them which are

the most important.

Consider What Changes You Will Commit To

After you’ve taken in the feedback and become more aware, it’s up to you

to choose what action you will take – if any. You will be more likely to

follow through if

Ø You select only a few changes (up to three).

Ø You select changes you believe are in your best interests.

Ø You genuinely want to make them.

Commit Yourself to Specific Actions by Specific Dates

The most powerful action you can take to strengthen an atmosphere of trust

and confidence in your workgroup is to make your commitment publicly to

your workgroup, and then demonstrate that you have fulfilled it.

2.6.3 THE JOHARI WINDOW: A MODEL FOR SOLICITING AND

GIVING FEEDBACK

The process of giving and receiving feedback is one of the most important

concepts in training. Through the feedback process, we see ourselves as

others see us. Through feedback, other people also learn how we see them.

Feedback gives information to a person or group either by verbal or

nonverbal communication. The information you give tells others how their

behaviour affects you, how you feel, and what you perceive (feedback and

self-disclosure). Feedback is also a reaction by others, usually in terms of

their feelings and perceptions, telling you how your behaviour affects them

(receiving feedback).



A model known as the Johari Window illustrates the process of giving and

receiving feedback. Psychologists Joseph Luft and Harry Ingham

developed the window for their group process program. Look at the model

above as a communication window through which you give and receive

information about yourself and others. Look at the four panes in terms of

columns and rows. The two columns represent the self; the two rows

represent the group. Column one contains “things that I know about

myself;” column two contains “things that I do not know about myself.” The

information in these rows and columns moves from one pane to another as

the level of mutual trust and the exchange of feedback varies in the group.

As a consequence of this movement, the size and shape of the panes within

the window will vary.

The first pane, the “Arena,” contains things that I know about myself and

about which the group knows. Characterized by free and open exchanges

of information between myself and others, this behavior is public and

available to everyone. The Arena increases in size as the level of trust

increases between individuals or between an individual and the group.

Individuals share more information, particularly personally relevant

information.



The second pane, the “Blind Spot,” contains information that I do not know

about myself but of which the group may know. As I begin to participate in

the group, I am not aware of the information I communicate to the group.

The people in the group learn this information from my verbal cues,

mannerisms, the way I say things, or the style in which I relate to others.

For instance, I may not know that I always look away from a person when

I talk... or that I always clear my throat just before I say something. The

group learns this from me.

Pane three, the “Facade” or “Hidden Area,” contains information that I

know about myself but the group does not know. I keep these things hidden

from them. I may fear that if the group knew my feelings, perceptions, and

opinions about the group or the individuals in the group, they might reject,

attack, or hurt me. As a consequence, I withhold this information. Before

taking the risk of telling the group something, I must know that there are

supportive elements in our group. I want group members to judge me

positively when I reveal my feelings, thoughts, and reactions. I must reveal

something of myself to find out how members will react. On the other hand,

I may keep certain information to myself so that I can manipulate or control

others.

The fourth and last pane, the “Unknown,” contains things that neither I nor

the group knows about me. I may never become aware of material buried

far below the surface in my unconscious area. The group and I may learn

other material, though, through a feedback exchange among us. This

unknown area represents intrapersonal dynamics, early childhood

memories, latent potentialities, and unrecognized resources. The internal

boundaries of this pane change depending on the amount of feedback sought

and received. Knowing all about myself is extremely unlikely, and the

unknown extension in the model represents the part of me that will always

remain unknown (the unconscious in Freudian terms).

Individual Goals Within a Group

In a small group, each member can work toward an individual goal as well

as the group’s goal. For example, let’s say that your goal is to decrease the

size of your Blind Spot (window-pane two). In other words, you want to



move the vertical line to the right in the window. The size of the Arena and

Facade panes will increase as the size of the Blind Spot and Unknown

panes decreases. The Blind Spot contains information the group knows

about you, but you do not know. The only way you can learn this

information is to seek feedback from the group. If you solicit feedback

consistently and remain receptive to that feedback, the size of your Blind

Spot will decrease.

Suppose you decide to reduce the Facade pane, i.e., move the horizontal

line down. This window contains information you have hidden from the group.

You can reduce the size of this window by telling the group or group members

about your perceptions, feelings, and opinions about things in others and

yourself. This feedback tells the group exactly where you stand; they no

longer need to guess the meaning of your actions. As you disclose more

information about yourself, you decrease the size of your Facade pane.



The Johari window panes are interdependent. Changing the size to one

pane forces the size of corresponding panes to change. In the previous

examples, when you reduced the size of the Blind Spot or Facade panes

through giving and soliciting feedback, you increased the size of the Arena

pane.

In the process of giving and asking for feedback, you may tend to do much

more of one than the other. This creates an imbalance between giving and

asking for feedback. This imbalance may affect your effectiveness in the

group and the group members’ reactions to you. The amount of feedback

shared and the ratio of giving versus soliciting feedback affect the size and

shape of the Arena.

Study the four windows above. Each characterizes extreme ratios of

soliciting and giving feedback. Think how a person described in each

window might appear to you in a small group.

The Ideal Window

The Ideal Window in the first example reflects a high degree of trust in the

group or in any relationship significant to the person. If you are in this

window, the size of your Arena increases because of your increased trust

level in the group. The norms developed by your group for giving and

receiving feedback facilitate this kind of exchange. The large Arena

suggests that much of your behavior is open to your group members.

Because of your openness, other group members do not need to interpret

(or misinterpret) or project more personal meanings into your behavior.

They understand your actions and words, and they know you are open to

soliciting and giving feedback.



You do not need a large Arena with everyone. Your casual acquaintances

may see this kind of openness as threatening or inappropriate because of

the relationship you have with them. The more open you are in dealing with

others, the fewer games you play in relationships.

The Large Facade Window - The Interviewer

Window number two suggests a person who characteristically participates

by asking questions but not giving information or feedback. If you are in

this window, the size of your Facade relates to the amount of information

you provide to others. You may respond to the group norm to maintain a

reasonable level of participation by asking for information. You intervene

by asking questions such as: “What do you think about this?” “How would

you have acted if you were in my shoes?” “How do you feel about what I

just said?” “What is your opinion of the group?” You want to know where

other people stand before you commit yourself. You do not commit

yourself to the group, making it difficult for them to know where you stand

on issues. At some point in your group’s history, other members may have

confronted you with a statement similar to this one: “Hey, you are always

asking me how I feel about what’s going on, but you never tell me how you

feel.” This style, characterized as the Interviewer, may eventually evoke

reactions of irritation, distrust, and withholding.

The Blind Spot Window - Bull-in-the-China Shop

Window number three suggests a person who characteristically participates

primarily by giving feedback but soliciting very little. If you are in this

window, you tell the group what you think of them, how you feel about what

is going on in the group, and where you stand on group issues. You may

lash out at group members or criticize the group as a whole and view your

actions as being open and above board. For some reason, you either appear

to be insensitive to the feedback you get or do not hear what group members

tell you. Either you may be a poor listener or you may respond to feedback

in such a way that group members are reluctant to continue to give you

feedback. Members get angry, cry or threaten to leave. As a

consequence, you do not know how you are coming across to other people

or what impact you have on others. Because you do not correct your



actions when you receive group feedback, you appear out of touch,

evasive, or distorted. You continue to behave ineffectively because of your

one-way communication (from you to others). Since you are insensitive to

the group’s steering function, you do not know what behaviors to change.

The Unknown Window - The Turtle

The fourth window suggests a person who characteristically participates by

observing. If you are in this window, you do not know much about yourself,

nor does the group know much about you. You may be the silent member in

the group who neither gives nor asks for feedback. The “soliciting” and

“giving feedback” arrows are very short. Group members find it difficult to

know where you stand in the group or where they stand with you. You are

the mystery person. You appear to have a shell around you, insulating you

from other group members. If group members confront you about your lack

of participation, you may respond with, “I learn more by listening.” While

you may find it painful to participate actively, you will learn

considerably more than you would if you choose to participate passively.

Your shell keeps people from getting in and you from getting out. You will

expend a considerable amount of energy maintaining a closed system

because of the pressure which group norms exert on your behavior.

The goal of soliciting feedback and self-disclosure or giving feedback is to

move information from the Blind Spot and the Facade into the Arena, where

everyone accesses it. The process of giving and receiving feedback moves

new information from the Unknown into the Arena. You have an “Aha”

experience when you suddenly perceive a relationship between a here-and-

now transaction in the group and a previous event. You gain insight and

inspiration from these experiences.

It takes practice to give non-threatening feedback. You must develop

sensitivity to other people’s needs and be able to put yourself in another

person’s shoes. Be tolerant of yourself and of others to make your

feedback more valuable to others.



2.6. a Let’s Check

1. ———————— model illustrates the process of giving and

receiving feedback.

2. In Johari model column one contains “———————————

about myself” and column two contains “————————— about

myself.”

3. The second pane “—————————,” contains information that

I do not know about myself but of which the group may know.

4. The Ideal Window has a high degree of —————— in the group.

5. The four panes in Johari model are ————, ————,——— ,

————.

2.7 CONDUCTING EFFECTIVE INTERVIEWS

The job interview has been defined as a conversation with a purpose. Job

interviews are used to further evaluate candidates referred for selection. It

is normally a one-on-one meeting between the selecting official and the

candidates. A job interview provides a valuable opportunity for you and the

candidate to learn more about each other. Learning more about candidates

will enable you to predict more accurately how each candidate might

perform in the specific position to be filled. Candidates also have a right to

learn about the job for which they are interviewed. You can get the most

from the interview by carefully planning in advance what you want to learn

from candidates as well as what they will need to learn from you.

2.7.1 Planning the Interview

Interviews can be structured in different ways. The structure determines

what kind of planning you ought to put in and what kind of results you can

expect.

There are seven critical areas to focus on before meeting with the candidate:



1. What the Job Requires

§ Define the job and what qualifications are required.

§ Identify the essential duties and responsibilities of the position and any

working conditions that have a significant impact on the performance of

those duties and responsibilities.

§ Prepare to discuss the job briefly, in terms that the candidate can readily

understand, remembering that the candidate is also making an

employment decision.

2. Information You Need From the Candidate to Predict His or Her

Success in the Job

§ Develop a limited set of specific questions pertaining to the essential

duties and responsibilities of the position to probe for the candidate’s

strengths and weaknesses.

3. Outline the Interview Process

§ Include the basic elements discussed in the Conducting the Interview

section. This will provide you with a framework for interviewing all

candidates on a consistent basis and ensure that all important areas

have been covered. It will also make it easier for you to observe and

assess each candidate and keep the discussion to the point. This plan

can be modified as the conversation progresses.

§ Preparation, combined with a review of the candidate’s application and/

or resume, demonstrates that you have looked at the information the

candidate supplied. This can be encouraging to the candidate and can

assist in establishing rapport.

4. Record and Summarize Observations about Each Candidate

§ Develop a form or standardized format to use in the interview.



5. Schedule Interviews

§ Enough time should be scheduled with each candidate to allow for a

relaxed, unhurried interview. Whether or not you have a Personnel Of-

fice to assist you, it is your responsibility to see that all the steps in the

interview process are carried out within a sufficient time period.

§ Do not schedule too many interviews for one day.

§ Do not take weeks to conduct interviews that can be handled in a few

days.

§ Consider the location of the interview site, its accessibility to candi-

dates with disabilities and the distance a candidate will have to travel.

Make arrangements for a meeting room to conduct the interviews, if

needed.

§ Consider days of religious observance that might affect a candidate’s

availability.

§ Arrange for any reasonable accommodations requested by candidates.

§ Develop a schedule that does not adversely affect your other office

responsibilities.

§ Notify co-workers that you are not to be interrupted for matters that

can wait until after the interview. Your focus and attention is centered

on the interview.

6. Notify the Candidate

§ Typically, the Office of Human Resources telephones the candidate to

invite him or her to an interview. The invitation should include the fol-

lowing information:

§ Title of the position and the salary offered.

§ Status of the position (permanent, temporary, etc.).

§ Time, location of the interview and directions.



§ Name of the interviewer.

§ Where the candidate should report.

§ Any information required at or prior to the interview, such as a resume

or samples of prior work products.

§ Notification that it is your agency’s policy to provide reasonable

accommodation to people with disabilities to enable them effectively

participate in the interview process and directions for requesting a

reasonable accommodation, as required by the Americans under the

Disabilities Act.

§ Procedures for cancellation (if necessary) and rescheduling, including

the telephone number of the contact person.

§ Consequences of not responding or failure to appear for the interview.

7. Review the Candidate’s Application, Resume or Other Related

Material

§ Typically, the Office of Human Resources will:

§ Review all the candidates’ credentials / materials before the interview.

§ Provide blank personal history/interview forms to the candidates be-

fore the interview, if necessary.

§ When reviewing personal history forms, it is important to note:

§ Vagueness about employment history—i.e., starting and ending dates,

duties and titles.

§ Insufficient responses to questions/items.

§ Inconsistencies or gaps in employment/education background.

§ Reasons for leaving the previous job (if appropriate).

§ Spelling and/or vocabulary errors.



§ Incorrect interpretation of instructions.

§ When reviewing resumes, look for:

§ Work and education experience from which you can develop evalua-

tive questions.

§ What the individual considers important in his/her background, which

may enable you to understand the candidate’s personality and goals

better.

§ How the candidate may have prepared the resume to show him or

herself in the best possible light.

2.7.2 Conducting the Interview

Approach each interview in a positive frame of mind remembering that,

although you are a prospective employer, you are also a salesperson for

your organisation and the job you want to fill.

As you are evaluating the candidate, the candidate is also evaluating the

position and you as a potential supervisor. Be cognizant of keeping on

schedule; leaving a candidate waiting for a long time is very rude and

discourteous. Remember your behavior during this interview reflects

directly on you and your organisation.

Interviews have three basic stages: an opening, a body and a close. Let us

examine each of these stages in detail.

The Six-Step Interview Plan for Opening

The following is a six-step approach to interviewing that can be modified to

fit your own particular needs and circumstances.

1. Introduction - Introduce yourself and greet the candidate with a

handshake and a friendly smile. The more nervous a candidate is, the

more important it is that you make an attempt to put him or her at ease.

You should offer the candidate a glass of water before beginning the

interview. Use “small talk” to break the ice.



2. Review the Application - Go over the information supplied on the

application and/or resume, and ask the candidate to elaborate on his/

her previous job responsibilities or special projects. The nature,

direction and enthusiasm of the candidate’s responses can provide you

with valuable insight into the candidate’s communication skills. These

responses may also give you an indication about what the candidate

finds interesting or challenging, and how he or she is likely to fit into the

particular job.

3. Describe the Job - Provide a written job description (or class

standard) to the candidate, and summarize or review the major job

responsibilities. Describe the position in terms of the organization’s

structure, also mentioning the individuals he/she will be working with,

and a brief description of their positions. You might find it helpful to

work from a checklist of essential job elements, responsibilities and

requirements that you can review with each candidate. The key

consideration is that all candidates are left with basically the same

impression of what the job is and requires. For example, a certain job

might require the employee to travel overnight from time to time. Some

candidates may regard this as a hardship while others see it as a

benefit. You should describe the requirement as precisely as possible in

terms of how often and where the prospective employee is likely to

travel. Avoid describing the requirement in subjective terms such as

“extensive” or “occasional” or “long distance” and so forth. These are

subjective assessments, which, in this case, are best left to the indi-

vidual to make.

4. Candidate Self-Assessment - Encourage the candidate to assess him

or herself against the job. In order to obtain as much information as

possible regarding the candidate in relation to the job, encourage re-

sponses with open-ended questions such as, “How do you see yourself

in relation to this job?” or “What contributions do you think you can

make to the work of this agency?” Avoid asking a candidate, “Do you

think you can do the job?” Encouraging an open-ended assessment of

this type will also provide you with feedback on how well you have

described the job and its requirements.



5. Candidate Clarification - Ask the candidate if he or she has any ques-

tions about the job requirements, working conditions, prospective co-

workers, supervisors, subordinates or other considerations. Let the can-

didate know that you and the Personnel Office will be available to an-

swer any question that might arise after the interview.

6. Closing - Finally, close the interview by explaining what happens next

in the hiring process and thank the candidate for his or her time. If

appropriate, explain that once the hiring decision has been made, job

offers may be conditioned on favorable results of any necessary pro-

fessional and/or physical examinations or successful completion of aca-

demic requirements.

Avoid stating any type of appointment commitment, even when you are in a

position to guarantee it. Beyond the obvious and inherent unfairness to

other candidates yet to be interviewed, reference checks or agency hiring

limitations may cause you to reverse your decision, thereby creating a difficult

or embarrassing situation that could even lead to litigation. Typically, the

Personnel Office will make the job offer.

If the candidate indicates that he or she has already received another job

offer and will be forced to accept that offer unless you make a decision

immediately, explain to the candidate that you are unable to make a

commitment until all the interviews have been completed. You should inform

the candidate when you expect to be making your final decision.

2.7.3 Body: Controlling the Interview

The Six-Step Interview Plan provides a good framework for conducting

effective and consistent employment interviews. However, in order for it to

help you obtain the information you need to make a sound employment

decision, you must have control over the interview. Establishing and

maintaining control of the interview requires effective listening combined

with good questioning techniques.

The key to effective listening is for you to do minimal talking during the

interview. After establishing rapport and describing the job and its

requirements to the candidate, let the candidate do most of the talking.



It is important that you pay attention to the candidate. Do not let your mind

wander or think ahead to the next question instead of listening to what the

candidate is saying. Occasionally, restating a candidate’s reply or observation

in your own words may be useful.

As noted previously, it is always a good technique to ask questions that

require more than a simple “yes” or “no” answer. Your questioning should

encourage the candidate to communicate information that will shed light on

his or her capability to perform the job effectively. Phrase some of your

questions in terms of “who, what, why, when, where and how.”

Topics to Cover

Attempt to gain knowledge about the candidate’s career growth, stability,

achievement, interpersonal skills and interest in the position. Examine the

following areas:

§ Work Experience—Compare the duties and responsibilities, supervi-

sion and the candidate’s likes and dislikes of past and present positions

with the position you are seeking to fill. Question the candidate on his

or her progress and salary rise. Also find out the candidate’s reasons

for leaving a past or current job.

§ Relevance of Education—A person’s educational choices can reveal

important aspects of his or her personality, motivation, character and

interests. Key areas include: subjects studied, academic performance,

class offices held, night school attendance and work experience while

in school.

§ Outside Interests—Because a candidate has the freedom to choose

leisure activities, when relevant to the job, outside extra curricular

interests, such as organization and association memberships, and

volunteer work, may be revealing.

§ Sensitive Topics—There may be situations in which you will have to

ask sensitive questions or probe for more factual information, even

though this may make the candidate uncomfortable. As long as the topic

is job related and within permissible parameters, do not hesitate to try



to find out what you need to know to make a hiring decision. If the

candidate seems upset by this, explain that a fair evaluation depends on

clarification of all issues that have a relation to the job.

Note Taking

Unobtrusive notetaking during the interview is necessary to have a record

of the information gathered that you can refer to later. Inform the candidate

at the beginning of the interview that you will be taking notes so that he or

she does not perceive it as a threat or distraction.

Interviewing Techniques

The following techniques will help you conduct a successful interview:

§ Pay Attention/Listen - Effective listening cannot be stressed enough.

However, be aware that you may be revealing your immediate

impression of the candidate through your gestures, expressions and

actions. Be careful not to let negative reactions become obvious to the

candidate.

§ Echoing - Echoing can be used to encourage a candidate to elaborate

on a topic. It is useful because you get additional information without

asking direct or probing questions. For instance, the candidate has just

said, “I didn’t like the work.” You echo with the words “didn’t like the

work?” and the candidate knows that you want more information on

this matter. The echo technique avoids the appearance of a cross-ex-

amination; it prods the candidate into disclosing more specific informa-

tion without making him or her uncomfortable.

§ Level of Language - Use language appropriate for the position for

which you are interviewing; don’t talk above or below a candidate’s

comprehension level.

§ Handling “Problem” Candidates - Occasionally, a candidate can

present problems during the interview. Try to keep the candidate on

track. For example, do not let a talkative applicant waste time going off

on a tangent. If a candidate evades an important question, be sure to



ask the question again to elicit an appropriate response. If a candidate

becomes nervous and freezes up, try some “small talk” to put the can-

didate at ease. Some candidates may be overly prepared or confident

and have rehearsed responses to most of your questions. In this case,

try direct, probing questions to obtain more information from them.

2.7.4 Closing: Post Interview

The post-interview process should consist, at a minimum, of the five following

elements:

1. Record Your Observations - Immediately after each interview, take

time to summarize the observations made during the course of the

interview. How well did the candidate compare with your concept of

the ideal person for the job? In what specific ways did he or she fail to

measure up? What were your overall impressions of the candidate?

How would you rate the candidate against each of the critical job

factors? Note your observations right away, so that you can assess

each candidate more objectively against the requirements of the job

and not subjectively against the preceding or succeeding candidates.

2. Narrow the Field - After you have interviewed all the scheduled

candidates and before you make your final hiring decision, narrow the

field to those you would consider hiring for the position. Don’t center

all consideration around one person and exclude all others from con-

tention, because if your first choice turns down the position, you may

have trouble remembering the merits of the other candidates.

3. Check References - Begin with your first choice and check the refer-

ences the candidate provided. References from former employers may

be helpful in finding out about the candidate’s work habits and personal

characteristics. Note, however, that many employers today are hesi-

tant to share too much information about a former employee. In fact,

some employers will provide no information other than verification that

the candidate previously worked for them.

Inform the candidate beforehand that you will be checking references.

Ask for at least two professional references and, if necessary, secure



his or her written consent. This may make it easier for former employ-

ers and school officials to release information. Unless this is the

candidate’s first job, you should do a reference check with at least one

recent former employer. Check this reference first.

Be prepared to ask probing questions about the candidate. However,

if the employer tells you that the candidate has had some work-related

problems, do not automatically exclude the candidate from your list of

possible hirers. Many good employees have occasional job difficulties

that are not completely of their own making which resolve themselves

once the employees are able to change job environments. Nonetheless,

be concerned about a candidate who has experienced one employment

problem after another.

Following are some general questions you might ask, depending on the

information you are seeking on an individual’s past employment:

§ How long have you known the candidate? In what relationship/capac-

ity?

§ What was the candidate’s position? To whom did he or she report?

§ What were the candidate’s responsibilities? Scope?

§ How did the candidate get along with superiors, peers and subordi-

nates?

§ Describe the candidate’s attitudes and other personality factors.

§ What were some of the candidate’s outstanding accomplishments?

§ How effective was the candidate in terms of quantity and quality of

work?

§ How creative was the candidate? How much initiative did he or she

display? Motivation level? Resourcefulness?

§ Describe the candidate’s leadership ability and responsibility levels.

§ What were the candidate’s strengths? Aptitudes? Weaknesses?



§ How well does the candidate express him or herself orally? In writing?

§ Did the candidate meet deadlines?

§ What was the candidate’s salary? Did he or she receive any bonuses?

§ Why did the candidate leave?

§ Would you rehire the candidate? (This is probably one of the most

important questions to ask, if it is answered honestly.)

§ Do you feel that the candidate can work effectively?

Carefully assess each reference given. Be aware of employers who speak

too favorably or use faint praise to avoid giving a negative response about a

candidate. Conflicting references will have to be evaluated in terms of their

relative context.

4. Make The Hiring Decision - Review all the information you have

obtained on the candidates. Consider the following factors in arriving

at your final decision:

§ Ability to do the work.

§ Interest in doing the job.

§ Potential for growth.

§ Ability to adjust to the job environment.

After careful thought, make the decision to hire or not to hire. A valid

selection occurs when the “merit and fitness” of the candidate are the

primary determining factors in the decision. Inform the Personnel Of-

ficer of your choice.

5. Notify Selected Candidate - Follow organisational procedures with

respect to notifying selected candidates. Typically, the Personnel Of-

fice notifies the selected candidate by telephone to ensure that he or

she is willing and able to accept appointment, and follows up with a

written confirmation. Generally, such notification should be made within



five business days following the interview and include the following in-

formation:

§ Full particulars on the position including title, grade, pay, location of

employment, its nature and duration, starting date, where to report and

any necessary information about living and working conditions.

§ Instructions for submitting any documents desired, before reporting to

work such as proof of veteran’s status, college transcripts, licenses or

other forms.

§ Any conditions the selected candidate will be required to fulfill after

reporting to work such as a probationary period or further

investigations. If a candidate declines the job offer, the Personnel

Officer or the interviewer should secure a written declination from a

candidate who refuses an offer of employment. See the next section for

guidance in preparing this document.

6. Notify Unselected Candidates - Good personnel practice and

common courtesy is to inform candidates not selected of your

decision and thank them for their interest. Where possible, each

candidate should be sent a personal letter. When large numbers are

involved, a form letter may be sent.

After all candidates have been notified, the interview process is

concluded.

Documents

Declinations

If a candidate declines a job offer, the Personnel Officer or the interviewer

should document this in the personnel record and indicate the reason. A

written statement including the specific title, location of the position and

reason for the declination should be sent to the candidate to confirm the

declination. The candidate should be instructed to notify the Personnel

Officer if any of the information is incorrect.



Selection Memo

The selection memo substantiates the selection decision. It is prepared by

the person responsible for filling the position and is retained in the Personnel

Office. The selection write-up must demonstrate that the selected candidate

is the best candidate to perform the duties of the position in question. The

relationship between the candidate’s knowledge, skills and abilities and the

duties and responsibilities of the position should be clearly explained. In

preparing the selection memo, incorporate the selection criteria that were

established for the position. Also include information from the application,

resume, job analysis, interview, references and/or any other criteria

established during the selection process.

Documentation to Retain

During the interview process, a large amount of information is typically

collected. Following is a list of items that should be retained:

• Application forms and/or resumes for each applicant.

• Date, time and place.

• Name, address and job title of the interviewer(s).

• Questions and responses for each applicant.

• Description of the interview format, interview guides, rating scales, etc.

• Access to Interview Records.

2.7.5 Sample Interview Questions

• What were/are your last/present job duties?

• Could you describe a typical day at your past/present job?

• What attracted you to this type of work?

• What aspects of the job were challenging?

• What aspects of the job gave you the most trouble? Why?



• If you had it to do all over again, would you still go into the same kind

of work? Why? Why not?

• How do you feel about the progress you have made?

• Why did you decide to make a change?

• What might be the toughest aspects of the job if you were to accept the

position? What will be the most enjoyable aspects? The least

enjoyable?

• What do you think your greatest contribution to the job will be? Where

and how do you think you would be able to make your greatest contri-

bution?

• What do you feel were your most significant accomplishments on the

job?

• Which of your accomplishments in your past/present position are you

most proud of ?

• What personal accomplishments and attributes make you the

proudest?

• What are your goals in your present position for the next one, two and

three years?

• What would you have liked to accomplish in your present position that

you were not able to? What prevented you from accomplishing these

goals?

• What made you decide on majoring in that particular field?

• Were there any accomplishments you felt particularly proud of at

school?

For Recent College Graduates

• How did you feel about the college you attended?

• To what extent did it live up to your expectations?



• What made you decide on majoring in that particular field?

• Were there any accomplishments you felt particularly proud of at

college?

2.7.6 Checksheet

Planning the Interview

• Know the job.

• Identify the information you will need from each candidate.

• Outline the interview as you would like it to proceed and consider the

following topics to be covered during the interview:

• work experience

• education

• outside interests

• Develop a form or standardized format to use during the interview.

• Schedule the interviews.

• Send written notification to the candidates.

• Review candidates’ personal history forms/resumes.

Conducting the Interview

• Introduce yourself and try to make the candidate feel at ease.

• Review the candidate’s application/resume with the candidate.

• Describe the job/position.

• Ask candidate for self-assessment.

• Provide clarification to the candidate.

• Explain to the candidate what happens next and then close the

interviews.



Post-interview

• Record your observations.

• Narrow the field to possible candidates you might hire.

• Check references of these candidates.

• Make the hiring decision.

• Notify the selected candidate and then the unselected candidates.

2.7.7 Strategies to Attend Interviews

Interviews provide an opportunity to turn a job possibility into a job offer.

Preparation will give you the confidence you need to perform well during

your interviews.

Interviewing provides you with an opportunity to explain, in your own words,

the ways in which your experiences, knowledge, skills, and aspirations

combine to make you a desirable candidate for a given position and

organization. Additionally, the interview setting allows you to demonstrate

your interpersonal skills, professionalism, and personal style. While most

people claim (in resumes and cover letters) to possess interpersonal or

communication skills, interviews provide you with the opportunity to

actually demonstrate such skills. Another benefit of interviewing is the

in-depth research you can perform on an organization as you prepare for

and participate in different interviews.

General Purposes of Interviews

While there are many types of interviews, it is safe to say that the general

purposes of an interview are to:

• Get to know you on a personal level

• Learn more about your qualifications

• Allow for the gathering of information relevant to organizational needs

• Provide additional information on the position and organization



• Assist the organization in identifying the applicant who should receive a

job offer.

The key element to successful interviewing is not your experience, your

grades, what classes you took, your extracurricular activities, or any of the

other basic necessities. Those skills are what got you the interview. The key

element to successful interviewing can be summed up in one word: attitude.

If you want to rise above others with better experience, better grades, or

better anything, you will need to work on developing a highly positive work

attitude.

Your attitude determines whether you will be selected or not. There are

plenty of competitors with the ability to do almost any given job-

especially at the entry level. The way most employers differentiate at the

entry level is by candidates’ attitudes toward the job. Your attitude is often

what recruiters will remember when settled after reviewing ten, twenty, or

even one hundred candidates—the one who was sincerely willing to put

forth his/her best effort. If you have the attitude of wanting to do your very

best for the company, of being focused on the company’s needs, of putting

yourself forth as the person who will be committed and dedicated to

fulfilling their needs, you will likely be the one chosen.

Job interview strategies that focus only on the interview itself will not get

you hired. You must use strategies that cover the entire process. These

activities can be divided into three phases:

(1) actions you should take before the interview;

(2) actions you should take during the interview; and

(3) actions you should take after the interview.

“One important key to success is self-confidence. One important

key to self-confidence is preparation.”

(Arthur Ashe)

Preparation is the vital ingredient of all three phases of the interview process.



What you do BEFORE the interview will have a powerful impact

on how well you perform DURING the interview.

PRE-INTERVIEW STRATEGY # 1 : Find work you will love doing.

Know About Yourself

• What kind of work are you seeking? (“I’m flexible” or “whatever re-

lates to my major” is not specific enough.)

• What are your interests, motivations and passions? Don’t discount the

things you love as variables when considering career possibilities. They

can sometimes be a key finding a truly meaningful career.

• What skills do you like to use and hope to develop further? Remember,

just because you have a skill doesn’t mean you want or need to use it.

• What do you value? Is it money? Work-life balance? Being able to

make a difference? Choose occupations and organizations accordingly.

• In what kind of work environment would you be most comfortable?

Spend some time thinking about the type of workplace you’d enjoy. In

an office setting? Outdoors? Very structured and organized? Constant

public contact and interaction? Wearing a suit every day? These can be

very significant in determining your happiness in a position.

Find out what you are interested in and what occupations match your

interests, skills, desires and even your personality type. You can do this

through career aptitude tests, personality tests, surveys and so forth.

Do You Know What Employers Want?

Many employers say that the vast majority of people they interview cannot

adequately define the skills they have to do the job or articulate how they

have demonstrated these competencies. In general, employers look for

evidence of: Communication Skills (verbal/written) Motivation/Initiative/

Drive to Succeed

Teamwork / Leadership



Interpersonal Skills / Friendly / Academic Credentials/Active Learning

Planning / Organizing Analytical / Problem Solving Skills

Well mannered / Polite / Honesty / Integrity / Work Ethic

This is the most important strategy you can implement, because it affects all

other job-hunting actions that follow.

PRE-INTERVIEW STRATEGY #2: Research the company.

Most companies have websites these days. Check them out. Do a search

for articles and newsstories about the company.

(1) The company’s reputation. Is this a company you’d be proud to name

as your employer?

(2) The company’s benefits. Salary isn’t everything, and sometimes you

won’t know what it is until you are hired and negotiate an amount. But

most companies will tell you about the other benefits they offer, such as

pension plans, vacation and sick leave, health care programs and so

forth.

(3) The company’s mission, vision and goals. Find out as much as you

can about what the company does and how it does it. Search the Internet

to see if the company has issued any press releases recently, and read

them. Knowledge is power, and in this case, the more you know about

the company, the better off you’ll be at the interview. You will stand out

among the candidates — whoever interviews you will be impressed

that you took the initiative to do this, because most job seekers do not.

PRE-INTERVIEW STRATEGY #3: Study the job description

carefully and make sure your application and/or resume compliments

what the company is looking for.

You should not have a generic resume that you submit for all job openings.

You need one that matches your talents and skills to those desired by the

company for that job. In other words, if the job announcement makes it

clear that someone with strong accounting skills is needed, be sure to

highlight any accounting or bookkeeping duties you’ve done in the past,



even if they were a relatively minor aspect of your previous jobs. Don’t

spend valuable space on your resume and application on skills they are not

interested in. Instead, emphasize how well you fit their idea of the

best-qualified candidate for that job.

The competencies employers want in candidates can be developed in various

ways and fall into three general categories:

• Transferable Skills: abilities that are used and needed in a variety of

jobs; skills that transfer from one environment to another. These refer

to our ability to effectively work with people, information (data) and

things. Transferable skills may be developed in the classroom

(i.e. research and writing), through extracurricular activities

(i.e. leadership and interpersonal), or a host of other activities.

• Adaptive Skills: personality traits, behaviors, attitudes that allow a

person to accept and adjust to the physical, interpersonal and

organizational conditions of a job. Many of these may be innate to some,

but they can be developed and honed through activities, internships,

volunteer work, etc.

• Job Specific Skills: knowledge and abilities that enable a person to

perform specific tasks associated with a particular job. These skills are

frequently developed through jobs and internships directly related to

your career goal. Review the list on the previous page of competencies

employers want. Make your application to complement what the com-

pany is looking for..

PRE-INTERVIEW STRATEGY #4: Prepare for questions that will

be asked during the interview.

By studying the job announcement, you should have a fair idea of what

kinds of questions you will be asked. Some questions are generic in nature

and fairly standard for most interviews, while others are specifically related

to the position you hope to fill. Put yourself in the hiring person’s shoes...

what would YOU want to know about potential candidates? What kinds of

questions would YOU ask to determine who would be best for the position

and the company?



A list of possible questions and sample answers is provided in different

books and websites. Review this, but develop your own list of potential

questions based on the position, and practice your answers. Also be aware

that unexpected questions may be asked. Don’t become flustered if this

happens. Just remain calm, take a deep breath, and think before answering.

PRE-INTERVIEW STRATEGY #5: Prepare questions you will ask

during the interview.

Yes, in addition to ANSWERING questions, you should ASK some. This

opportunity usually comes at the end of the interview, when their final question

is, “Do you have any questions for us?” Of course you do! Most job seekers

do NOT have questions, so here’s another opportunity for you to set yourself

apart from those other candidates.

Come up with a few of your own questions, based either on the research

you’ve conducted about the company or specifics about the position for

which you are applying. Even rather generic questions such as, “What do

you like best about working here?” are good. (If is is an interview panel,

make sure the person you direct this question to actually works for the

company. Some companies, particularly public agencies, get people from

other agencies to assist with interview panels.)

PRE-INTERVIEW STRATEGY #6: Visit the interview location a day or

so before your interview.

There’s nothing more stressful than getting lost and being late for your

interview. Before the interview date, find out exactly where you’ll be going,

where you will park, and how long it takes you to get there (consider the

time of day and traffic impact). This dry-run will ensure you’ll be there right

on time when it counts.

PRE-INTERVIEW STRATEGY #7: Plan what to wear to your interview.

Yes, this seems like common sense. But some people don’t think about

what they’re going to wear until the morning of the interview. Then they

scramble to find something that’s appropriate and clean. Imagine putting on

that rarely used suit an hour before your interview and discovering that it no

longer fits! Plan your outfit in advance, try it on to make sure it fits well, and

get it cleaned and pressed if necessary.



When deciding what to wear, think “conservative business attire.” Even if

you are interviewing for a field job in which you’ll wear jeans those clothes

are not appropriate for the interview. It’s always better to dress “up” than

to dress “down.” The key is to look professional.

Here are some preparation tips:(1) Think about your hair in advance and

make sure it’s as ready for the interview as your clothes. Do you need a

haircut or touch-up on the color? (2) Do not plan to wear perfume . Having

no noticeable scent is better than turning your interviewer off by wearing

too much perfume. It’s safest to wear no scent at all. (3) Women, if you

decide on a dress or skirt, make sure it’s not too short. Be conservative,

remember? (4) Same goes for shoes... chose a pair that are stylish, but

conservative and comfortable. Make sure they’re clean and/or shined.

PRE-INTERVIEW STRATEGY #8: Plan what to bring to your interview.

At a minimum, bring a few extra copies of your application and/or resume.

If you have letters of recommendation, bring copies of those, as well. If you

don’t have any letters of recommendation but have time to obtain some

from your past employers or character references, do so — even if you

have to speed things up by writing them yourself and then getting

permission from your references to sign their name to them. Having letters

of recommendation ready to hand out at the interview will give you another

leg up on your competition, and make you stand out among many

applicants.

If appropriate for the position, consider bringing a portfolio with examples

of work you’ve done. In all likelihood, there won’t be time for you to show

your work during the interview. But perhaps you can leave your portfolio

and pick it up later, or provide copies. To summarise

v Have directions to the interview and allow plenty of time for travel and

parking.

v Arrive between 10-15 minutes early.

v Bring extra copies of your resume, your reference list, a good quality

pen or pencil and a notepad.



v Consider bringing work samples that demonstrate your skills and

abilities.

v Know the name and title of the person you are meeting.

v Research the company and the position; know what qualities the em-

ployer requires.

v Practice answering questions and have a list of questions to ask the

employer.

Be prepared to answer tough questions.

Job Interviews: Employ These Srategies

Job interviews can be challenging, but only if you are unprepared. If you

follow the PRE-INTERVIEW STRATEGIES, you will be more

confident, professional, and less nervous than the other candidates.

During your job interviews, you will be enthusiastic, likeable, determined,

and informed. These traits are more important than your job

qualifications. Because you know this and are well prepared, you will blow

away your competition!

2.7.8 DURING-INTERVIEW STRATEGY #1: Arrive early.

Job interviews require punctuality; arrive early. Yes, this is a “common sense”

strategy that you should already know. But you’d be amazed at how many

candidates show up late for their interviews! Talk about a negative first

impression! Plan to arrive at least 15 minutes prior to your interview time.

Use that 15 minutes to relax and mentally prepare yourself.

If something unavoidable happens and you absolutely can’t make it on time,

call BEFORE your scheduled time and explain your situation. Be honest,

courteous, and apologetic (even if it wasn’t your fault). Then ask for

another time.



DURING-INTERVIEW STRATEGY #2: Make your introduction

and greeting memorable.

Job interviews can involve dozens of candidates over the course of several

days. You need to stand out from the others and be remembered! So make

your introduction and greeting more memorable than most. Do this with

everyone you are introduced to, including the receptionist or Human

Resources person who meets you prior to the interview: Smile, make eye

contact, and shake hands.

Make your smile genuine, and don’t be afraid to show some teeth. You are

very happy to be there, right?

Make eye contact . Continue to make eye contact throughout the interview

process. This is very important because failing to make eye contact or

constantly looking away creates the impression that you are hiding

something or not being honest.

Shake hands “properly.” If you have sweaty palms (which is only natural,

even if you ARE well prepared), try to wipe them off before shaking hands.

Perhaps you could keep a handkerchief or tissue in your pocket or purse

for this purpose. Then extend your hand to the person you meet, whether

they’ve extended theirs or not. When you shake hands, match the strength

of your grip to theirs. Don’t forget to make eye contact. Release after a

couple of shakes.

Speak aloud the name of the person you are introduced to. You can add

“Nice to meet you” before or after their name. Everyone likes to hear their

own name. Plus saying their name will show that you are paying attention,

and it will help you remember it.

Job interviews require you to make a powerful, positive first impression.

Do this by smiling, making eye contact, shaking hands and saying their

name. Your first impression will be a lasting one.



DURING-INTERVIEW STRATEGY #3: Use body language that

shows you are enthusiastic, confident, and comfortable with the

interview process.

Job interviews can seem like intimidating situations, but as the old saying

goes, “Never let ‘em see you sweat.” Walk into the room in a manner that

exudes confidence and control. Not timid, but also not rushed. Just like

you’re walking up to greet a friend.

After the greetings (discussed under Strategy #2), sit when and where they

indicate. (I use the term “they” because many interviews are conducted by

a panel of 3-5 people instead of just one person. But these strategies will

apply no matter how many people are interviewing you.) Sit properly. This

means showing good posture, sitting up straight and looking attentive. Do

not slouch or lean way back and clasp your hands behind your head to

indicate how “comfortable” you are! Do sit comfortably (you may be there

a while) and don’t sit on the edge of the chair as if you’re eager to run

away.

Job interviews can involve a panel of people asking you questions. If there

is more than one person asking questions, face that person and make eye

contact when you answer them. But then extend your eye contact to

everyone in the room if your answer is longer than a few seconds. You’re

speaking to all of them, not just the person who asked the question.

Remember to smile!

DURING-INTERVIEW STRATEGY #4: Be yourself, but only up to

a point.

Let your personality show, but don’t overdo it. Match your demeanor to

that of the interviewers. For instance, if they joke around a bit to break the

ice, go with it but don’t laugh insincerely. Don’t tell any jokes yourself. If

you have a sense of humor and you’ve deduced that the interviewers do,

too, you can use this in some of your answers (to a certain extent and when

appropriate). You want to present yourself as a serious professional but

also someone who easily gets along with others and is a pleasure to work

with. You want to be likeable but never phony.

Also, you want to exude confidence but never arrogance.



DURING-INTERVIEW STRATEGY #5: Answer questions clearly

and confidently.

Because you’ve prepared in advance and anticipated many of the

questions, your answers should be clear, concise and confident. Do not

mumble or speak in a voice too quiet to be heard. You don’t want the

interviewer to ask you to speak up or repeat your answer.

Do not ramble. Give enough detail to sufficiently answer the question and

then stop talking.

One of the great advantages of anticipating questions and practicing your

answers in advance is that you can “edit” them before the actual interview.

Many companies limit the interview time to 20 minutes or less. You want

your answers to be short, focused and to the point. If you’re not sure you’ve

given enough information, simply ask, “Did I answer that sufficiently for

you, or would you like more details?”

DURING-INTERVIEW STRATEGY #6: After answering their ques-

tions, ask some yourself.

Remember those questions you thought of during your PRE-INTERVIEW

STRATEGIES phase? When the interview starts to wind down and they

ask if you have any questions for them, be sure to speak up. In addition to

the questions you thought of in advance, you might have a few based on

how the interview went. If you want clarification about the job or the hiring

process, ask now. Do not ask questions related to salary, vacation time,

etc. Save those questions for later, after you have been offered the job.

Your last comment should be that you feel you would be a good asset for

the company and you definitely want the job. Don’t forget this!

DURING-INTERVIEW STRATEGY #7: Exit gracefully.

When it’s clear that the interview is over, hand out copies of your letters of

recommendation (if you haven’t already done so) and any other portfolio

items. Shake hands again and thank your interviewers for their time and the

opportunity to interview for the position. If you remember the names, say

them as you thank them. Leave the room (don’t forget your purse or brief

case!) and breathe a big sigh of relief, knowing that you did an excellent

job!



Job Interview Strategies You Use AFTER the Interview Can Make

the Difference!

Job interview strategies don’t end when the interview does!

2.7.9 POST-INTERVIEW STRATEGY #1: Immediately send a

Thank-You Letter.

Write a thank-you letter as soon as you get home from the interview. You’ll

use it for several purposes:

(1) To re-emphasize that you really want the job. This is assuming, of

course, that you do want the job. If, after the interview, you don’t think

it’s the right job for you, don’t bother sending a thank-you letter.

(2) To provide further explanation of something discussed at the

interview. For example, if there was some discussion of your

leadership skills but you forget to mention a great example from a

previous job, put this in your letter.

(3) To say thank you. You really should be thankful. There may have been

dozens (or even hundreds) of applicants for that position. Even though

your qualifications are what got you the interview, be humble and

appreciate the opportunity you were given to show them in person

what a wonderful asset to the company you will make!

(4) To take another opportunity to make yourself shine in compari-

son to the other candidates. A short thank-you letter can be written

in less than 30 minutes, but only a small percentage of job seekers

actually bother doing this. So by sending this letter, you will create

another favorable impression that sets you above the rest.

If you’re not sure who to address the letter to, call the Human Resources

person who scheduled your interview. Get the names (and spelling) and

mailing address of whoever conducted the interview.

Your letter can be handwritten, but I’d only recommend this if you have

wonderful handwriting. If in doubt, do it on a computer.



It’s better to send it as a regular letter through the mail than to do it by

e-mail. People get so much email these days that they may ignore yours. As

email becomes more popular, real letters become rarer, and thus more

special. A letter will get their attention when an email message may not. But

send your letter as soon as possible. You want it to arrive before they’ve

made their final decision.

POST-INTERVIEW STRATEGY #2: Don’t be shy about making

follow-up calls.

It’s often sad but true that many companies take forever to fill a position,

and keeping applicants informed of the process is a low priority for them.

They may tell you after the interview that they’ll make a decision within two

or three days, and let you know either way. Hah! Don’t count on it! They

will call you if you are selected, of course. But the process may take longer

than expected. And if you are not their number-one choice, they’ll take

their time in sending out your “notice of non-selection” .

So don’t wait — take action! If the allotted time has passed and you haven’t

heard anything, call the company and ask about the status of that job.

POST-INTERVIEW STRATEGY #3: Don’t worry, be happy.

If you’ve followed the strategies you’ve learned, the chances are very good

that you will be selected for the position. But should wondering about it

keep you up at night? No. The process is now out of your hands, so worrying

about it won’t do you any good. There are only two possible outcomes.

Either you got the job and you will be notified in due time; or you didn’t get

the job.

Even if you didn’t get selected for that particular position, don’t consider

this as a “failure” — it is not. No interview is a failure, or a waste of your

time. Each one should be considered a valuable opportunity to practice

and sharpen your interviewing skills.



POST-INTERVIEW STRATEGY #4: Negotiate your salary when

you are offered the job.

Sometimes salaries are set; you take the job, you take the stated salary.

But other times the salary is open to negotiation and the employer has a

range to work with, based on your skills and experience. Most often you

will be offered the lowest salary in that range. But don’t be afraid to request

a higher starting salary, particularly if your skills and experience warrant it.

POST-INTERVIEW STRATEGY #5: If you got the job, go

celebrate! If you didn’t, don’t despair, just start again.

Even during bad economies, there are usually a number of job openings in

a wide variety of fields. If you didn’t get hired this time, that just means

there’s a better job out there waiting for you.

Job Interview Questions & Answers: Know What to Expect and

What to Say

Although many candidates dread them, job interview questions are wonderful

things! They are your greatest opportunity to prove to the interviewer that

you are the best person for the job!

The key is to give better answers than anyone else. To do this, you

must:

(1) Anticipate likely questions;

(2) Develop excellent answers;

(3) Practice!

Be enthusiastic and confident when responding to questions. Don’t rush

your answers, but don’t ramble on and on, either. Try to, um, avoid, like,

using unnecessary words, right? And um, repeating yourself or, like, annoying

phrases, you know?

A good technique is to write out your answers to the questions you

anticipate, then edit them to make them more concise. Then practice your

polished answers out loud, over and over. If you can have someone help

you do a “mock interview,” that would be the best way to do this.



There are basically eight types of questions you may face during the course

of an interview:

1. Credential verification questions

This type of question includes “What was your GPA?” and “How long were

you at . . .” Its purpose is to place objective measurements on features of

your background.

2. Experience verification questions

This type of question includes “What did you learn in that class?” and “What

were your responsibilities in that position?” Its purpose is to

verify experiential features of your background.

3. Opinion questions

This type of question includes “What would you do in this situation?” and

“What are your strengths and weaknesses?” Its purpose is to subjectively

analyze how you would respond to a scenario. The reality is that “Tape

#143” in your brain kicks in and plays when you recognize the question and

play back the pre-programmed answer.

4. Dumb questions

This type of question includes “What kind of animal would you like to be?”

or “What do you think flubber is made from?” Its purpose is to get past

your pre-programmed answers to find out if you are capable of an original

thought. There is not necessarily a right or wrong answer, since it is used

primarily as a test of your ability to think on your feet.

5. Math questions

This type of question includes “What is 1000 divided by 73?” to “How

many ping-pong balls could fit in a Volkswagen?” Its purpose is to evaluate

not only your mental math calculation skills, but also your creative ability in

formulating the mathematical formula for providing an answer (or estimate,

as can often be the case).



6. Case questions

This type of question includes problem-solving questions ranging from: “How

many gas stations are there in the U.S.?” to “What is your estimate of the

U.S. online retail market for books?” Its purpose is to evaluate your

problem-solving abilities and how you would analyze and work through

potential case situations.

7. Behavioral questions

This type of question includes “Can you give me a specific example of how

you did that?” or “What were the steps you followed to accomplish that

task?” Its purpose is to anticipate predictable future behaviors based upon

past responses.

8. Competency questions

This type of question includes “Can you give me a specific example of your

leadership skills?” or “Explain a way in which you sought a creative solution

to a problem.” Its purpose is to align your past behaviors with specific

competencies which are required for the position.

It is interesting to note that the first four types of interview questions listed

have a predictive validity for on the job success of just 10 percent. And 10

percent predictive validity is the same level that is generated from a simple

resume review. Math questions increase the predictive validity to 15 percent

(since it tests intelligence, commonly a key competency for most positions)

and case questions raise the predictive validity to 25 percent (and slightly

higher for consulting positions). Behavioral and competency interviewing,

on the other hand, yield a predictive validity of 55 percent. Still far from

perfect, yet much more reliable for most interviewers. Interestingly, the first

four question types are still the favored approach by most untrained

interviewers, simply due to lack of experience. Behavioral and competency

interviewing is gaining greater acceptance by trained interviewers because

past performance is the most reliable indicator of future results, especially

when it is tied to the specific competencies for the position.



Most questions will relate either to your ability to do the job or to the type

of employee you will be. Here’s one that is very commonly used to help the

interviewer learn about both:

“Tell me a little about yourself.”

When responding to this request, you should focus on both your personal

and professional values. Always be honest, but talk about your best traits

only, especially those that relate to the position for which you are applying.

Highlight experiences and accomplishments you are most proud of. Here’s

an example:

“I’m an experienced communications specialist with extensive knowledge

of public information tools and techniques. I’ve developed comprehensive

communication plans for major public events, written dozens of articles

accepted by worldwide publications, and created specialized educational

programs for adults and students. I am always eager to learn new methods

and procedures, and have implemented continuous improvement techniques

in my past positions that saved money and increased productivity. I like

working with people and enjoy group projects, but am also a self-starter

who doesn’t mind working on my own. I’m a volunteer with the local chapter

of Special Olympics and enjoy participating in community events. My goals

are to complete my Master’s Degree and broaden my experiences with

community relations.”

Remember to tailor your response to the specific job. By studying the job

announcement, you’ll get a good idea of the skills and experience being

sought. Work those into your response.

Consider this your own personal commercial. If the interview consisted of

only this ONE chance to sell yourself, what would you say?

“What do you feel has been your greatest work-related accomplish-

ment?”

Choose one example from your past that was important to you and helped

the company you worked for. Give specific details about what you did,

how you did it, and what the results were. Try to pick an accomplishment



that relates to the position for which you are applying. Employers like to

hear about accomplishments that reduced expenses, raised revenues, solved

problems or enhanced a company’s reputation.

“What is your greatest strength?”

This is a great chance to highlight your best skills. Don’t pick just one,

focus on your top three or four. Some examples are: leadership skills, team-

building skills, and organizational skills. Determine which strengths would

fit best with the position for which you are applying. For example, if the job

announcement stresses the ability to handle multiple tasks, you could say:

“I’m good at organizational skills, prioritization and time management. But

my greatest strength is my ability to effectively handle multiple projects and

deadlines.”

“What is your greatest weakness?”

Be careful with this one. Most interview guides will tell you to answer it

with a positive trait disguised as a weakness. For example, “I tend to expect

others to work as hard as I do,” or “I’m a bit of a perfectionist.” Interviewers

have heard these “canned” answers over and over again. To stand out, be

more original and state a true weakness, but then emphasize what you’ve

done to overcome it. For example: “I’ve had trouble delegating duties to

others because I felt I could do things better myself. This has sometimes

backfired because I’d end up with more than I could handle and the quality

of my work would suffer. But I’ve taken courses in time management and

learned effective delegation techniques, and I feel I’ve overcome this

weakness.”

IMPORTANT: Be sure the weakness you talk about is NOT a key

element of the position!

“How do you handle stressful situations?”

Give some examples of stressful situations you’ve dealt with in the past.

Tell how you use time management, problem-solving or decision-making

skills to reduce stress. For example, tell them that making a “to-do” list

helps. Site stress-reducing techniques such as stretching and taking a break.

Don’t be afaid to admit that you will ask for assistance if you are feeling

overwhelmed.

If it’s true, say you actually work better under pressure.



“What is the toughest problem you’ve had to face, and how did you

overcome it?”

Try to make this about a problem that faced your company and not just you

or your particular work group. The bigger the problem, the better. Give

specific examples of the skills and techniques you used to resolve this

problem. Emphasize the successful results. Be generous in sharing credit if

it was a team effort, but be sure to highlight your specific role.

“Have you ever had to discipline a problem employee? If so, how

did you handle it?”

This is a likely question if the position for which you are applying requires

supervisory duties. Explain how you used problem-solving skills, listening

skills, and coaching skills to help the employee. If those techniques turned

the employee around, be sure to say so. If those techniques failed, tell how

you followed the company’s policies and what the end result was.

“Why do you want this position?”

Here’s where your research about the company will help you stand out

among the other candidates. Explain how you’ve always wanted the

opportunity to work with a company that... provides a vital public service,

leads the industry in innovative products, whatever... find something specific

about that company that you can tie in with your answer. Explain how your

qualifications and goals complement the company’s mission, vision and values

(use specific examples). If you are applying for a position in a company for

which you already work, explain how you’ll be able to apply and expand

on the knowledge and experience you’ve gained from your current position,

and will be able to increase your contributions and value to the company

through your new responsibilities.

“Why are you the best person for this job?”

As with all other questions, be confident and enthusiastic when you answer

this. Don’t try to say that you are the best qualified person, because you

don’t know the qualifications of the other applicants. Instead, emphasize

several reasons why you should be hired. For example: “I’ve got extensive

experience in [name the appropriate field] and have the specific skills you



are looking for. I’m a fast learner who adapts quickly to change and will hit

the ground running. I’m dedicated and enthusiastic about helping your

company meet its goals, and will provide top-quality results with minimal

oversite. I’m an outstanding performer who takes pride in my work. You

won’t have any regrets when you hire me.”

UNEXPECTED QUESTIONS

Interview questions and answers can only be predicted and prepared for

to a certain extent. There are endless variations and no way to know every

question in advance. But that doesn’t matter. Because you know there will

be unexpected questions, you will not cringe or freak out when they pop

up, as some applicants will. Instead, you will turn them into opportunities

to shine even more brightly.

No one knows you better than you. Memorize a list of your best features,

your best selling points. Use every opportunity and unexpected question

to mention these.

Realize that sometimes what you say isn’t as important as how you say it.

Be confident, enthusiastic, and remember to smile often.

QUESTIONS YOU SHOULD ASK

Often the interviewer’s last question is, “Do you have any questions for

me?” Candidates who do not have questions show a lack of initiative and

give the impression that they have minimal interest in the position. Stand

out from those lazy job seekers by asking questions!

Have your questions ready in advance. Relate them to the company or its

accomplishments/challenges (your research of the company will show and

further impress the interviewer). Don’t ask any question that shows that

you have not done your research about the company.

Do not ask questions related to you, such as “When will I be eligible for

my first raise?” or “How often will I be subjected to a performance

review?” Don’t bring up money. (You can do that after you are offered the

job.)



In addition to the specific questions you have developed based on what

the company does, here are some sample generic questions:

What do you enjoy most about working here?

Be sure the person you ask actually works for the company. Some

organizations, especially public agencies, have interview panels in which

employees from other agencies participate.

Is there anything I’ve mentioned that makes you think I’m not the

best candidate for this job?

If they do mention something that’s bothering them about you, such as lack

of specific experience, this gives you a last-ditch effort to change their opinion

about you. If you’ve thought about your possible weaknesses in advance,

you should have a prepared answer to those weaknesses. For example, “I

know I have limited experience in this field, but what I lack in specific

experience I make up for in enthusiasm and desire to excel. I’m a fast

learner and I’ll work harder than anyone else to be a top producer on your

team.”

When do you expect to make your final decision?

Be sure to ask that! Failure to do so may give the impression that you’re

not that interested, and you need to know when to follow up.

2.8 EFFECTIVE ORAL PRESENTATION

We spend most of our lives speaking to one another. It is our natural mode

of communication. However, something strange happens to most people

when asked to do that same activity in front of a group. A whole host of

irrational fears raise their ugly heads. It is an activity many of us would get

out of if we could. Increasingly we are called on at work to make

presentations to groups, both large and small, in a variety of situations. We

are very often judged by our performance on these occasions. How well

do we get over our point of view to those to whom we are speaking?

This section is about speaking effectively. The guidelines can be applied in

a variety of speaking situations making presentations, expressing views at



meetings, explaining facts in interviews, briefing the team. It concentrates

on three main areas:

• preparation

• how to put the message over effectively

• dealing with nerves.

It will help anyone who is involved in speaking activities to make the

experience a successful and, hopefully, enjoyable one.

2.8.1 PREPARATION

There is a saying that goes ‘to fail to prepare is to prepare to fail’. This is

probably more true of speaking to groups than any other activity you may

become involved in at work.

But what do you need to prepare and how do you do it? Rudyard Kipling’s

famous quote may provide a clue:

‘I keep six honest serving-men

(they taught me all I knew)

Their names are What and Why and When

and How and Where and Who’

By working through the six honest serving-men you can cover all aspects

of thorough preparation.

Why, Who, Where and When are looked at in this section.

WHY: DECIDING THE OBJECTIVE

The first thing to clearly understand in your mind is the objective of the

speech. There will be a general objective as well as a specific objective

relating to the subject matter.

General objectives will fall into one of the following categories:



• to persuade or sell

• to teach

• to stimulate thought

• to inform

• to entertain

Whatever your general objective is, you always need to try and entertain

your audience. This does not mean cracking poor jokes for every other

sentence. It does, however, mean that the material must be put over in such

a way that it IS interesting and people want to listen.

The specific objective will depend entirely on the subject matter .

It is an excellent idea to write down the objective of the speech in one

sentence. This has various benefits:

• It clears the speaker’s mind right at the start

• Selection of material can be based on fulfilling the objective

• When your notes are complete you can again check that you are meet-

ing your original aim.

WHO: RESEARCHING THE AUDIENCE

Anyone who has sat through a speech and wondered if they are in the right

room will know the importance of this question. The audience or groups

you are talking to are the most important people in the whole exercise.

What should you know about them?

• How many of them are there?

• Why are they there? Are they there of their own free will? Were they

sent to listen?

• What is their present knowledge of the subject of the talk?

• Are they likely to have any bias towards or against the subject or

speaker?



What are their expectations of the talk and speaker? It is an excellent idea

to write down the objective of the speech in one sentence. This has various

benefits:

• It clears the speaker’s mind right at the beginning

• Selection of material can be based on fulfilling the objective

• When your notes are complete you can again check that you are meet-

ing your original aim.

All the above points will determine the material used and the approach to

the speech. For example, there is a world of difference between a woman

talking to a group of men about women’s equality and a woman talking to

women on the same subject. Similarly a computer expert talking to other

computer experts about the latest technology will be able to use far more

technical language than would be possible when talking to a group of non-

experts.

You have a duty to those who listen to you to make sure your speech is

pitched at the right level for them.

Remember you are there to meet the needs of your audience. Good rapport

with the audience is the key to success.

WHERE: PREPARING THE ENVIRONMENT

It is important to consider where the talk is going to take place. There may

not always be a choice of venue but it is vital to make every effort to see it,

especially if you have not spoken there before.

The following points need consideration:

PRACTISING

One’s voice can sound disembodied in large echoing rooms. It is better to

have tried your voice out beforehand than to be put off by it when you start

to speak with the audience present. Practicing with the microphone is also

important if you have to use one.



If the room is large it is vital to try out the volume of the voice. Plant someone

at the back of the room and practice to see if they can hear you.

HOW THINGS IN THE ROOM WORK

On a very practical level, it is useful to know where the light switches are

and how the blinds draw if you are using slides or film, find out how the

windows open and close or how the air conditioning works so that you can

regulate the temperature if necessary.

DISTRACTIONS

Become aware of any likely distractions for you and your audience.

A speaker who can see interesting things happening outside the window is

likely to find it harder to concentrate on the audience. Similarly, if you are

speaking in front of the large picture window at Heathrow Airport your

audience is likely to become very interested in Jumbo jets taking off and

landing and stop listening to what you have to say.

Other distractions like noise and general interruptions need to be catered

to.

Unfortunately we do not live a perfectly ordered world but minimising

distractions as far as possible is vital.

SEATING

Seating layouts can vary enormously and again there may be no control

over the layout. The following are a few of the many variations possible -

there are advantages and disadvantages to each:

THEATRE STYLE

People sit in rows. Most common with large audiences. Formal atmosphere

and eye contact with the audience is more difficult to achieve.

HORSESHOE

Single row of people arranged in a horseshoe shape. Informal and conducive

to participation.



CURVED ROWS

Similar problems as with theatre style but slightly less formal.

CABARET

People sitting in groups around tables. Useful if you want to break the

audience into formal discussion groups.

POINTS TO WATCH:

• People have a great tendency to sit at the back of rooms if given the

choice. If there are more chairs than the audience you may find them all

sitting in the back rows. If you anticipate too many chairs rope off the

back rows or have someone directing people to the front as they ar-

rive. Ideally you want the audience as near as possible.

• Try to make sure the seats are not too comfortable. Low, soft chairs

can be sleep inducing - the last thing you want from the audience.

The environment you have to speak in can either hinder or help. The aim is

to minimize the hindrances and maximize the good points.

WHEN: TIMING

How many times have you heard speakers drone on long after the

expected finishing time? They seemingly do not realise that the audience is

getting restless. Considering the time of day and how long you have for

your talk is important.

TIME OF DAY

Time of day can affect the audience. That post lunch session is known as

the graveyard session in training circles. Audiences who have had a few

drinks and a good lunch will probably be yearing for like an afternoon nap

rather than listening to a speech.

The audience may have already sat through several other speakers. How

can you make sure they are interested and listen to what you have to say?



HOW LONG HAVE WE GOT - KEEPING TO TIME

Knowing how long you have got and sticking to it is crucial to good talks.

This means practicing to see whether you have the right amount of material.

Most people find that if they practice in their head or to the bathroom mirror

the actual speech will take about 25 per cent longer. Using a flip chart or

other visual aids will also add considerably to the time. Bear that in mind. If

there is no clock in the room, take your watch off and put it on a table near

you so that you can glance at it occasionally to check your timing.

CONCENTRATION PROBLEMS

People’s ability to concentrate hard for long periods is not too good. You

need to anticipate lack of concentration in the audience.

Concentration levels over a two-hour period look something like this;

When listening to a talk, concentration is usually fairly good for the first 20

or so minutes. For some people, however, it can be as short as five minutes.

Thereafter, maintaining concentration gets harder and harder until they hear

the magic words ‘in conclusion’. Concentration improves slightly at that

point in anticipation of the end of the speech.

This means that you need to find ways of maintaining the audience’s interest

in what you have to say.



OUR OWN BEST TIME

Individually you may have good and less good times of the day. Some

people are better first thing in the morning; others late in the afternoon. If

you find yourself speaking to a group a nerve-racking experience, it can be

wise to try and find a time of day when you feel physically and mentally

able to cope with the task. Again this is not always, possible, but sometimes

can be arranged.

2.8.2 PREPARING THE MATERIAL

Any speech will almost certainly fail unless careful thought is given to the

subject matter. Unstructured, rambling talks tend to be difficult to

concentrate upon. Unless the main points are made very clear for the

audience, the message will be forgotten quickly. The following stages of

activity will help you through the preparation of the material and ensure

that your speech is well structured and lively.

STAGE ONE: BRAINSTORMING

It is essential to get all thoughts and ideas on your subject down on paper.

A useful method for doing this is by making pattern notes. This is a highly

creative method of personal brainstorming. For centuries people have

organized information in lists in the belief that the brain naturally arranged

material in linear form. However, research has shown that the brain is

constantly analyzing, interpreting and juggling whole interrelated networks

of thoughts and ideas. Pattern notes enable the brain to relate to

information far more naturally and efficiently, by forming an interrelated

pattern rather than a list.

Pattern notes are easy to make.

• Take a plain sheet of paper. Write the objective of your talk at the top,

and the main theme of your talk in the centre of the page in a circle.

• Write down all the ideas and thoughts you have on the subject starting

from the circle and branching out along lines of connecting ideas.

• Let your mind be as free as possible. Do not restrict your thoughts by

deciding where each point should go in a list. Your ideas should flow

easily.



• When finished, circle any related ideas and sections and establish your

order of priorities and organization.

STAGE TWO: STRUCTURING AND SELECTING

Most people at this stage have a mass of possible ideas and information

they could use - usually far too much material for the time they have for the

speech.

It is important to keep the number of main points to a minimum. In a 45-

minute speech you should not try to make more than seven main points.

Certainly in a five-minute speech it is difficult to do justice to more than one

or two main points. This may not seem very many, but if you can: to leave

the audience with a very clear picture of what you have said you cannot

expect them to remember masses and masses of points.

You should concentrate on and write the middle of the speech first. Opening

and closing is discussed in stage four.

Selecting the material you are going to use should be dictated by the

following:

• The objective - is some of the information you have irrelevant to the

objective of the speech?

• The audience - do they know most of this already?

• How long have I got?

MUST, SHOULD, COULD - sometimes it is possible to select on the

basis of what the audience must, should and could know. For example,

where talking to a group about the organization’s new appraisal system,

we must tell them how it will operate and their involvement in the system.

We should tell them why the decision has been made to install the system.

We could tell them why this particular system has been chosen against any

other.

This stage is often the hardest. It is always tempting to tell people everything

you know about a subject especially if it is one you know well. The more



you know, the more disciplined and discriminating you need to be. Be highly

selective to suit your audience.

The structure of a talk should follow the pattern of:

• Tell ‘em what you’re going to tell ‘em.

• Tell ‘em.

• Tell ‘em what you’ve told ‘em.

Like news bulletins on the television, you need to tell people what you are

going to cover in your speech. Then expand on each of those points, and

finish by summarizing what you have said, reiterating the main points again.

The following structure is useful to adopt when presenting a case or trying

to persuade people of your view:

• State the proposition.

• Anticipate objections - concede any flaws in the argument. Even if you

do not express them out aloud, it is important to consider what they

might be and select your material appropriately.

• Prove your case - select your best reasons for your proposition. Do

not overload your talk with lots of reasons. Quality is better than quan-

tity.

• Show your practical evidence - build in practical examples of the facts

you are relying upon. Do not slant the evidence.

• End by repeating the proposition.

It makes for much easier listening if you alert your audience to the structure

you are using. This is akin to using headings and paragraphs when writing.

Therefore when you actually deliver your speech it is important to state the

linkages - ‘so let’s look now at the second area I want to cover’.

Another device which works well, is using rhetorical questions i.e. ‘Why

should we consider this subject?’ or ‘what do we need to think about in

implementing this plan?’ Again this provides signposts to the audience and

will generally make your speech easier to follow.



STAGE THREE: ILLUSTRATING

Whenever you speak to a group of people you are competing with their

own vivid imaginations. When you are listening to people talk, you can

easily find yourself drifting off into your own little world.

Most people have mental images or pictures in their minds. As a speaker

you need to talk in pictures and give them to the audience rather than let

them drift off into their own.

This often means simplifying confusing figures into something concrete and

real.

Illustrating what you are saying with real life examples is important too.

STAGE FOUR: OPENING AND CLOSING A TALK

Only when you have completely sorted out the main part of your speech

should you think about opening and closing since the content of the middle

will dictate these.

INTRODUCTION

The introduction can be looked at like this:

I Interest

N Need

T Title

R Ratings

O Objective

INTEREST

Find something to capture the attention of the audience immediately.

Preferably not the usual lines like ‘unaccustomed as I am to public speaking’.



NEED

Show the audience why they need to listen to what you have got to say.

What is the relevance to them?

TITLE AND RATINGS

This is the ‘Tell ‘em what you’re going to tell ‘em’ part. Tell them the subject

of your talk and what you are going to cover.

OBJECTIVE

You may or may not decide to state this explicitly. If you do not, the objective

should shine through to your audience.

CLOSING

The closing section of your talk should be just that. It should be conclusive.

It should not just drift to a halt with words like ‘I think that’s all I’ve got to

say’. Remember that what you say last is the last thought you leave with

your audience. Therefore, if you want to stimulate them into some action,

you should tell them what to do next. You should summarise your main

points again as part of the ‘Tell ‘em what you’ve told ‘em’ routine.

It is essential to write out your opening and closing sentences in full and

incorporate them into your notes (see Stage Five). The opening sentence

will help to get you started and when you have uttered the closing line you

will know you have come to the end, hence avoiding drifting to a halt.

STAGE FIVE: NOTES

Notes should be brief and consist of keywords.

Speakers who use verbatim notes are really reading out aloud rather than

speaking from within. Also completely written out speeches sound stilted

even if learned by heart. This is because written English and spoken English

are not the same.



If you are making a particularly important speech, it is an excellent idea to

write the whole thing out in full, practice, and then reduce it all to keynotes.

Not only will you then be speaking rather than reading, but you will be

able to look at the audience rather than having to keep your eyes on the

page so as not to lose your place.

Notes are best put on cards. There are various good reasons for this:

• they do not shake around as much as sheets of paper If you are

nervous

• you do not need a lectern to prop up all the sheaves of paper, as cards

can be held quite easily

• since they are smaller, they encourage you to use keywords rather

than writing down complete sentences.

Some of the basic rules that follow will help to ensure that what you do put

on cards will be useful.

KEYWORDS

It is essential to use the right words otherwise you may look at the card and

wonder what on earth you meant by ‘environment’ for example.

USE YOUR OWN HANDWRITING

Make your notes in your own handwriting written large. Typewritten notes

are invariably too small to see comfortably. This may mean that you only

have two or three keywords on a card. It is much better to have several

cards than one card with everything crammed on it.

WRITE TIMINGS ON THE CARDS

As a good check of how fast or slow you are going, it can be useful to

write a note to yourself at the point when you expect to be halfway through,

for example. If you are only halfway through a 30 - minute talk at the

20-minute stage, you will need to speed up or cut out some of the material.



WRITE MESSAGES TO YOURSELF WITH DIFFERENT

COLOURED PENS

For example, if you talk too fast write SLOW DOWN in your notes. If you

are not too good at looking at the audience write LOOK UP / AROUND

THE ROOM and so on. When you are up there talking you are probably

concentrating 100 per cent on what you are saying. The sorts of notes can

remind you occasionally of other points to remember.

CLIP THE CARDS TOGETHER

If you have more than one card do clip them together. Treasury tags are

useful for this purpose. Whatever you do, number the cards so that even if

they become separated you can get them back together in the proper order

quickly.

Finally, practice with cards, especially if you have not used them before.

CHECKLIST 2

Preparing the material

• Brainstorm the subject

Make pattern notes

• Structure and select

Keep the number of main points down to an appropriate level

Select on the basis of objective, time, audience, must, should, could

Tell it like the news

tell ‘em what you’re going to tell ‘em

tell ‘em

tell ‘em what you’ve told ‘em

• Use illustrations

Simplify difficult or complex information. Use real-life examples to

illustrate points



• Opening and closing

Write opening and closing sentences in full. Be challenging and cap-

ture the audience in the opening.

Be conclusive when you finish

• Notes

Notes on cards

Use keywords

Write timings and messages to yourself on cards

Clip them together

• Practice timing

WORDS

The audience will determine the words used. Only use jargon in its rightful

place. Be aware of the problems involved with words.

EXAMPLE:

Use concrete, simple language. Do not talk in abstractions. Do not use five

words when one would do e.g. “in the fullness of time” – i.e. “soon” or

“now” would be better. Be conscious of using positive words. Avoid words

like “but”, “try”, “maybe” etc. Avoid sexist and racist language.

Talk in sentences. Just as you would write in sentences you should try to

talk in them too. A talk which is strung together with ‘and’s and ‘buts’ can

be very difficult to follow.

HOW WE SAY IT

The large contribution that this makes to your message is important to

consider. Sarcasm, for example, relies almost totally on the way you say

the words. ‘You’re coming home with me tonight’ could be said in a variety

of ways, with very different meanings!

You contribute to the understanding of the message in a variety of ways:



EXPRESSION

The amount of emphasis placed on particular words will focus attention on

important points. You can show how enthusiastic you are by injecting

expression into what you are saying. If you are not enthusiastic about your

speech you can hardly expect your audience to be.

PAUSING

Do not be afraid of pausing. You do not have to rush through it all like an

express train. Give the audience time to take in and digest what you are

saying. Certainly pause after the main points of your talk.

HAM IT UP

You need to use more expression than usual where talking to a large group.

You need to ham it up quiet considerably to have the same effect as you

would with a group of, say, five. Do not be afraid of this, you have to go

quite a long way before you are in danger of going over the top.

TONE OF VOICE AND PITCH

There is nothing more tedious than listening to a delivery in a monotonous

tone of voice. A voice that moves up and down like a piano scale is much

more interesting. Try practicing and listening to your voice on a tape

recorder.

SPEAK CLEARLY

Try to make sure that your words do not run into one another. If there are

tongue twisting words in your talk, practice them so that they come out

perfectly. Be conscious of “bringing your voice forward in your mouth”. Do

open your mouth when you speak.

SPEAK OUT NOT UP

Most people give up on a speaker they have to strain to hear. Make sure

you are loud enough for everyone in the room. Breathing properly can help

here. Lungs are rather like an organ. If you do not put enough air into them

you get a rather squeaky sound out. Practice breathing deeply. This can

help quell nerves as well, but do not overdo it or you may pass out!



BODY LANGUAGE

All those things you do not actually say make a quite outstanding contribution

to your message: the way you stand, the gestures you use, whether you

look miserable or happy. Unfortunately, in the unnatural environment of

speaking to a group, nervous mannerisms can take over: you cannot bear

to look at the audience so you stare at your notes or some point above

their heads, you shuffle around or pace up and down. How can you

overcome these problems?

LOOK AT THE AUDIENCE

This may be very hard to do but is essential. You need to look at them to

see how they are reacting. Are they bored? Asleep? Looking interested?

Looking at you? You need to worry when the audience stops looking at

you for any length of time. It is usually indicative of not listening. In small

groups you should look at everyone and at eye level, not above their heads.

If people are arranged in a horseshoe shape, you must make sure you look

at the people on the extreme right and left and not just those towards the

back. In a large group the easiest way to maintain eye contact is to draw a

large M or W round the room. This will encompass everyone.

Eye contact is vital in order to maintain audience interest in what you have

to say.

SMILE

Again it is quite hard to smile if you are nervous. Even if you are not

particularly happy, smiling can create the illusion that you are. It is also

surprising how very often the audience smile back. Smiling also has the

added benefit of axing your vocal chords - It can help to make your voice

sound more interesting.

AVOID CREATING BARRIERS

You need to get as near to your audience as possible. Standing behind a

desk or lectern immediately sets up a barrier. It is always tempting to hide

behind something, but is undesirable.



STAND SQUARE

Find a comfortable stance. The best position is standing with feet slightly

apart. Try to avoid leaning up against furniture, and keep hands out of

pockets.

BEWARE OF DISTRACTING MANNERISMS

This does not mean standing rigid. Most of us use our hands to some extent

to add emphasis to what we are saying and we should not stop doing this.

However, waving your arms around all over the place is likely to distract

the audience. Jangling keys and coins in pockets or wearing clanking

jewellery can also distract. The major problem with distracting mannerisms

is that if the audience hooks on to them, it will concentrate on them rather

than listening to your message.

BE NATURAL

Easier said than done, you may say. However, if you concentrate on

getting the message across and stop worrying about yourself, you will have

more chance of coming over naturally.

The best way of making sure you have got most of these points right is to

practice. The most effective way is in front of a video camera so that you

can see yourself as others see you. This is not possible for many.

Alternatively try practicing in front of the family or a group of friends and

asking them to criticize honestly. Without constructive feedback on how

you come over you cannot hope to iron out any problems, or improve.

2.8.3 DIFFERENT METHODS OF PUTTING THE MESSAGE ACROSS

There are many ways open to you to vary the way you actually approach

your subject. In longer talks finding some way of involving the audience

can be helpful in overcoming the concentration problem.

The following alternatives may be useful to consider:

AUDIENCE PARTICIPATION

You might be able to split the audience into groups, ask them to discuss a

particular topic and then report back to the whole group. This is

particularly useful in a training situation.



QUESTION AND ANSWER SESSIONS

It is almost always desirable to invite questions from the audience, but in a

structured way. Question sessions are usually best left until the end of the

talk, but if the session is a long one, breaking up the talk with short

question sessions may be useful. How to set up a question session is

discussed in the next section.

LECTURING

If you are going to talk to your audience for any length of time without

participation from them, you must break up the talk in other ways, possibly

by using visual aids of some sort . You need to find the best approach bearing

in mind the time available and the objective. When the audience participates,

it can take much longer. Keep that in mind.

2.8.4 DEALING WITH QUESTIONS

There are good reasons for inviting questions from the audience. The main

one is that it to contributes towards the message being understood. If one

person asks a question about some topic that is not clear, it would help

everyone else in the audience.

It is important to tell people that there will be an opportunity to ask

questions at the end of the talk. As they listen, questions may occur to them

and they can save them up. This is better than springing the idea on the

audience at the end.

Sometimes you may have a chairperson to deal with questions and this can

help. The chairperson will ask for questions from the audience, watch the

time, repeat the question so the audience can hear it, and if a panel of

speakers is involved, indicate who should answer.

If you do not have a chairperson, the following points should be borne in

mind:

• Do not expect questions to come immediately after you stop talking.

You are asking the audience to take on a different role. They have been

listening until now and may need a few moments to think of the ques-

tions they want to ask.



• Have a plant in the audience if necessary. That is, have someone primed

to ask a question if questions are not forthcoming immediately from the

rest of the audience.

• When someone in the audience asks a question, repeat it, so that ev-

eryone in the room knows what is being answered.

• Answer as concisely as you can. Do not go on and on, but do not make

it so short that it does not answer the question.

• If you do not know the answer, say so. Never on any account invent an

answer. Ask the audience if anyone knows the answer or offer to find

out.

• Take questions from all over the room. Do not concentrate on a

particular group or person if other people want to ask questions.

• When time is running short say ‘Just two more questions, please’.

• If a question is not clear, rephrase it, e.g.: ‘Do I understand you to be

asking …?’

• If a member of the audience is making a statement rather than asking a

question, say: ‘There is a great deal in what you say. May we have the

next question please?’

• If a questioner is hostile, it can be quite useful to ask them to answer

the question themselves, e.g.: ‘What about X?’ The answer could be:

‘Well maybe you’d like to tell us what you think?’ Whatever you do,

try to remain calm and composed.

By following these simple guidelines, question sessions will be productive

and will help considerably in creating a better understanding of the subject

among the audience.

VISUAL AIDS

There are many different types of visual aids you can use to complement

your talk. It is important to consider using them because:



• They break the whole thing up, which is extremely useful in longer talks.

• They are visual - a different activity for the audience from passive lis-

tening.

• They can help illustrate complex information in a simplified way.

What types of visual aids are there?

SLIDES

Either for an overhead projector or a slide projector. Limit the number you

use.

FLIP CHART

A board and easel with sheets of paper which can be written on during a

talk or prepared beforehand and referred to during a talk.

MODELS

If you are talking about a piece of equipment, it is a good idea to have a

model of it there so that people can see and examine it.

FILMS AND VIDEOS

In a training environment, films and videos can often illustrate particular

points very usefully.

Be adventurous with visual aids but do not overdo it. The following points

give some guidelines on their use:

PLAN

Plan the use of visual aids to complement your talk. However, never rely on

them completely. Always be prepared for the worst. If the equipment breaks

down you must be able to talk without the visual aids.

KEEP THEM SIMPLE

On using slides, it is essential to simplify the information you are presenting.

Columns of figures will not add anything at all, but if the information is turned

into a simple graph or bar chart, the visual impact will be more effective.

Do not use too many words on slides. They should not be ‘verbal printouts’.



GIVE TIME

Give time for the audience to look at slides. Do not talk and show slides at

the same time. When you have to move on from the topic illustrated by the

slide, take it off. Do not leave the audience looking at something that does

not relate to what you are saying.

LIMIT THE NUMBER

Limit the number of visual aids to be used. Do no use them for the sake of

it and do not use too many different types. For example, stick to a flip chart

and overhead projector, or just use a slide projector. Do not feel compelled

to use every aid available in the same presentation.

TALK TO THE GROUP

Do not talk to the screen, flip chart or slide. Stay facing the audience. Do

not point to the screen with your arms. If you want to highlight particular

points, use a pointer with a slide projector. With an overhead projector use

a pencil or a pointer on the projector itself, not the screen.

MAKE THEM LARGE AND PUNCHY

Keep slides simple and punchy. If using a flipchart, write in large letters

using a black pen. Blue, red and green are quite difficult to see at a distance.

Make sure everyone in the room is going to be able to see your visual aids.

CHECK ANY EQUIPMENT

Check any equipment before you start your talk. Practise so that you are

familiar with how the equipment works. Check the blinds and lights in the

room if you need to darken it. Always be prepared for the worst and have

extra bulbs and extension leads available.

Using visual aids can be enormously useful in helping to put across what

cannot be said by words alone. Do beware, if slides are poorly produced

they will have exactly the opposite effect and will confuse the audience.

Be prepared to cope without them; if there is a power-cut, for example!



2.8.5 DEALING WITH NERVES

A common reaction to being asked to speak to a group is one of sheer

terror. It is one of the top ten human fears along with spiders and heights. It

is worth taking comfort from the fact that you are not alone.

Do not be fooled, however, into thinking that nerves disappear once you

have become used to speaking to groups. They do not.

There is an old saying that says that the day you have no nerves is the day

to stop. There is a good physiological reason for this. When you are

nervous, your adrenalin flows. Adrenalin is what tones you up to deal with

problem situations. What you have to do is use that adrenalin to help.

The other important fact of life is that however nervous and shaky you may

feel inside, the audience hardly ever notices. People will only notice if you

start behaving unnaturally. Unfortunately; some nervous mannerisms do get

recognized by audiences. You can see shaking hands, for example. You can

also see worried expressions.

To a certain extent you all have to find your own way of controlling your

nerves.

The following suggestions may be useful, as they have certainly worked for

other people.

PREPARE THOROUGHLY

If you have done all you possibly can in preparing your material and

researching the audience, it provides a degree of security. Preparing speeches

takes time, so make sure you are prepared enough.

BEWARE OF THE SELF-FULFILLING PROPHECY

If you think the audience will react in a hostile way, it is easy to become

defensive. Defensiveness is one of those characteristics that can easily come

over in the tone of voice and body language. The audience will then react

on that basis and may well become hostile. This is a trap which many people

fall into. However, if you think that the audience is going to like what you

have to say, they probably will because you will transmit the right vibrations.



STAND WHERE YOU ARE GOING TO SPEAK

In advance, try to get used to what it feels like standing in the spot you will

be speaking from. For example, if you are sitting in a meeting as part of the

group and then come to the front to give a short presentation, the room will

look completely different. This can be off - putting.

TRY OUT YOUR VOICE

This has already been mentioned, but it is important so that you do not

experience that disembodied feeling when you start.

DISTRACT YOURSELF FOR TEN MINUTES BEFORE YOU BEGIN

For many people it is those last few moments before they start that are the

worst. Try distracting yourself and clear your mind of what is to come. Talk

to someone about an unrelated subject or go to the cloakroom. Breathing

deeply or doing a few neck exercises can also help.

NECK EXERCISES

A lot of tension can build up in your neck and shoulders when you are

worried or nervous. Try neck rolling. Lean your head right back and gently

and slowly roll it right round in a circle so your chin falls forward on your

chest. Bring your head back to the start position, rolling it upwards the

other way.

BREATHE DEEPLY

As we have already seen this can help voice production. Breathing deeply

a couple of times does have a calming effect and can help control the

adrenalin flow.

PREPARE ANSWERS TO ANTICIPATED QUESTIONS

Again, by thinking ahead of what might be asked, you can prepare your

answers. This helps ingrain a feeling of security.

DO NOT WORRY ABOUT YOURSELF

The important thing about talking to a group is getting the message across.

Worry about the subject by all means but concentrate on that and not

yourself.



2.8.6 MAKING EFFECTIVE SPEECH

We hold our listeners’ attention more through their feelings than their reason.

We convey our intellectual meaning by the words we use and by their

arrangement. We convey our feelings, that is, our emotional meaning by

the way in which we speak. To make our words effective we need to give

our attention to tune, emphasis and phrasing.

• Tone : Most speakers of the English language use only two or three

tones. The Welsh and West Highlanders of Scotland, on the other hand,

use at least an octave. Even speech is more meaningful when we use

plain range of tone. Practice increasing the range.

• Tempo : Speed of speech is measured by the number of spoken words

per minute. Pace is measured by how quickly the listeners feel the time

is passing. Speech is more interesting to listeners when the speed is

varied. If your average speed is too slow, your listeners become bored

and impatient. On the other hand if your average speed is too fast your

listeners do not have enough time to take in what you are saying and

once again lose interest.

• Emphasis : We put meaning into words by placing emphasis at appro-

priate points. Emphasize important words and phrases.

• Phrasing : The unit of writing is the single word. The unit of speech is

the phrase. It is in the moments of silence between phrases, however

small, that the listener interprets the meaning. Therefore see that the

phrases are separated by pauses so that the listeners can ‘get the pic-

ture’.

• Do not worry about speaking up - speak out.

• Try not to think of the mechanics of speech while actually talking to

people. Train yourself to speak more clearly in a definite practice pe-

riod and so gradually make the ‘artificial’ way become the ‘natural’

way.

• Learn a few passages by heart to practice in spare moments when alone.



Evaluating Feedback

Some members of your test audiences may be inexperienced in giving

feedback. Some suggestions that you might like to share with them prior to

their evaluation of your presentation are as follows:

1. ‘’Own’’ your messages.

State your reactions with ‘’I’’ rather than ‘’you’’ statements that gener-

alize all listeners. Audience reactions vary. By owning your own reac-

tions, you allow the possibility of different responses. (You might invite

other reactions as well). Examples: “I appreciated the way you con-

nected your speech to last week’s class discussion.” “I was confused

when you said.... because....’’

2. Be specific and concrete.

While it might be nice to know that someone liked my introduction, it

doesn’t tell me very much. Instead, one could say, for example, ‘’I

liked the concrete illustrations of the theory X.’’ or ‘’I liked the way

you included your own background and interest in the introduction.’’

3. Focus on behaviors, not on personality characteristics and judgments.

For example, say “I would have liked more eye contact’’ rather than

“It’s clear you’re really not interested in us since you never look at us.’’

Also, limit comments to behaviors that are changeable. Distracting ges-

tures can be brought under control. Calling attention to a stutter, for

example, is probably not helpful in a public setting.

4. Distinguish between observations, inferences, and judgments.

All of these have some role in evaluation but they are quite different.

Observations have to do with what we see and hear; inferences and

conclusions are reached based on those observations and judgments

and/or evaluative response.

Listeners observe differently, and, more important, draw different in-

ferences and judgments from what they see and hear. Therefore, start

by reporting your observations and then explain what you inferred from

them.



Speakers can hear a great deal of feedback on observations. Infer-

ences and judgments are more ‘’hearable’’ when the observations they

are based on are clear observations.

5. Balance positive and negative comments.

Try to emphasize the positive things on which the presenter might work

constructively in the future.

When listening to feedback on your presentation, do not be overly sensitive

to either the wording or the actual comments; some people may feel

uncomfortable giving criticism and may not phrase their comments well. Try

to understand what the test audience member is trying to say about their

understanding of the message you were trying to transmit. You may be

surprised what you felt was a perfectly logical argument may have been lost

on your audience! Ask questions about where the audience felt they started

to lose your message. Determine whether your transitions were effective.

Although your test audience’s feedback is invaluable, remember this is your

presentation. Do not be intimidated into using an approach that is

uncomfortable for you or inconsistent with your goals based on feedback

from your test audience.

Getting Feedback from the Audience

During your practice sessions, you received feedback from the test audience

that you selected. You may have modified your presentation based on their

comments or you may have decided to concentrate on a new speaking

technique during your presentation, for instance, the effective use of pauses.

You would like and need feedback on the actual presentation. You can get

two types of feedback on your actual presentation: you can arrange with

someone prior to the presentation to give you feedback, telling them

specifically what you would like them to look for, or you can approach

persons from the audience after your presentation and get impromptu

feedback from them. Remember, if you select someone from the audience

who does not know you or your topic well, he may feel uncomfortable

making comments on your presentation. You will have to think carefully



about what it is you would like to know and how you will phrase your

questions to get the information you need.

As a last step, always assess your own performance. You must develop

your own ability to size up your audience, recognize their responses, and

modify your speaking style accordingly.

Review Questions

1. Why is it so important to understand your audience and their needs

when planning an oral presentation?

2. Why is it important to pay special attention to defining your purpose

clearly and learning about your audience’s needs when planning an oral

presentation?

3. What is the first step in organizing a presentation?

4. What should a good opening of your presentation accomplish?

5. The process of producing an effective oral presentation includes just

two steps: writing the presentation and delivering the presentation.

a.True b. False

6. Writing about a complex topic is usually more difficult than speaking

intelligently about the same topic.

a. True b. False

7. You should organize an oral presentation just as you would write a writ-

ten message.

a. True b. False

2.9 WHAT IS A GROUP DISCUSSION

Group Discussions (GDs) are formal, organised discussions conducted with

the intention of evaluating a candidate in a peer group situation. The group

may either be asked to discuss a topic or they might be given a case study.

Lately, some institutes have also been coming up with ‘Group Tasks’, which

involve a cooperative effort from the candidates to achieve a task.



But why have group discussions at all? After all, what do GDs test that is

not tested in the written exam or during the personal interview? GDs are

held because business management is essentially a group activity; working

with groups is perhaps the most important parameter of success as a

manager.

What the panel looks for:

All that one observes in a GD can be categorised into two broad areas: the

Content and the Process. The content is all about the ‘matter’ (or the ‘what’)

spoken in the GD. Whereas, the process refers to the ‘how’, ‘when’ and

‘why’ of the GD. Both are equally important and need adequate attention at

all stages.

2.9.1 Communication Skills

The first aspect is one’s power of expression. In a group discussion, a

candidate has to talk effectively so that he / she is able to convince others.

For convincing, one has to speak forcefully and at the same time create an

impact by his / her knowledge of the subject. A candidate who is successful

in holding the attention of the audience creates a positive impact.

It is necessary that you should be precise and clear. As a rule, evaluators

do not look for the wordage produced. Your knowledge on a given subject,

your precision and clarity of thought are the things that are evaluated.

Irrelevant talks lead you nowhere. You should speak as much as necessary,

neither more nor less. Group discussions are not debating stages.

Ability to listen is also what evaluators judge. They look for your ability to

react on what other participants say. Hence, it is necessary that you listen

carefully to others and then react or proceed to add some more points.

Your behavior in the group is also put to test to judge whether you are a

loner or can work in a group.

You should be able to convey your thoughts satisfactorily and convincingly

before a group of people. Confidence and level headedness in doing so is

necessary. These add value to your presentation.



Knowledge and Ideas regarding a given subject

Knowledge of the subject under discussion and clarity of ideas are important.

Knowledge comes from consistent reading on various topics ranging from

science and technology to politics. In-depth knowledge makes one confident

and enthusiastic and this in turn, makes one sound convincing and confident.

Logical reasoning

It includes understanding the topic, generating quality arguments, analysis

and a progressive approach to a justifiable conclusion. This is one of the

necessary attributes to be seen in an influential participant. Such people

convey an impression of being open - minded and logic - driven rather than

opinionated.

Leadership and Coordinating Capabilities

The basic aim of a group discussion is to judge a candidate’s leadership

qualities. The examiner withdraws and becomes a silent spectator once the

discussion starts. A candidate should display tactfulness, skill, understanding

and knowledge on varied topics, enterprise, forcefulness and other leadership

qualities to motivate and influence other candidates who may be almost

equally competent.

Behavioural and personality skills

This includes certain attributes like rapport-building, team membership,

participation, patience, assertion and accommodation, amenability,

leadership, etc.

Exchange of Thoughts

A group discussion is an exchange of thoughts and ideas among members

of a group. These discussions are held for selecting personnel in organisations

where there is a high level of competition. The number of participants in a

group can vary between 8 and 15. Mostly a topic or a situation is given to

group members who have to discuss it within 10 to 20 minutes.



The purpose is to get an idea about candidates in a short time and make

assessments about their skills, which normally cannot be evaluated in an

interview. These skills may be team membership, leadership skills, listening

and articulation skills.

A note is made of your contributions to the discussion, comprehension of

the main idea, the rapport you strike, patience, assertion, accommodation,

amenability, etc. Body language and eye contact too are important points

which are to be considered.

2.9.2 Addressing the Group as a Whole

In a group discussion it is not necessary to address anyone by name. Even

otherwise you may not know everyone’s names. It better to address the

group as a whole.

Address the person farthest from you. If he can hear you everyone else too

can. Needless to add, as for the interview, attend the group discussion in

formal dress. The language used should also be formal, not the language

used in normal conversations. For instance, words and phrases like “yaar”,

“chalta hai”, “CP”, “I dunno”, etc. are out. This is not to say you should use

a high sounding, pedantic language. Avoiding both, just use formal, plain

and simple language. Hinglish (mixture of Hindi and English) should be

discarded.

Confidence and coolness while presenting your viewpoint are of help. See

that you do not keep repeating a point. Do not use more words than

necessary. Do not be superfluous. Try to be specific. Do not exaggerate.

Thorough Preparation

Start making preparations for interview and group discussions right away,

without waiting till the eleventh hour, this is, if and when called for them.

Then the time left may not be adequate. It is important to concentrate on

subject knowledge and general awareness. Hence, the prime need for

thorough preparation. Remember, the competition is very tough.



It may so happen that you are called for interviews and group discussions

from three or four organizations but are not selected by any. The

reason obviously lies in your not being well-prepared.

In a group discussion you may be given a topic and asked to express your

views on it. Or in a case study GD, students have to read a case study and

suggest ways of tackling the problem. For this you should have good

general knowledge, need to be abreast with current affairs, should regularly

read newspapers and magazines. Your group behaviour and communication

skills are on test, i.e. how you convince the others and how clearly you are

able to express your points of view. You should be articulative, generate

ideas, not sound boring, should allow others to speak, and adopt a stand

on a given subject. During the course of the GD this stand can even be

changed, giving the impression that you are open to accommodate others’

viewpoints.

Additional marks may be given for starting or concluding the discussion.

Points to Remember

• Knowledge is strength. A candidate with good reading habits has more

chances of success. In other words, sound knowledge on different topics

like politics, finance, economy, science and technology is helpful.

• Power to convince effectively is another quality that makes you stand

out among others.

• Clarity in speech and expression is yet another essential quality.

• If you are not sure about the topic of discussion, it is better not to

initiate. Lack of knowledge or wrong approach creates a bad impres-

sion. Instead, you might adopt the wait and watch attitude. Listen at-

tentively to others, may be you would be able to come up with a point

or two later.

• A GD is a formal occasion where slang is avoided.



• A GD is not a debating stage. Participants should confine themselves to

expressing their viewpoints. In the second part of the discussion candi-

dates can exercise their choice in agreeing, disagreeing or remaining

neutral.

• Language use should be simple, direct and straight forward.

• Don’t interrupt a speaker when the session is on. Try to score by in-

creasing your size, not by cutting others short.

• Maintain rapport with fellow participants. Eye contact plays a major

role. Non-verbal gestures, such as listening intently or nodding while

appreciating someone’s viewpoint speak of you positively.

• Communicate with each and every candidate present. While speaking

don’t keep looking at a single member. Address the entire group in

such a way that everyone feels you are speaking to him or her.

2.9.3 Strategies for a successful GD

Sailing through Group Discussions successfully is an art. Here are some

strategies that will take you a long way in winning the day.

BE NATURAL: The best mantra is ‘to be your natural self’. Do not

manufacture artificial responses. See a GD or an interview as just an

extension of any other routine situation you encounter. This will induce

spontaneity in your responses and will save you the unnecessary “What

should I do if . . .?” problem.

MUST SPEAK: The first principle of participating in a GD is that you

must speak.

For any GD, take a piece of paper and a pen with you and use them unless

specifically asked by the evaluators not do so. Before you start speaking,

think of the major issues on the topic in the first two minutes. Jot down

points on the paper or mentally work out the framework for analysis. Start

speaking only when you have understood and analysed the topic. If another

participant has started the discussion even before you have read and



understood the topic, you could try to ask the person to wait while you

finish. It may, however, be better to continue with your analysis, while

listening to what is being said, and to speak only when you are ready.

If you do not understand the topic, then either ask the group what the topic

means and accept that your ignorance will be obvious to all or else wait.

May be the meaning will become clear after a few minutes of the

discussion, when someone else discusses it.Avoid speaking in turn as it

leads to an unnatural discussion. A GD involves a free-flowing exchange of

ideas among participants. Even though there will definitely be chaos in most

competitive GDs, as all participants will be keen to be heard, any

suggestion of order, such as speaking, in turn, is unacceptable.

We have never seen a strategy of speaking turn by turn succeed in the

hundreds of GDs we have evaluated so far. Also there have been no

instances of anyone being selected after suggesting that participants speak

turn by turn.

OPENING AND CLOSING A DISCUSSION: Opening a discussion is a

high risk — high return strategy. In most GDs, the opening speaker is the

person who is likely to get the maximum uninterrupted air time. The reason

is simple — most other participants will still be trying to understand the

basic issues in the topic, or are too nervous to speak and are waiting for

someone else to start. Therefore, the evaluators get the best chance to

observe the opening speakers. Now this is a double-edged sword. If the

opening speaker talks sense, he will get credit because he opened the

discussion and took the group in the right direction.

If, on the other hand, the first speaker’s start lacks substance, he will

attract the undivided attention of the evaluators to his shortcomings. He will

be marked as a person who speaks without thinking and merely for the

sake of speaking. Also, he may be marked as someone who leads the group

in the wrong direction and does not make a positive contribution to the

group.

So remember, speaking first can make or mar your GD performance

depending on how you handle it. Speak first only if you have enough

sensible things to say. Otherwise, keep silent and let someone else start.



Try and summarise the discussion at the end. In the summary, do not merely

restate your point of view, also accommodate dissenting viewpoints. If the

group did not reach a consensus, say so in your summary, but remember,

do not force a consensus. Forcing a consensus could end up working against

you.

ENTERING A DISCUSSION: Identify a way to enter the discussion. In

a loud GD where there are three or four aggressive participants, and where

a number of people tend to speak at the same time, it becomes difficult for

others to get a chance to speak. This is the most frequent problem

encountered by participants. There is no foolproof solution to this problem.

And such a situation is pretty much likely to prevail during the actual GD

that you participate in. However, it is crucial that you speak. How can you

do this?

Some guidelines on interjecting in a loud GD: You will have to decide which

one is appropriate.

Enter the troughs: Every GD has its highs and lows. There are times when

the noise level is high and times when it is low. You could wait for the lows

and time your interjection then. However, in some GDs, if one waits for

lows, he/she would never get a chance to speak.

Enter after a person has made his point: The success of an interjection

depends not only on assertiveness but also on the receptiveness of others.

If you interject when someone else has just begun speaking, before he has

made his point, it is unlikely that he will let you have your way. On the other

hand, if you wait till he has made some of his points, he will be more

amenable to letting you speak. But don’t wait too long!

Enter with a supportive statement: A useful way of starting your interjection

is by supporting a point that has just been made. People will let you speak

if they think you agree with them or if you praise them. Try starting by

saying something like, “I agree with that point and I would like to add . . .”

Alternatively, praise the person who had just spoken by saying, “I think that

is a very important point . . .” In all probability, he will let you speak.



Group dynamics

A GD, as I mentioned earlier, is a formal peer group situation and tests your

behaviour as well as your influence on the group. Formal language and mutual

respect are obvious requirements. In addition to the above, you need —

• Willingness to listen and discuss various points of view. In fact, you

must not take strong views at the beginning, and try to analyse the pros

and cons of a situation.

• Learn to disagree politely, if required. In fact, it is far better to put

forward your point of view (when it conflicts with someone else) with-

out specifically saying ‘I disagree’ or ‘You’re wrong.’

• Show appreciation for good points made by others. You can make a

positive contribution by agreeing to and expanding an argument made

by someone else.

• Seize the opportunity to make a summary towards the end, better still,

a part summary — “Okay, so we have discussed x, y, z points. We

agree on these and we are discussing these...” Partial agreement or

part consensus is a sign of the group’s progress. Complete agreement

is nearly impossible in the timeframe allotted.

2.9.4 Types of GDs

Topic-based

• Knowledge intensive: Background knowledge of subject is essential

for effective participation here. For example, ‘Should India go in for

full convertibility of the rupee.’

• Non-knowledge intensive: Requires structured thinking, but subject

knowledge is not required. For example, ‘Women make better

managers’.

• Abstract: Requires out of the box thinking, analogy and example-based

discussion. For example: ‘Money is sweeter than honey’ or ‘Blue is

better than red.’



Case studies

A structured discussion of a specific situation, given as a case.

Role plays

Specific case where each participant is allotted a role to play.

Group tasks

Extension of case studies where specific objectives are to be

achieved as a group.

Conducting GDs

While there is a great deal of variety in the methodology of conducting a

Group Discussion, let’s discuss the methodology commonly used for B-

school selections:

Normally 8-10 students are taken as a group, though in some cases, up to

16 people may be included in a group. Generally 10-15 minutes is given

for discussion. For a topic-based GD, two to three minutes of thinking time

may be given, though often the group is told to start right away. For case

studies, however, about 15 minutes thinking time is given.

The evaluation is done by one or two experts, usually professors from the

B-school itself, called moderators. Please remember moderators are experts

with a lot of experience and can be counted upon to observe all the details

of a GD, however chaotic it may be.

The candidates may be seated in a circle or rectangular arrangement, with

or without a table. The seating arrangement may be prefixed or there may

be free seating.

The discussion may be stopped at the preset time or even earlier. A

conclusion or consensus may be asked for, though usually that does not

occur. A written summary or an oral summary may be asked for at the end

of the discussion from each candidate.

How to prepare

Content :

• Develop subject knowledge on current affairs, general awareness and

business trends.



• Structure arguments on selected topics, considering both sides to the

argument.

• Plan for short and lucid points.

Practice :

• GD skills cannot be learned from books. Form/ join practice groups.

• Get skilled people to observe and give feedback.

• Spend a lot of time analysing each GD performance, and plan specific

improvements.

As the term itself suggests, a GD is a discussion, but most students

misconstrue it to be a debate. They consider it to be a wrestling match and

try to score points over the other participants. Consequently, you find a

‘fish market’ situation in most GDs. What is actually expected in a GD

is participation in a systematic way on a particular topic.

The prospect of a GD tends to leave most students petrified. You can get

rid of that feeling of fear by remembering you have experienced group

discussions right from childhood. Remember those heated discussions you

had across the dinner table with family members, friends and

relatives? Consciously or unconsciously, they have helped you learn a thing

or two about discussing in a group.

Your parents may have come across as the most heard and respected as

they were much better well informed. Besides, instead of forcing their point

of view on you, they heard you out and presented their points in a logical

and methodical manner because they had the strength of content and courage

of conviction.

As a result, you would have often felt the desire to prove that you were

right and they were wrong. A bundle of angst would build within you.

Discard that feeling now. Remember, a GD is a discussion — and not a

debate – among the members of a group.



Discussion versus debate

Human beings love debates because we like to win and see others lose. A

debate is a perfect situation for expressing intense emotions. A GD, however,

calls for a lot more maturity and logic.

The purpose of a GD, though conducted in a competitive mode, is not to

establish you as a winner and others as losers. Its purpose, as far as you

are concerned, is to help you come across as a person with sound, logical

reasoning and the ability to respect the viewpoint of others.

A critical difference between a GD and a debate is that, while a debate

begins with two groups’ bids to outwit each other, a discussion is evolutionary;

this essentially means participants have the opportunity to refine their views

in the course of the discussion. Thus, every member needs to contribute

substantially and add to the existing knowledge base instead of pulling

each other down.

The difference, thus, lies not just in style, but also in the mindset that is

required to tackle the challenges.

Why institutes conduct a GD ?

How often have you called a friend in office to be told that he is in a meeting?

Institutes conduct a GD because, as a manager, you will be required to

attend and conduct innumerable meetings. A GD is a simulation of what

you can expect in a meeting at your workplace.

Depending on the kind of profile you have and the company you work for,

you will be part of meetings ranging from brand launches and employee

performance appraisals to company financials, etc. For instance, if you have

a meeting where senior employees are working out a strategy to launch a

new soap in the market, this is what is expected of you before and during

the meeting.

~ You will go well prepared for the meeting; this means you need to

have sufficient information on the likely points of discussion.

~ During the meeting, you will let everyone have his say. When your turn

comes, you will present your views forcefully and logically.



~ Whenever you disagree with somebody, you will present your points

logically and makes sure everybody understands what you have to say.

~ You will always attack points and not people.

~ You will carefully listen to other people’s points and try to refine your

own by using other people’s inputs on the subject.

How to gear up for a GD

The most important thing from now on till the time of the 20-minute GD

challenge is to build your knowledge base. You must have done your daily

dose of reading — newspapers, magazines, etc. — Analyse issues from

various angles.

~ Maintain a positive attitude. Stay motivated and excited about the

upcoming challenge.

The Group Discussion and Personal Interview stage is also the most

decisive one; a bad performance here can undo all the good work you put

in CAT. So, continue to stay focused and competitive.

~ One of the most critical challenges of coming across as a good

participant in a discussion is to have the ability to see things from the

other person’s viewpoint and respect it even if you strongly disagree.

Practice makes you perfect

~ As part of your preparation, you must participate in a few mock GDs.

Run through these performances later, identify your areas of strength

and areas for improvement and work on them consciously.

~ Success in a GD also depends on outgrowing old habits like indulging

in small talk with a group of friends. Whenever you have a gathering of

sorts, try not to indulge in loose talk. Focus on discussing a topic of

current relevance. Thus, an informal gathering of friends can be con-

verted into a GD practice session.

After each discussion, you must, as a group, analyse one another individually

and suggest areas for improvement. This way, you will also get exposed to

your fellow aspirants’ perspectives and broaden your thought process.



The skills you develop to ace your GD will prove to be an asset even after

you begin your professional career.

2.10 MEETING MANAGEMENT

In any organization, “meetings” are a vital part of the organization of work

and the flow of information. They act as a mechanism for gathering resources

from many sources and pooling them towards a common objective. They

are disliked and mocked because they are usually futile, boring, time-wasting,

dull, and inconvenient with nothing for most people to do except doodle

while some opinionated has-been extols the virtues of his/her last great

(misunderstood) idea. Your challenge is to break this mould and to make

your meetings effective. As with every other managed activity, meetings

should be planned beforehand, monitored for effectiveness, and reviewed

afterwards for improving their management.

A meeting is the ultimate form of managed conversation; as a manager, you

can organize the information and structure of the meeting to support the

effective communication of the participants. Some of the ideas below may

seem a little too precise for an easy going, relaxed, semi-informal team

atmosphere - but if you manage to gain a reputation for holding decisive,

effective meetings, then people will value this efficiency and to prepare

professionally so that their contribution will be heard. While meetings are

wonderful tools for generating ideas, expanding on thoughts and managing

group activity, this face-to-face contact with team members and colleagues

can easily fail without adequate preparation and leadership.

2.10.1 PREPARATION

To ensure everyone involved has the opportunity to provide their input,

preparation has to begin with

• Identify the purpose, or expected outcome of the meeting.

• Make sure the right people will be there.

• Develop the agenda.



• Prepare necessary materials.

• Double check the room setup.

• Lead the meeting as a facilitator.

• Agree on ground rules.

• Practice facilitation skills.

• Use consensus-building and decision-making techniques.

• Be prepared to handle conflict as it surfaces.

• Clarify “next steps” and assignments.

• Reflect on effectiveness of the meeting (evaluation).

Reasons for meeting

People meet for one of, or for a combination of these reasons:

• Information exchange (acquiring or disseminating information or both)

• Self-awareness or consciousness raising

• Learning (topics and skills)

• Creative thinking and generating ideas (brainstorming)

• Critical thinking (analysis, goal setting, problem solving,

decision-making)

• Accomplishing tasks

• Building relationships and commitment

Agenda

Knowing the purpose of the meeting is a first step in structuring the agenda.

Having a firm idea of where you want to be by the end of of the meeting



suggests what must be covered during the meeting. Do we need to review

last year’s budget? Do we want to create a common vision of our

organization in the year 2020? If we want consensus on four short-term

goals, how can we both inspire creative thinking and maintain a sense of

reality?

Each step in reaching the desired meeting outcome is thought through

carefully to determine the amount of time needed.

• Establish how long the meeting is to last.

• List the agenda items that need to be covered or process steps that

need to occur.

• Estimate how long each item will take factoring in time for dialogue.

• Leave about 15 minutes minimum at the end for summary and

agreement on what comes next.

Should you cancel?

As with all conversations, you must first ask: is it worth your time? If the

meeting involves the interchange of views and the communication of the

current status of related projects, then you should be generous with your

time. But you should always consider canceling a meeting which has little

tangible value.

How long?

It may seem difficult to predict the length of a discussion, but you must.

Discussions tend to fill the available time which means that if the meeting is

open-ended, it will drift on forever. You should stipulate a time for the end

of the meeting so that everyone knows, and everyone can plan the rest of

their day with confidence.

It is wise to make this expectation known to everyone involved well in

advance and to remind them at the beginning of the meeting. There is often

a tendency to view meetings as a little relaxation since no one has to be

active throughout. You can redress this view by stressing the time-scale



and thus forcing the pace of the discussion: “this is what we have to achieve,

this is how long we have to get it done”.

If some unexpected point arises during the meeting then realize that since it

is unexpected: 1) you might not have the right people present, 2) those

present may not have the necessary information, and 3) a little thought might

save a lot of discussion. If the new discussion looks likely to be more than

a few moments, stop it and deal with the agreed agenda. The new topic

should then be dealt with at another “planned” meeting.

Who should attend?

As a general rule, planning can be accomplished by a sub-group within an

organization not everyone has to participate. Ideally, the planning group

will be comprised of at least one person from each unit or each level of

organizational work (i.e., staff, board, volunteer). In addition to

representative participation, the planning group should have someone with

authority to make decisions, someone who has responsibility for carrying

out decisions, someone who knows the milieux backwards and forwards

(subject matter expertise), and input from someone who uses or benefits

from the service or product the organization offers.

In addition to diversity of experience, planning teams should encompass

diversity of thinking styles. The world sometimes seems to be sharply divided

into two types of people : big picture visionaries, and practical nuts-and-

bolts people. Planning teams require both types. The big picture folks have

difficulty reaching closure and won’t be able to convert a vision to an action

plan. Developing step-by-step procedures is what the nuts-and-bolts types

like doing best.

2.10.2 MEETING MANAGEMENT - CONDUCTING

Whether you actually sit as the Chair or simply lead from the side-lines, as

the manager you must provide the necessary support to coordinate the

contributions of the participants. The degree of control which you exercise

over the meeting will vary throughout; if you get the structure right at the

beginning, a meeting can effectively run itself especially if the participants

know each other well. In a team, your role may be partially undertaken by

others; but if not, you must manage.



Maintaining Communication

Your most important tools are:

• Clarification - always clarify: the purpose of the meeting, the time al-

lowed, the rules to be observed (if agreed) by everyone.

• Summary - at each stage of the proceedings, you should summarize the

current position and progress: this is what we have achieved/agreed,

this is where we have reached.

• Focus on stated goals - at each divergence or pause, re-focus the pro-

ceedings on the original goals.

Code of conduct

In any meeting, it is possible to begin the proceedings by establishing a

code of conduct, often by merely stating it and asking for any objections

(which will only be accepted if a demonstrably better system is proposed).

Thus if the group contains opinionated wind-bags, you might all agree at

the onset that all contributions should be limited to two minutes (which

focuses the mind admirably). You can then impose this with the full backing

of the whole group.

Matching method to purpose

The (stated) purpose of a meeting may suggest a specific way of conducting

the event, and each section might be conducted differently. For instance, if

the purpose is:

• to convey information, the meeting might begin with a formal

presentation followed by questions

• to seek information, the meeting would start with a short (clear)

statement of the topic/problem and then an open discussion supported

by notes on a display, or a formal brainstorming session

• to make a decision, the meeting might review the background and

options, establish the criteria to be applied, agree who should make

the decision and how, and then do it



• to ratify/explain decisions, etc etc.

As always, once you have paused to ask yourself the questions: what is the

purpose of the meeting and how can it be most effectively achieved; your

common sense will then suggest a working method to expedite the

proceedings. You just have to deliberately pause. Manage the process of

the meeting and the meeting will work.

Support

The success of a meeting will often depend upon the confidence with which

the individuals will participate. Thus all ideas should be welcome. No one

should be laughed at or dismissed (“laughed with” is good, “laughed at” is

destructive). This means that even bad ideas should be treated seriously -

and at least merit a specific reason for not being pursued further. Not only

is this supportive to the speaker, it could also be that a good idea has been

misunderstood and would be lost if merely rejected. But basically people

should be able to make naive contributions without being made to feel stupid,

otherwise you may never hear the best ideas of all.

Avoid direct criticism of any person. For instance, if someone has not come

prepared then that fault is obvious to all. If you leave the criticism as being

simply that implicit in the peer pressure, then it is diffuse and general; if you

explicitly rebuke that person, then it is personal and from you (which may

raise unnecessary conflict). You should merely seek an undertaking for the

missing preparation to be done: we need to know this before we can

proceed, could you circulate it to us by tomorrow lunch?

2.10.3 Responding to problems

The rest of this section is devoted to ideas of how you might deal with the

various problems associated with the volatile world of meetings. Some are

best undertaken by the designated Chair; but if he/she is ineffective, or if no

one has been appointed, you should feel free to help any meeting to

progress. After all, why should you allow your time to be wasted.

If a participant strays from the agenda item, call him/her back: “we should

deal with that separately, but what do you feel about the issue X?”



If there is confusion, you might ask: “do I understand correctly that ...?”

If the speaker begins to ramble, wait until an inhalation of breath and jump

in: “yes I understand that such and such, does any one disagree?”

If a point is too woolly or too vague ask for greater clarity: “what exactly do

you have in mind?”

If someone interrupts (someone other than a rambler), you should suggest

that: “we hear your contribution after Y has finished.”

If people chat, you might either simply state your difficulty in hearing/

concentrating on the real speaker. or ask them a direct question: “what do

you think about that point.”

If someone gestures disagreement with the speaker (e.g. by a grimace),

then make sure they are brought into the discussion next: “what do you

think about it ? ”

If you do not understand, say so: “I do not understand that, would you

explain it a little more; or do you mean X or Y?”

If there is an error, look for a good point first: “I see how that would work

if X Y Z, but what would happen if A B C?”

If you disagree, be very specific: “I disagree because ...”

CONCLUDING REMARKS

The tower of Babel collapsed because people could no longer communicate;

their speech became so different that no one could understand another. You

need to communicate to coordinate your own work and that of others;

without explicit effort your conversation will lack communication and so

your work too will collapse through misunderstanding and error. The key is

to treat a conversation as you would any other managed activity: by

establishing an aim, planning what to do, and checking afterwards that you

have achieved that aim. Only in this way can you work effectively with

others in building through common effort.



REVIEW QUESTIONS :

1 What are the various types of non-verbal communication ? How can

non – verbal communication be used effectively ?

2 How is non – verbal communication different from verbal communica-

tion ? What are its strengths and limitations ?

3 “Face is the index of mind. “Discuss with reference to facial expres-

sions.

4 Bring out the significance of the statement, “Bodies do not lie”.

5 Write a short note on any two facets of body language (Face, eyes,

voice, etc.).

6 Write brief note on importance of feedback in business communica-

tion.

7 List out ant any four barriers to effective communication.

8 Why is the extemporaneous method of delivery superior to the other

methods for business presentation?

9 What are five specific do’s and five specific don’ts that should be

remembered while interviewing?

10 What communication skills are you likely to use in a job interview?

Which will be most important to the recruiter?



“The word that is heard perishes,

but the letter that is written remains”.

3.1 INTRODUCTION

Peter Drucker, management guru, claims that more than 60% of all

management problems result from breakdowns in communications. A major

study by the Rockefeller Foundation found that 68% of the customers who

quit buying from their regular suppliers do so because employees fail to

communicate effectively with those customers. Efficiency experts claim that

at least 40% of the average worker’s time is spent doing tasks that are

either unnecessary or have to be done over because they were not done

according to instructions. So, as you can see, the ability to communicate

with precision has a tremendous impact on the bottom line. One way to

communicate precisely is to put it in writing. Despite the many modern

communication methods available today, business letters are still very often

the main means of establishing business relations with other organisations.

Business letters are an ambassador for every company, so a good

impression is essential.

3. 2 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After studying this lesson, you will able to:

• state the meaning of Business Correspondence;

• explain the importance of Business Correspondence;

• describe the essential qualities of a good business letter;

UNIT 3 BUSINESS LETTERS



• identify the various parts of a business letter; and

• recognize the different types of letters used in business.

3.3. BASICS OF BUSINESS LETTER

Meaning of Business Correspondence

Communication through exchange of letters is known as correspondence.

We communicate our feelings, thoughts etc. to our friends and relatives

through letters that may be called personal correspondence. A businessman

also writes and receives letters in his day to-day transactions, which may

be called business correspondence. Business correspondence or business

letter is a written communication between two parties. Businessmen may

write letters to supplier of goods and also receive letters from the suppliers.

Customers may write letters to businessmen seeking information about

availability of goods, price, quality, sample etc. or place order for purchase

of goods. Thus, business letters may be defined as a media or means through

which views are expressed and ideas or information is communicated in

writing in the process of business activities.

Importance of Business Correspondence

Now-a-days business operations are not restricted to any locality, state or

nation. Today production takes place in one area but consumption takes

place everywhere. Since the businessmen as well as customers live in far

off places they don’t have sufficient time to contact each other personally.

Thus, there arises the need for writing letters. In the past the situation was

not so. Business letters were not essential in olden days. But now the

importance of letters has increased because of vast expansion of business,

increase in demand as well as supply of goods. Let us learn about the

importance of business letters.

i) Helps in maintaining proper relationship

Now-a-days business activities are not confined to any one area or locality.

The businessmen as well as customers are scattered throughout the

country. Thus, there is a need to maintain proper relationship among them

by using appropriate means of communication. Here business letters play



an important role. The customers can write letters to the businessman

seeking information about products and businessmen also supply various

information to customers. This helps them to carry on business on national

and international basis.

ii) Inexpensive and convenient mode

Though there are other modes of communication like telephone, telex, fax,

etc, business information can be provided and obtained economically and

conveniently through letters.

iii) Creates and maintains goodwill

Sometimes business letters are written to create and enhance goodwill.

Businessmen at times send letters to enquire about complaints and

suggestions of their customers. They also send letters to inform the customers

about the availability of a new product, clearance sale etc. All these result in

cordial relations with the customers, which in turn enhances the goodwill of

the business.

iii) Serves as evidence

We cannot expect a trader to memorise all facts and figures in a conversation

that normally takes place among businessmen. Through letters, he can keep

a record of all facts. Thus, letters can serve as evidence in case of dispute

between two parties.

iv) Help in expansion of business

Business requires information regarding competing products, prevailing

prices, promotion, market activities, etc. If the trader has to run from place

to place to get information, he will end up doing nothing. It will simply result

in loss of time. But through business letters, he can make all enquiries about

the products and the markets. He can also receive orders from different

countries and, thus enhance sales.



EXERCISE

Given below are certain statements. Write ‘T’ against true statements and ‘F’

against false statements.

i. Letter is a form of written communication.

ii. Through business letters, personal contact can be maintained between

buyer and seller.

iii. Business letters lead to decline the goodwill of the firm.

iv. Letter is a convenient and economic mode of communication.

v. Business letters do not help in removing misunderstanding between buyer

and seller.

Essential Qualities of a Good Business Letter.

A letter should serve the purpose for which it is written. If a businessman

writes a letter to the supplier for purchase of goods, the letter should contain

all the relevant information relating to the product, mode of payment,

packaging, transportation of goods, etc. clearly and specifically. Otherwise,

there will be confusion that may cause delay in getting the goods. Again the

quality of paper used in the letter, its size, colour etc. also need special

attention, because it creates a positive impression in the mind of the

receiver. We may classify the qualities of a good business letter as:

a. Inner Qualities; and

b. Outer Qualities

a) INNER QUALITIES - The inner qualities of a good business letter

refer to the quality of language, its presentation, etc. These facilitate

quick processing of the request and that leads to prompt action. Let us

discuss the various inner qualities of a good business letter.

(i) Simplicity - Simple and easy language should be used for writing

business letters. Difficult words should be strictly avoided, as one

cannot expect the reader to refer to the dictionary every time while

reading a letter.



(ii) Clarity - The language should be clear, so that the receiver will

understand the message immediately, easily and correctly. Ambiguous

language creates confusion. The letter will serve the purpose if the

receiver understands it in the same manner in which it is intended by

the sender.

(iii) Accuracy - The statements written in the letter should be accurate to

the best of the sender’s knowledge. Accuracy demands that there are

no errors in the usage of language - in grammar, spellings, punctuations

etc. An accurate letter is always appreciated.

(iv) Completeness - A complete letter is one that provides all necessary

information to the users. For example, while sending an order we should

mention the desirable features of the goods, i.e., their quality, shape,

colour, design, quantity, date of delivery, mode of transportation, etc.

(v) Relevance - The letter should contain only essential information.

Irrelevant information should not be included while sending any

business correspondence.

(vi) Courtesy - Courtesy wins the heart of the reader. In business letters,

courtesy can be shown/expressed by using words like please, thank

you, etc.

(vii) Neatness - A neat letter is always impressive. A letter either

handwritten or typed, should be neat and attractive in appearance.

Overwriting and cuttings should be avoided.

b) Outer Qualities - The outer qualities of a good business letter refers

to the appearance of the letter. It includes the quality of paper used,

colour of the paper, size of the paper etc. Good quality paper gives a

favourable impression in the mind of the reader. It also helps in docu-

menting the letters properly. Let us discuss the various outer qualities

of a good business letter.

(i) Quality of paper - The paper used should be in accordance with the

economic status of the firm. Now-a-days the cost of the paper is very

high. Therefore, good paper should be used for original copy and

ordinary paper may be used for duplicate copy.



(ii) Colour of the paper - It is better to use different colours for different

types of letters, so that the receiver will identify the letters quickly and

prompt action can be taken.

(iii) Size of the paper - Standard size paper (A4) should be used while

writing business letters. The size of the paper should be in accordance

with the envelopes available in the market.

(iv) Folding of letter- The letter should be folded properly and uniformly.

Care should be taken to give minimum folds to the letter so that it will fit

the size of the envelope. If window envelope is used then folding should

be done in such a way that the address of the receiver is clearly visible

through the transparent part of the envelope.

(v) Envelope - The size and quality of the envelope also need special

attention. The size of the envelope should fit the size of the letters.

Business firms use different types of envelopes i.e., ordinary envelope,

window envelope, laminated envelope etc. In a window envelope there

is no need to write the address of the receiver separately on the

envelope. It is clearly visible through the transparent part on the face of

the envelope, which may be called as window. In a laminated

envelope, a thin plastic sheet or cloth is pasted on the inner side that

gives extra protection to letters from being damaged during transit.

Review Quiz

Fill in the blanks with suitable words.

i) Apart from ordinary envelopes, we may also use ________ or _______

envelopes for sending business letters.

ii) To make a letter courteous, words like ________ and ________ should

be used.

iii) Business letter should contain only ________ information.

iv) Accuracy demands no error in the usage of ________

v) Business letters should be always neat and ________ in appearance.



II. Match the following.

a) The receiver understands the message i) Relevance

in the same way as intended by the sender.

b) There should be no errors in the usage ii) Courtesy

of language in business letter.

c) Relevant information should be iii) Accuracy

provided in business letter.

d) Words of anger should iv)Clarity

not be used in any business letters.

Parts of a Business Letter

1. Heading

2. Date

3. Reference

4. Inside Address

5. Subject

6. Salutation

7. Body of the letter

8. Complimentary close (Subscription)

9. Signature

10. Enclosures

11. Copy Circulation

12. Post Script

Heading



The heading of a business letter usually contains the name and postal address

of the business, E-mail address, Web-site address,

Telephone Number, Fax Number, Trade Mark or logo of the business

(if any).

Date

The dateline is used to indicate the date that the letter was written. However,

if you have taken a number of days to complete your letter use the date it

was finished in the date line. When writing to companies in the United States,

use the American date format. (The United States-based convention for

formatting a date places the month before the day. For example: June 11,

2006. ) Write out the month, day and year two inches from the top of the

page. Depending which format you are using for your letter, either left justify

the date or center it horizontally.

Sender’s Address

Including the address of the sender is optional. If you choose to include it,

place the address one line below the date. Do not write the sender’s name

or title, as it is included in the letter’s closing. Include only the street address,

city and postal code. Another option is to include the sender’s address

directly after the closing signature.

Inside Address

The inside address is the recipient’s address. It is always best to write to a

specific individual at the firm to which you are writing. If you do not have

the person’s name, do some research by calling the company or speaking

with employees from the company. Include a personal title such as Ms.,

Mrs., Mr., or Dr. Follow a woman’s preference in being addressed as Miss,

Mrs., or Ms. If you are unsure of a woman’s preference in being addressed,

use Ms. If there is a possibility that the person to whom you are writing is a

Dr. or has some other title, use that title. Usually, people will not mind being

addressed by a higher title than they actually possess. To write the address,

use the Post Office Format. For international addresses, type the name of

the country in all-capital letters on the last line. The inside address begins



one line below the sender’s address or one inch below the date. It should

be left justified, no matter which format you are using.

Subject - It is a statement in brief, that indicates the matter to which the

letter relates. It attracts the attention of the receiver immediately and helps

him to know quickly what the letter is about. For example,

Subject: Your complaint No. C 12345 dated 12 March 2006.

Subject: Enquiry about BPL television

Salutation

Use the same name as the inside address, including the personal title. If you

know the person and typically address them by their first name, it is

acceptable to use only the first name in the salutation (i.e., Dear Lucy:). In

all other cases, however, use the personal title and full name followed by a

colon. Leave one line blank after the salutation.

Various other forms of salutation are:

Sir/Madam: For official and formal correspondence

Dear Sir/Madam: For addressing an individual

Dear Sirs/Dear Madam: For addressing a firm or company.

Body

For block and modified block formats, single space and left justify each

paragraph within the body of the letter. Leave a blank line between each

paragraph. When writing a business letter, be careful to remember that

conciseness is very important. In the first paragraph, consider a friendly

opening and then a statement of the main point. The next paragraph should

begin justifying the importance of the main point. In the next few paragraphs,

continue justification with background information and supporting details.



The closing paragraph should restate the purpose of the letter and, in some

cases, request some type of action.

Closing

The closing begins at the same horizontal point as your date and one line

after the last body paragraph. Capitalize the first word only (i.e., Thank

you) and leave four lines between the closing and the sender’s name for a

signature. If a colon follows the salutation, a comma should follow the closing;

otherwise, there is no punctuation after the closing.

Signature - It is written in ink, immediately below the complimentary close.

As far as possible, the signature should be legible. The name of the writer

should be typed immediately below the signature. The designation is given

below the typed name. Where no letterhead is in use, the name of the

company too could be included below the designation of the writer. For

example:

Yours faithfully

For M/S ABC Electronics

(Signature)

KUMAR

Partner

Enclosures

If you have enclosed any documents along with the letter, such as a resume,

you indicate this simply by typing ‘Enclosures’ one line below the closing.

As an option, you may list the name of each document you are including in

the envelope. For instance, if you have included many documents and need



to insure that the recipient is aware of each document, it may be a good

idea to list the names.

For example :

Encl : (i) The list of goods received

(ii) A cheque for Rs. One Thousand dt. Feb. 27, 2005 (Cheque No........)

towards payment for goods supplied.

Post script

This is required when the writer wants to add something, which is not

included in the body of the letter. It is expressed as P.S. For example,

P.S. - In our offer, we provide two years warranty

Typist initials

Typist initials are used to indicate the person who typed the letter. If you

typed the letter yourself, omit the typist initials.

Format and font

When writing business letters, you must pay special attention to the format

and font used. The most common layout of a business letter is known as

block format. Using this format, the entire letter is left justified and single

spaced except for a double space between paragraphs. Another widely

utilized format is known as modified block format. In this type, the body of

the letter is left justified and single-spaced. However, the date and closing

are in alignment in the center of the page. The final, and least used, style is

semi-block. It is much like the modified block style except that each

paragraph is indented instead of left justified.



The following table shows examples of the different formats

March 16, 2006

Ernie English

1234 Writing Lab Lane

Write City, INDIA 12345

Dear Mr. English:

The first paragraph of a typicalbusiness letter is used to state

the main point of the letter.

Begin with a friendly opening;then quickly transition into the

purpose of your letter. Use a

couple of sentences to explainthe purpose, but do not go in

to detail until the next

paragraph.

Beginning with the second

paragraph, state the supportingdetails to justify your purpose.

These may take the form of

background information,statistics or first-hand

accounts. A few short

paragraphs within the body of

the letter should be enough to

support your reasoning.

Finally, in the closing

paragraph, briefly restate your

purpose and why it isimportant. If the purpose of

your letter is employment

related, consider ending yourletter with your contact

information. However, if the

purpose is informational, think

about closing with gratitude

for the reader’s time.

Sincerely,

Lucy Letter

123 Winner’s Road

New Employee Town, PA

March 16, 2006

Ernie English



Dear Mr. English:

The first paragraph of a typicalbusiness letter is used to state

the main point of the letter.

Begin with a friendly opening;then quickly transition into the

purpose of your letter. Use a

couple of sentences to explainthe purpose, but do not go in

to detail until the next

paragraph.


















Sincerely,

Lucy Letter

March 16, 2006

Ernie English



Dear Mr. English:

The first paragraph of atypical business letter is used

to state the main point of the

letter. Begin with a friendlyopening; then quickly

transition into the purpose of

your letter. Use a couple ofsentences to explain the

purpose, but do not go in to

detail until the next paragraph.


















Sincerely,

Lucy Letter



Review quiz

Fill in the blanks

i. The complementary close must be in accordance with the _________.

ii. Below the signature and name of the writer, his ____ is also written.

iii. In the main part of the body of the letter _____ is written..

iv. Dear Sir is a form of __________.

v. The body of the letter is usually divided into ______ part(s).

3.4 How To Write A Sales Letter

A primary and widely-used form of communication, a sales letter is a

marketing tool that can build your client base and increase your sales. This

lesson will take you step-by-step through the process of writing an effective

sales letter, from deciding what your objective is, through editing your final

draft.

What You Should Know Before Getting Started

• Sales Letter and Direct Mail Letter Comparison

• Businesses That Use Sales Letters

Process of Developing a Sales Letter

A. Plan

B. Outline

C. Write

A primary and widely-used form of communication, a sales letter is a

marketing tool that can build your client base and increase your sales. A

result-oriented sales letter requires careful planning and must encompass

the principles of effective sales writing.



Sales Letter And Direct Mail Letter Comparison

A sales letter is similar to a direct mail letter. Both seek to accomplish the

following:

• Generate sales by giving a prospect as many persuasive reasons to buy

as possible.

• Educate and inform potential customers about your company and your

products and services.

• Despite similarities, a sales letter is different from a direct mail letter in

these important ways:

• A direct mail letter is almost always a component of a mass mailing,

whereas a sales letter is not. A sales letter can be aimed at as few as

one or two prospects.

• A sales letter is a more personalized form of communication. Sales

people often use sales letters to follow-up with prospects after an ini-

tial meeting or telephone contact has been made.

• A direct mail letter aims for immediate sales action on the part of the

prospect, but a sales letter often attempts to lay the groundwork for

future sales by assisting in establishing a relationship with the prospect.

Businesses That Use Sales Letters

If you are selling a relatively inexpensive product or service, such as a

magazine subscription or a carpet cleaning service, a direct mail letter is an

appropriate marketing tool. With relatively inexpensive products you can

motivate your customers to take immediate action, such as use a coupon or

fill out an order form.

The more expensive your product or service however, the more personalized

your sales efforts need to be to overcome a prospect’s sense of risk. If

you’re selling costly medical products to a hospital for example, you will

have to convince the administrators to invest a considerable amount of

money in your company. Plus, you may need to establish purchase and



payment plans and will have to become actively involved in solving any

problems that may arise from use of your products. A sales letter would

begin this process for you, not generate an immediate sale.

Process Of Developing A Sales Letter

The process of developing your sales letter will follow these major stages:

A. Plan

B. Outline

C. Write

Plan

Understand Your Prospect.

Think About Your Potential Customers. What do they care about? How

can your product or service fill a need for them? These are two of the most

critical questions you must answer before you begin writing because the

content of your sales letter will be driven by them.

Write down your prospect’s wants and needs:

Suppose you are a long distance phone company and have had great success

in reaching the general consumer market. Now, you’re looking to grow

your business by providing long distance telephone services to small

companies who generate sales through 800 telephone orders. One of the

companies you’re targeting is a clothing wholesaler. Like most small

businesses, cost will be a major factor in whether or not you can sell your

service. Dependable products and services will be another major factor

because if the phone lines go down, no business can be generated. Cost



and quality are the most obvious product attributes your potential customers

are looking for.

Understanding other specifics about how your target market operates their

business is important as well. For example, when are their peak times of

business during the day, seasonally? How much of their sales occur over

the phone? Where are their customers located? The better you know them,

the better you will be able to meet their specific needs.

Understand the difference between your product’s features and benefits.

After you have a solid working knowledge of your potential customer’s

wants and needs, you must communicate how your product or service will

meet them.

It’s important for you to distinguish your product’s or service’s features

from its benefits. While features are valuable and can certainly enhance

your product, benefits are what motivate people to buy. Keep in mind it’s

benefits, not features, that appeal to people’s emotions.

Many new sales writers tend to confuse features and benefits. What’s the

difference? A feature is a characteristic of a product or service that

automatically comes with it.

For example, the telephone company may offer an automatic switching line

to reroute calls to another location in the case of a power failure. That’s a

feature. The benefit to your customer is that sales won’t be lost. (Features

become benefits when you tell the reader in your letter what it will do for

them.)

For example: You’re the manufacturer of an anti-theft car device. Your

product is a steering wheel lock made of a new steel alloy that cannot be

cut. That’s a feature. The benefit to the buyer is added security in knowing

that a thief can’t saw through the device to remove it.

In one column, list the features of your product or service. In the other, list

the benefits each feature yields to the buyer.



Features Benefits

1. 1.

2. 2.

3. 3.

4. 4.

5. 5.

Your letter needs to communicate how your product’s or service’s benefits

will meet at least one basic business or human need. Saving time and money,

and enhancing customer service are benefits businesses look for when

purchasing products and services. Safety, good health, financial security,

the desire for love, status, and success, and appearing attractive to others

are all examples of needs consumers have.

When you write your sales letter, you must communicate what your product

or service can do for the buyer that no other product or service can do.

Identifying what is most unique, different, and helpful about your product

will help you write and direct the flow of your copy.

Now, from your features/benefits list above, isolate the most unique

feature(s) and benefit(s):

This benefit will become the driving theme of your lead paragraph, discussed

later in this Business Builder.

Anticipate your prospect’s major objections and counter them in your sales

letter. The best sales people know in advance, mostly from experience,



exactly what obstacles they might encounter when trying to close a sale.

The best sales letters follow suit.

The long distance telephone company, for example, might anticipate that

businesses are reluctant to employ a long distance telephone carrier they’ve

never heard of.

Objection: “How come I never heard of you?”

Counter: “We don’t spend millions of dollars in advertising like AT&T and

MCI. We choose to pass the savings along to our customers.”

Sales Letter: Like many of our valued business accounts, you’re probably

wondering why you haven’t heard our name before. The answer is simple.

We don’t spend millions of dollars in national advertising like AT&T. We

prefer to pass the savings along to growing companies like yours.

Objection: “There are many anti-theft car devices on the market. Why should

I spend Rs.1000 more for yours?”

Counter: “Every other anti-theft car device can easily be sawed through by

a thief. Ours can’t. Isn’t peace of mind worth another Rs.1000?”

Sales Letter: You may think Rs.1000 is a lot more to pay for an anti-theft

device. But the truth is this Rs.1000 buys you peace of mind. Your car

cannot be stolen when you use Theft-A-Way. No other anti-theft device

guarantees that.

If you leave your prospective customer with serious questions and objections

after reading your letter, it will be much harder or even impossible, to get

them to send for more information, call you for more information, or grant

you an appointment.

Write down any objections you think your potential customer might have

about your product or service, then counter them:



Decide what your immediate objective in writing your sales letter is. Ask

yourself this question: “What do I want the prospect to do after reading my

letter?” Send for a sample and sales brochure, call me to schedule a meeting,

be interested enough to take my telephone call and schedule an appointment

with me? You need to determine this before you begin writing because you

will need to decide what you’re prepared to offer in order to provide the

reader with an incentive to act.

For example, if you distribute a line of hair care products to beauty parlours

and you want the owner of twelve parlours to meet with you, you might

offer to supply him with enough of your product to use on customers free

for a month. Or, you could offer a special 10% introductory discount if he

agrees to distribute your line of products. Whatever incentive you offer,

limit the time frame you will offer it. You would let the parlour owner know

that the special introductory discount is only available until August 1. This

will create a sense of urgency in his mind.

Make sure the person you’re writing your letter to is the person who makes

the decision to buy. If you’re going to the effort of trying to establish a

relationship, you want it to be with the person with the authority to make

decisions. With small companies, it’s usually the owner and president. But

with larger companies, you may have to do some research. You can call the

company and try to get the information from the receptionist: “Can you tell

me the name of the person in charge of buying long distance phone services?”

If you feel the receptionist doesn’t know, you might ask to speak with the

person you think is the buyer for your product. Or, you can try to get

information from her assistant or secretary. “I’m going to be sending Ms.

Smitha some information in the mail. Can you please tell me her title. Is she

the person in charge of buying long distance services?”

Do Your Homework. Study other businesses’ effective sales and direct mail

letters. You probably receive sales letters at your office on a regular basis.



Or, think about the vendors whose products or services you use now or in

the past. You’ve probably saved their correspondence in a file.

Find all the sample letters you can and as you study them ask yourself the

following questions:

· Does the first paragraph grab my attention?

· Does it relate to my business needs?

· Is it easy or hard to put down?

· Is it enjoyable to read?

· What do I like best about this letter?

· What do I dislike about it?

· How would I improve it?

· Does this letter make me want to buy? Why or why not?

Outline

Outlines are useful tools for organizing ideas. Experienced writers almost

always use them before they begin writing. If you’re writing a sales letter for

the first time, your outline should be extensive before you attempt to write

your letter. Once you have more experience, you can adopt a less formal

approach, such as simply writing down key ideas in the order they will

appear. To construct your outline, take a piece of paper and write a few

sentences for each of the following major points.

Headlines

Direct mail letters commonly include headlines because they help grab a

reader’s attention. Should your sales letter employ one? It depends. If your

letter is addressed to someone you’ve met at a trade show or have already

made contact with over the telephone, a headline isn’t appropriate.

Remember, a sales letter endeavors to establish a relationship.



If you feel a headline is appropriate, here are some basic principles to

follow when creating one:

A headline is a short statement, one or two lines at the most, that appears at

the top of the page between the address and salutation. A headline should

do one of the following:

Immediately tell the prospect what potential benefit they will receive:

You Can Cut Your Long Distance Expenses By Half.

Or, the headline should imply the benefit:

Were You Shocked By Your Last Long Distance Phone Bill?

Ask your prospect a question they will find compelling:

Are You Sure Your Car’s Anti-Theft Device Really Works?

What Would Happen To Your Sales If Your Phone Lines Went Down?

If you use a headline, it should appear in a larger font, with all the words

CAPITALIZED and in Bold.

Instead of a headline you may choose to use a supporting statement such as

a testimonial, product review, or an endorsement. Whether you choose to

use one in your headline or not, you should use a supporting statement in

your sales letter. It’s especially important to do so if your product or service

is expensive. Supporting statements help eliminate risk in a prospect’s mind.

Testimonials are statements from satisfied customers:

“Island Long Distance has cut our long distance phone bills by 30%!

They saved us during our busiest sales season!”

Product reviews appear in newspapers or magazines:

“If you have a car, you should have Theft-A-Way protecting it.”

Car and Driver Magazine



Endorsements are statements from experts: “Recommended for Use By

The American Medical Association.” Testimonials, reviews, and

endorsements should appear as quotations. Text should be in a slightly smaller

font and in italics. Underneath the quote, you should indicate who said it or

what newspaper it appeared in.

Watch Out : Don’t crowd the top of your letter with a headline and too

many quotations because it will appear as an advertisement and not a personal

form of communication. You can use quotations in the body of your letter or

at the end.

Write Your Lead Paragraph.

Your first, or lead paragraph represents the most important sentences of

your letter because if you don’t compel the reader to read, your letter will

have no impact. Your first sentence should logically flow from the idea you

created with your headline. Professional writers often refer to the headline

and connecting lead paragraph as establishing the “hook.” It’s called a hook

because you must interest your reader right away with the headline then

keep them reading after the first paragraph. The hook of your sales letter

must:

• Appeal to a business need or human emotion.

• Begin selling your main benefit.

If your headline was: Do You Know How Many Long Distance Companies

Overcharge Their Customers? Your lead paragraph would answer the

question: “A recent survey by the American Marketing Association indicates

that the big three long distance phone companies overcharge their customers”

For Example: “We’re not one of the big three. That’s why we can save you

money on your monthly long distance phone service.”



If you’re not using a headline because you’ve already had some personal

contact with the prospect, here is how you should write your lead paragraph:

Acknowledge that you’ve met or spoken recently.

For example: When we met at the Direct Marketing Trade Show last week,

Julie, I promised to get back to you with some more information on how

Island Long Distance can save your company as much as 30% a month.

Write a few sentences that describe additional benefits to the reader.

For Example: Not only is our long distance service 25% less expensive than

our competitor’s, we offer a rerouting system that will direct your calls to

another location in case of a power failure. This means you’ll never lose

sales!

From Your Planning Stage, Write Down Any Objections To Your Product

And How You Will Overcome Them.

If you are going to state a product or service’s price in your letter, remember

this important point. Expenses should be expressed over short periods of

time and profits over the long term. For Example: “This service costs you

only Rs.50 a week” is better than writing “this service will cost you Rs.200

a month or Rs.2400 a year.”

For Example: “This service will increase your profits by 25% over the next

four years” is better than writing “this service will increase your profits by

Rs.600 a month.”

If you are offering a special discount or bonus to the reader, refer to it after

your lead paragraph. Don’t spell out all the details of your offer yet. You

want to build excitement and intrigue. But it’s important to refer to it early

on in your letter, especially if you don’t mention it in the headline because it

will keep your reader’s interest high.



For example: If you purchase before July 1st, not only can you take advantage

of our special discount, you’ll also be eligible for free freight!

Support your product claims with testimonials, examples, or statistics. These

statements will add credibility to your benefit claims. Remember, businesses

and consumers like to have risk eliminated before they buy a product.

Spell out the specific details of any special offer or a discount.

Close.

Write a statement or two for each of the following points:

• Recap benefits

• Restate offer

Ask the prospective customers to act, or let them know what course of

action you’ll be taking, such as, telephoning next week to schedule an

appointment. If you want to schedule an appointment with your prospect,

don’t leave it up to them to telephone you. Indicate when you’ll be contacting

them, and then make sure you follow through.

Add a post-script. You can use a P.S. to reinforce your offer or benefit.

Example: P.S. Don’t forget, our free freight offer is good only through July

1st!

Thanks to your extensive outline, the process of actually writing your letter

should be fairly simple.

General Guidelines:

• Keep your sales letter to one or two pages.

• Send your sales letter to the right people.

• Personalize your sales letter.

• Write different versions of your sales letter for different segments of

your target market.



• Include an order form with your sales letter.

• Don’t include fancy graphics in your sales letter.

• Send out a repeat mailing two or three weeks later.

3.5 WRITING A BUSINESS MEMO

A memo is a document used for communication within a company. Memos

can be as formal as a business letter and used to present a report. They are

used also to pass information, ideas, and recommendations to other people

in the same organization.

Memos solve problems either by informing the reader about new

information, like policy changes, price increases, etc., or by persuading the

reader to take an action, such as attend a meeting, use less paper, or change

a current production procedure. Regardless of the specific goal, memos are

most effective when they connect the purpose of the writer with the

interests and needs of the reader. This lesson will help you solve your

memo-writing problems by discussing what a memo is, presenting some

options for organizing memos, describing the parts of memos, and

suggesting some hints that will make your memos more effective.

Memos are often read by many people. Many memos are written to large

groups of people within an organization. Some memos are written to only

one person but are passed along (“forwarded”) to other people in the

organization who need the information. Because memos are official

organizational documents, they are sometimes read by people outside the

organization. Some memos are made public for legal reasons or during court

cases.

They have the advantage of not requiring an inside address, a salutation

line, and perfunctory opening lines that greet the reader, inquiring about

matters unrelated to the subject of the document.

Good memos get to the point, focus on just one issue, and support the

writer’s central ideas with coherent, relevant, convincing evidence.



The best of business memos are concise, written in plain English, and

sensibly orgnized.

Your ability to write a crisp, clean memo will mark you as someone who

contributes to the organization – someone worth keeping, watching, and

promoting. Will a good memo get you promoted? That’s unlikely. A series

of bad memos – poorly crafted, disorganized and densely expressed –

however, may stop your career in its tracks. Writing after all, is a career

sifter. Good writers move up; bad writers get left behind.

THE SIX COMMUNICATION STRATEGIES

Before you begin writing, begin thinking. Give some careful thought to your

reader, to your objectives, and to the strategy you will employ to achieve

you objectives. The content and pattern of organization will follow from

those. When you are sure you know what you want to achieve – and what

you want your reader to learn from writing – you will need a communication

strategy.

Here are six basic strategies, three designed to convey information, and

three designed to promote action.

INFORMATION STRATEGIES ACTION STRATEGIES

* To confirm agreement * To request assistance

* To provide facts * To give direction

* To provide a point of view * To seek agreement

WRITING AN OVERVIEW PARAGRAPH

The opening or overview paragraph of any memo should reveal a

communication strategy for the entire document. By writing it first, you will

identify your purpose and main ideas. This will give you perspective and

direction that will guide the development of the memo, letter, or report.

Your reader will benefit as well. Overview paragraph provides perspective

on what’s coming and what’s important, much like the topic sentence of a



well-constructed paragraph. Overview paragraphs should clearly tell the

reader:

• Purpose: why are they writing the memo?

• Main idea: What do you want to tell the reader? Or, what do you want

the reader to do?

• Opinion: What is your point of view on the subject?

In addition, the overview should begin to establish the tone of the document

for your reader. Since the overview is the first paragraph a reader will see it

and it is, without question, one of the most important elements of a memo,

you should keep in mind that it should display a number of important basic

qualities. It should:

• Be clear and simple. Remember that the reader is trying to get

oriented. The overview provides perspective on what is coming. Keep

the words simple and the sentences short. Think about your audience

and what the various readers know. Anyone who receives the

document should be able to understand it.

• Be brief: The overview paragraph acts as an executive summary of the

memo that follows. This is not entire memo packed into a paragraph or

two. Stick to the main ideas.

• Deal with the what – not with the how: What is the recommended

course of action in a proposal or the main conclusion in an information

memo? Avoid how or implementation at the early point in your memo.

Readers have trouble dealing with implementation until they understand

and agree what should be done.

• Include and indentify the writer’s point-of-view. Go beyond the facts

– interpret, conclude, and recommend. That will take responsibility up

front for what you believe by stating your point of view in the

Overview. This helps convey confidence and a sense of leadership.

• Reflect the needs of the reader: The overview is geared to the

knowledge and skill level of the reader. It takes into account what the

readers needs and wants to know.



• Be thorough and complete: Although brief, the overview should be

able to stand on its own. It does not tell the reader everything in the

memo; it contains key highlights. The best test of a good overview:

Can the reader say yes without reading further?

SAMPLE OVERVIEWS

Here are several overview paragraphs that will help the reader to better

understand what the writer is saying and what he wants from the reader,

Pay careful attention to the length and structure of these overviews. Note

how compact and cogent each of them is.

1. This memo recommends the establishment of an on-site exercise and

health club facility in the corporate headquarters complex.

2. This memo provides a summary of The GrillMaster II’s market perfor-

mance in each sales region for the first quarter of FY-2006.

3. This memo urgently recommends a product design review for the XYZ

Plus. Warranty claims, field reports, and customer’s complaint about

this product indicate a possible defect in the blade shield. Failure to

review the design may result in significant liability exposure of the form

and may irreparably damage the brand reputation.

4. This memo recommends a 30-day continuation of the Visa Classic

customer rebate program to Region 5. Initial response to the rebate

coupons at retail level has exceeded market projections by 135%.

5. This memo recommends the addition of 3 adminitrative assistants in the

Information Technology Division. Launch of the company’s new Intranet

and our new wireless PDA system have increased technical workloads

and created a 20 – day back log.

THE INFORMATION MEMO

Interoffice memos have two purposes: to inform or to persuade. If your

purpose is to document, records, or inform, here are some things you write.



• Make your reasons for writing clear to the readers: Explain, right up

front, in the overview paragraph why you’re writing. Use boldface

headings and subheads to label and describe the information you’re

providing.

• Write about just one subject: Don’t confuse your readers with

information about more than one subject in a memo. If you must write

about several subjects, either give your memo a more general, abstract

subject line, or (preferably) write several memos.

• Begin with the big picture first, then move to the details: Don’t simply

download data on your readers and expect them to figure out what it

means. Show your readers where this information fits into the big

picture and then organize it in a way that makes sense to them.

• Provide just as much detail as you think your reader will need. The

problem, of course is that some readers want all sorts of detail. Others

just want the bottom line or main point. There’s nothing wrong with

either of those groups, that’s just the way they are. In order to satisfy

the needs of as many readers as possible, you should provide the most

important information first, explaining what it is, what it means, and

why it’s important. You might then direct those who want additional

detail to a paper appendix attached to your memo or, perhaps, to an

Intranet or website where they can read or download what they want.

• Group similar information together: Read through your first draft and

look for similar bits of information that appear in multiple paragraphs.

Eliminate redundant sentences or paragraphs in which you’ve become

repetitious.

• Provide a point of contact for your readers. If the people reading your

memo have questions or concerns about the information you have

provided, who should they contact? Helpful informative memos will

include not only a return address but telephone numbers, e-mail

addresses, and (if you’re willing) the name of a person who can assist

with questions.



• Avoid gratuitous use of the first-person singular: Address the reader as

“you” or write in the third person. By doing so, you will reduce the

temptation to include your own opinion with such phrases as “I think….”

“In my opinion ……”.etc.

• Stick to the facts … Distinguish clearly between fact and opinion and

omit those things about which you are not sure. Finally, ask yourself

how you know that this information is current and

accurate. What is the source of your confidence for all of this?

THE PERSUASIVE MEMO

Writing a persuasive memo is much like constructing a winning argument.

The document must provide a complete, logical argument with which the

reader disagrees. It must anticipate all questions and responses – and deal

with them. Proctor and Gamble Vice President, G.Gibson Carey, offers

this advice on persuading others by memo.

• Consider your objective against the readers’ attitudes, perceptions, and

knowledge of the subject, be sure you know exactly what you want to

accomplish with your memo. Do a careful assessment of the reader’s

mindset at the beginning. What will it take to get the reader to say yes?

• Outline on paper, focusing on the Situation Analysis and Rationale sec-

tions. This will help you construct a complete, logical argument. An

outline also helps identify missing information.

• Include a plan of action: A well thought out implementation section

adds credibility and practicality to your ideas. It gives the busy reader

added incentive to consider your proposal. Even if you are awaiting

approval to develop a detailed plan, include an outline of the plan to

demonstrate that your concept can be accomplished.

• Don’t lose your argument in the Situation Analysis. Your proposal should

flow naturally from the problem or opportunity described in the Situa-

tion Analysis. The reader who disagrees with anything in this section of

the memo cannot buy your proposal. Avoid controversial issues, opin-

ions, and unsupported assertions in the situation analysis. Stick to the

facts.



• Use the direct approach: Present your Recommendation and Ratio-

nale before you discuss other options that you have considered and

rejected.

• Always lead from strength: Start your proposal with a strong, confi-

dent overview paragraph. Bring the important ideas to the beginning of

each section. In the Rationale section, always present your arguments

in order of importance.

• Gear your argument to the reader’s decision criteria. Know how your

reader’s mind works. Ask yourself if your argument is persuasive, given

the reader’s interests and motivations.

STANDARD FORMATS FOR MEMOS

Putting your ideas on paper helps you evaluate them. It forces you, the

writer, to think through the issues carefully. Good ideas are invariably

strengthened on paper and weak ideas are exposed for what they are.

Having a format in mind for the memo or report as you move forward with

any project can eliminate one of the common stumbling blocks to sound

thinking and good communication. The format becomes an organization plan

for your ideas. It ensures that you think logically and that you don’t overlook

anything relevant to the project.

A standard format helps you organize information and concepts quickly.

You don’t have to think about where to put everything each time you start

writing. If something is missing, it is immediately evident. A standard format

helps readers too. They don’t have to figure out how your mind was working

each time they get a document from you. They know immediately where to

find the pieces and how they fit together. This saves time and promotes

understanding. A document can be organized or put together in a variety of

ways. Always be certain your case is developed in a logical and persuasive

manner. Consider using a format with which your readers are familiar, since

they will be more comfortable with it. But don’t compromise on clarity,

simplicity, and logical flow to do this.



MEETING AND CONFERENCE REPORTS

The purpose of a conference or meeting-report is to record decisions made

at the meeting. Avoid long descriptions of what was discussed or presented,

restatements, of arguments, or praise, or blame. Use a standard format

that includes the name or the group, persons attending and subjects

covered.

Report briefly on:

• What was discussed or presented

• What was decided and why

Focus your report on:

• What action is required?

• Who is responsible?

• What the timing will be.

Many businesses keep track of current and proposed activities with project

lists. These are nothing more than simple description of what the

organization is doing to achieve its goals or serve its customers. Projects

lists usually take more time to prepare than they are worth, so try to keep

them simple. This will save time and actually make them more useable

documents. Separate each project by category, and then list projects in

order of priority of importance. Each project on your list should include a

title and brief description, status, next steps, responsible parties and date

due. If your project list is long, consider adding a cover page to highlight

key projects that require management attention. Projects should never just

disappear, completed or terminated projects should be shown as such the

following month, with a brief notation about why the project will not appear

on future project lists.

MAKE YOUR MEMOS INVITING AND ATTRACTIVE

A good document is both inviting and easy to read and easy to use as a

reference. Here are some ideas on how to achieve this:



• Grab attention up front. A strong overview section gives the reader

perspective on what’s coming. This makes any memo easier to read

and understand. Don’t open the memo with unimportant details or in-

formation the reader already knows.

• Vary sentence and paragraph length - but keep them short. Short para-

graphs and short sentences are inviting because they are easier to deal

with. If all your sentences or paragraphs are of the same length, how-

ever, the memo will seem monotonous.

• Use headings: The reader will understand your organization plan for

the memo. Headings also make it a better reference document.

• Use bullets and numbers to identify groupings. This helps break up

long paragraphs and it’s another way to indicate how the memo is or-

ganized.

• Use parallel structure for lists (as this one does) Keep things with things,

actions with actions, do’s with do’s, don’ts with don’ts, and so on.

• Underline or use boldface type to focus on topic sentences, key words,

and phrases. But don’t overdo, too much underlining makes a docu-

ment look cluttered.

• Leave adequate margins: Lots of white space makes any document

more inviting. Use tables, charts, and exhibits, paragraphs full of

numbers are difficult to read. Presenting the same information in a table

or chart makes it easier to understand and easier to refer to.

• Don’t settle for sloppy or illegible duplication: Make it a quality

document.

EDITING YOUR MEMOS

Good writing requires rewriting. The overall purpose of editing is to trim,

clarify, and simplify. Put the document aside for a while – overnight if

possible – before revising. This helps you step back. Look at the memo

through the eyes of the reader, and be more objective.



Before revising your memo, quickly, review the guidelines provided in

the opening sections. Then put yourself in the reader’s place and go

through the document several times.

• Is it clear? Is the flow of the memo logical? Will the reader understand

the development of your thesis? Are the words simple and concrete?

Will the reader understand technical terms? Is every sentence clear,

unambiguous, easy to read?

• Is it complete? Will the reader understand your purpose? Does the

Situation Analysis have all the background information the reader needs

to know? Are all the key numbers in the body of the memo? Have all

necessary agreements been spelled out?

• Is it persuasive? Does your Rationale section lead from strength? Are

your arguments in order of importance? Have you anticipated poten-

tial responses and questions – and dealt with them? Have you avoided

exaggerations and provided a balanced, rational argument?

• Is it accurate? Are opinions and facts separated and clearly labeled?

Is every number correct?

• Is is concise? Do you have too many arguments? Did you waste words

telling readers what they already know? Do you have unnecessary

words, phrases or sentences?

• Is it inviting to read? Are there large blocks of type that can be broken

up? Did you leave adequate margins? Is the memo neat, clear, legible?

• Is it perfect? Are there any typos, misspellings, or grammatical errors

that could cast doubt on the quality of your thinking?

3.6. COMPLAINT LETTERS

Complaint Letter

A complaint letter is written when the purchaser does not find the goods

upto his satisfaction. It is normally written by the purchaser when he receives

wrong, defective or damaged goods or receives incorrect quantity of goods.

It can also be written directly to the transit authority when the goods are



damaged in transit. Thus, we may define a letter of complaint as the letter

that draws the attention of the supplier or any other party on account of

supply of defective or damaged goods.

Effective complaint letters should be: concise, authoritative, factual,

constructive, and friendly. Imagine you are receiving a customer’s letter of

complaint. What type of letter would you encourage to respond positively

to the complaint?

Good complaint letters have these features: Concise letters can be

understood quickly. Authoritative letters - letters that are well written and

professionally presented - have more credibility and are taken seriously.

Factual letters enable the reader to see immediately the relevant details,

dates, requirements, etc., and to justify the action to resolve the complaint.

Constructive letters - with positive statements, suggesting positive

actions - encourage action and quicker decisions. Friendly letters - with a

considerate, cooperative and complimentary tone - are prioritized because

the reader will positively respond. These complaints methods are based on

cooperation, relationships, constructive problem-solving, and are therefore

transferable to phone and face-to-face complaints.

Write concise letters

Organizations receive too many communications these days, especially

letters. People in complaints departments receive more letters than most,

and they cannot read every letter fully. The only letters that are read fully

are the most concise, clear, compact letters. Letters that ramble or are

vague will not be read properly. So it’s simple - to be acted upon, first your

letter must be read. To be read your letter must be concise. A concise letter

of complaint must make its main point in less than five seconds. The

complaint letter may subsequently take a few more seconds to explain the

situation, but first the main point must be understood in a few seconds.

Structuring the letter is important. Think in terms of the acronym

AIDA - attention, interest, desire, action. This is the fundamental process

of persuasion. It’s been used by the selling profession for fifty years or

more. It applies to letters of complaints too, which after all, are letters of



persuasion. The complaint letter attempts to persuade the reader to take

action.

Structure your letter so that you include a heading - which identifies the

issue and name of product, service, and person, location, with code or

reference number if applicable.

Then state the simple facts, with relevant dates and details.

Include also, (as a sign-off point is usually best), something complimentary

about the organization and/or its products, service, or people.

For example:

“I’ve long been a user of your products/services and up until now have

always regarded you as an excellent supplier/organization. I have every faith

therefore that you will do what you can to rectify this situation.”

Even if you are very angry, it’s always important to make a positive,

complimentary comment. It will make the reader and the organization more

inclined to ‘want’ to help you. More about this below.

If the situation is very complex with a lot of history, it’s a good idea to keep

the letter itself very short and concise, and then append or attach the

details, in whatever format is appropriate (photocopies, written notes,

explanation, etc). This enables the reader of the letter to understand the

main point of the complaint, and then to process it, without having to read

twenty pages of history and detail.

The main point is, do not bury your main points in a long letter about the

problem. Make your main points first in a short letter, and attach the

details.

Authoritative complaints letters have credibility and carry more weight.

An authoritative letter is especially important for serious complaints or one

with significant financial implications. What makes a letter authoritative?

Professional presentation, good grammar and spelling, firmness and clarity.

Using sophisticated words (providing they are used correctly) - the



language of a broadsheet newspaper can also help to give your letter a

more authoritative impression. What your letter looks like, its presentation,

language and tone, can all help to establish your credibility - that you can be

trusted and believed, that you know your facts, and that you probably have

a point.

So think about your letter layout - if writing as a private consumer use a

letterhead preferably - ensure the name and address details of the addressee

are correct, include the date, keep it tidy, well-spaced, and print your name

under your signature.

If you copy the letter to anyone, show that this has been done (normally by

using the abbreviation ‘c.c.’ with the names of copy letter recipients and

their organizations if appropriate, beneath the signature.) If you attach other

pages of details or photocopies, or enclose anything else such as

packaging, state so on the letter (normally by using the abbreviation ‘enc.’

in the foot of the page).

When people read letters, rightly or wrongly they form an impression about

the writer, which can affect response and attitude. Writing a letter that

creates an authoritative impression is therefore helpful.

Complaint letters must include all the facts

In the organization concerned, you need someone at some stage to decide

a course of action in response to your letter that will resolve your

complaint. For any complaint of reasonable significance, the solution will

normally involve someone committing organizational resources or cost.

Where people commit resources or costs there needs to be proper

accountability and justification. This is generally because organizations of

all sorts are geared to providing a return on investment. Resolving your

complaint will involve a cost or ‘investment’ of some sort, however small,

which needs justifying. If there’s insufficient justification, the investment

needed to solve the problem cannot be committed. So ensure you provide

the relevant facts, dates, names, and details, clearly. Make sure you include

all the necessary facts that will justify why your complaint should be

resolved . But be brief and concise...



For example:

“The above part number 1234 was delivered to xyz address on 00/00/00

date developed ABC fault on 00/00/00 date...”

Constructive letters and suggestions make complaints easier to resolve

Accentuate the positive wherever possible. This means presenting things in

a positive light. Dealing with a whole load of negative statements is not easy

for anyone, especially customer service staff, who’ll be dealing with mostly

negative and critical communication all day. Be different by being positive

and constructive. State the facts and then suggest what needs to be done to

resolve matters. If the situation is complex, suggest that you’ll be as flexible

as you can in helping to arrive at a positive outcome. Say that you’d like to

find a way forward, rather than terminate the relationship. If you tell them

that you’re taking your business elsewhere, and that you’re never using

them again, etc., then there’s little incentive for them to look for a good

outcome. If you give a negative, final, ‘unsolvable’ impression, they’ll treat

you accordingly. Suppliers of all sorts work harder for people who stay

loyal and are prepared to work through difficulties, rather than jump ship

whenever there’s a problem. Many suppliers and organizations actually

welcome complaints as opportunities to improve (which they should do) - if

yours does, or can be persuaded to take this view, it’s very well worth

sticking with them and helping them to find a solution. So it helps to be seen

as a positive and constructive customer rather than a negative, critical one.

It helps for your complaint to be seen as an opportunity to improve things,

rather than an arena for confrontation.

Write letters with a friendly and complimentary tone.

A friendly and complimentary approach encourages the other person to

reciprocate - they’ll want to return your faith, build the relationship, and

keep you as a loyal customer or user of their products or services. People

like helping nice friendly people. People do not find it easy to help rough

people who attack them.

This is perhaps the most important rule of all when complaining. Be kind to

people and they will be kind to you. Ask for their help - it’s really so simple

- and they will want to help you.



Contrast a friendly complimentary complaint letter with a complaint letter

full of anger and negativity: readers of angry bitter letters are not naturally

inclined to want to help - they are more likely to retreat, make excuses,

defend, or worse still to respond aggressively or confrontationally. It’s

human nature.

Also remember that the person reading the letter is just like you - they just

want to do a good job, be happy, to get through the day without being

upset. What earthly benefit will you get by upsetting them? Be nice to people.

Respect their worth and motives. Don’t transfer your frustration to them

personally - they’ve not done anything to upset you. They are there to help.

The person reading the letter is your best ally - keep them on your side and

they will do everything they can to resolve the problem - it’s their job.

Try to see things from their point of view. Take the trouble to find out how

they work and what the root causes of the problems might be.

This friendly approach is essential as well if you cannot resist the urge to

pick up the phone and complain. Remember that the person at the other

end is only trying to do their job, and that they can only work within the

policy that has been issued to them. Don’t take it out on them - it’s not their

fault.

In fact, complaints are best and quickest resolved if you take the view that

it’s nobody’s fault. Attaching blame causes defensiveness - the barriers go

up and conflict develops.

Take an objective view - it’s happened, for whatever reason; it can’t be

undone, now let’s find out how it can best be resolved. Try to take a

cooperative, understanding, and objective tone. Not confrontational;

instead you and them both looking at the problem from the same side.

If you use phrases like - “I realise that mistakes happen...”; “I’m not

blaming anyone....”; “I’m sure this is a rare problem...” your letter (or phone

call) will be seen as friendly, non-threatening, and non-confrontational. This

relaxes the person at the other end, and makes them more inclined to help

you, because you are obviously friendly and reasonable.

The use of humour often works wonders if your letter is to a senior person.

Humour dissipates conflict, and immediately attracts attention because it’s



different. A bit of humour in a complaint letter also creates a friendly,

intelligent and cooperative impression. Senior people dealing with complaints

tend to react on a personal level, rather than a procedural level, as with

customer services departments. If you brighten someone’s day by raising a

smile, there’s a good chance that your letter will be given favourable

treatment.

Returning faulty products

Check contracts, receipts, invoices, packaging, etc., for collection and

return procedures and follow them.

When complaining, particularly about expensive items, it’s not helpful to

undermine your position by failing to follow any reasonable process

governing faulty or incorrect products. You may even end up with liability

for the faulty product if the supplier is able to claim that you’ve been

negligent in some way.

For certain consumer complaints it’s helpful to return packaging, as this

enables the organization to check production records and correct problems

if still present. If in doubt phone the customer services department to find

out what they actually need you to return.

Product returns for business-to-business complaints will initially be

covered by the supplier’s terms and conditions of sale. Again take care not

to create a liability for yourself by failing to follow reasonable processes,

(for example leaving a computer out in the yard in the pouring rain by way

of incentive for the supplier to collect, is not generally a tactic bound to

produce a successful outcome).

Use recorded and insured post where appropriate.

Complaints letter template

Name and address (eg., for the customer services department, or CEO)

Date



Dear Sir or Madam (or name)

Heading with relevant reference numbers

(Optional, especially if writing to a named person) ask for the person’s

help, eg “I’d really appreciate your help with this.”

State facts of situation, including dates, names, reference numbers, but keep

this very concise and brief (append details, history, photocopies if

applicable, for example if the situation is very complex and has a long

history).

State your suggested solution. If the situation and solution is complex, state

also that you’ll be as flexible as you can to come to an agreed way forward.

(Optional, and normally worth including) State some positive things about

your normal experience with the organization concerned, for example: that

you’ve no wish to go elsewhere and hope that a solution can be found;

compliment any of their people who have given good service; compliment

their products and say that normally you are very happy with things.

State that you look forward to hearing from them soon and that you

appreciate their help.

Yours faithfully (if not sent to a named person) or Sincerely (if sent to a

named person)

Your signature

Your printed name (and title/position if applicable)

c.c. (plus names and organizations, if copying the letter to anyone)

enc. (if enclosing something, such as packaging or attachments)

Where should you send letters of complaints?



If the organization has a customer services department at their head office

this is the first place to start. The department will be geared up to dealing

with complaints letters, and your complaint should be processed quickly

with the others they receive because that’s the job of a customer services

department. This is especially the case for large organizations. Sending

initial complaint letters to managing directors and CEO’s will only be

referred by their PA staff to the customer services department anyway, with

the result of immediately alienating the customer services staff, because you’ve

‘gone over their heads’.

The trick of sending a copy letter to the CEO - and showing this on the

letter to the customer services department - is likely to have the same effect.

Keep your powder dry until you need it.

You can generally find the address of the customer services department on

(where appropriate) product packaging, invoices, websites, and other

advertising and communications materials produced by the organization

concerned. Local branches, if applicable, will also have the details.

Complaints letter example: faulty product

(use letterheaded paper showing home/business address and phone

number)

Name and address (of customer service department)

Date

Dear Sir

Faulty (xyz) product

I’m afraid that the enclosed (xyz) product doesn’t work. It is the third one

I’ve had to return this month (see attached correspondence).

I bought it from ABC stores at Newtown, PUNE on (date).

I was careful to follow the instructions for use, honestly.



Other than the three I’ve had to return recently, I’ve always found your

products to be excellent.

I’d be grateful if you could send a replacement and refund my postage

(state amount).

I really appreciate your help.

Yours faithfully

Signature

J Smith (Mrs)

Enc.

3.7 MEETING MINTUES

Minutes are a formal and brief summary of proceedings at meetings. The

main reasons for keeping minutes are to:

• provide an authoritative source and permanent record of proceedings

for future reference

• provide formal evidence of decisions, e.g. appointments, financial

allocations, authorised actions

• provide a record of policy decisions made and the basis for them

• provide a starting point for action to be taken in future

• create an official record which can be used in legal proceedings

• inform members not present at the meeting and any others of the

actions of the body concerned

• assist in the conduct of subsequent meetings

• set out precedents for future occasions, in the case of rulings from the

chair

• provide documentary evidence for audit purposes



At some meetings, especially of bodies with less formal accountabilities, the

term ‘minutes’ is sometimes replaced by the term ‘notes’. Notes differ from

minutes in that, typically, they are less formal, depending on the status of the

committee/working party concerned. They are typically:

• less detailed, involving a shorter précis of discussion

• emphasizes action to be taken after the meeting

• do not need to be approved at the next meeting.

3.7.1 What constitutes a good minute?

A good minute is:

• brief;

• self-contained;

• to the full extent that the discussion allows, decisive.

Brevity can be achieved in two ways:

• First, a minute should be selective. It is not a verbatim record, and

should not attempt to reproduce, however summarily, what every

speaker said. It is a skilled summary of proceedings and should record

only the essence of the discussion, picking up the main threads which

lead to the conclusion.

• Secondly, the points selected for inclusion in the minute should be

recorded as briefly as possible. The secretary may make use of any

striking phrases used in the discussion but should not attempt to set out

the course of the arguments as they were developed by the speakers,

as this will lead to an unnecessarily diffuse style.

A minute should normally be self-contained, so that it is able to be

understood without reference to other documents. This may not seem

important at the time, when the subject is topical and other relevant

documents are fresh in people’s minds. But minutes are usually designed

not only as a basis for current action, but also for permanent record; and

for purposes of subsequent reference they are much more valuable if they

can be understood by themselves.



The minute should be as decisive as possible. This is specially important for

the conclusions. But it applies also to the record of the discussion. The

secretary should not try to reproduce what the speaker said; they should

get down to the essential core of discussion and record that as briefly and

as clearly as possible.

3.7.2 Structure of a minute

The first purpose of a minute is to set out the conclusions reached so that

those who have to take action will know precisely what they have to do.

The second is to give the reasons why the conclusions were reached. A

minute should fall clearly into three parts:

• opening statement i.e. background;

• points in discussion;

• conclusions i.e. resolutions or recommendations.

It is a good rule to think out the sequence of a minute before beginning to

compile it, and to work backwards from the conclusion. The secretary should

first decide what are the conclusions to be recorded and keep those clearly

in their mind while preparing the minute. This will help them decide how

much of the discussion needs to be recorded and in what order it can be

best arranged.

To reproduce a good minute the secretary must get clear before they start

about the framework round which they are going to build, i.e. the essential

points leading up to the conclusion. They will not get the same result if they

first try to summarise everything and consider what they can afford to miss

out.

3.7.3 Opening Statement

This part, which can be written before the meeting, and may even appear in

the agenda, provides the background to the item. It can show who was

responsible for putting the item before the meeting, what were the reasons

for the proposal and the previous history of the matter.



It should not summarise the whole of the documents under discussion; the

sole purpose of the opening statement is to make the subsequent discussion

intelligible without reference to other documents. This can usually be achieved

in a few lines. If not, the subject should be stated and the readers left to

refer to the documents themselves.

The minute should begin by recording any documents under discussion,

giving the name and date of each. Thus:

“The Committee noted a letter dated .... from ............stating that .........”

or, where there are several documents -

“The Committee noted the following information concerning ................”

or,

“The Committee had before it the following information - ....................”

Many discussions begin with a statement by the author of the document

before the meeting, who either summarises or enlarges upon their submission.

It is a good rule not to include in the minute both a summary of the submission

and a record of the author’s opening statement. If the speaker adds nothing

to what was in their submission the secretary can produce a summary of it;

if they enlarge upon it the secretary can omit the summary of the submission

and produce a comprehensive statement covering both the essential

substance of the submission and the supplementary points brought out by

the speaker.

Points in Discussion

The second part of the minute contains the reasons advanced in the meeting

for the decision. It will usually proceed: “The following points were raised

in discussion”, and will then set out, in separate paragraphs or in point form,

a concise summary of the various points made before the conclusion was

reached.

It is normally desirable that this part of the minute should be impersonal, i.e.

that it should not attribute views to persons. The main advantages of this

form are:



• it makes for brevity - a point can usually be recorded more concisely in

an impersonal form;

• a point raised by one speaker will often be taken up and developed by

others. In an impersonal minute, the secretary needs to record it only in

its final form;

• it is often convenient to weld together into a single to paragraph a

number of points made by various speakers;

• the impersonal style tends to avert suggestions for amendment of the

minute, for members naturally look with special care at paragraphs

which attribute statements to them personally, and tend to ask for addi-

tions and modifications which are not strictly necessary for the purpose

of a minute.

Titles/names would be used on occasions - e.g. where the speaker has a

particular expertise in the area under discussion or when a person asked

that their dissent be recorded.

Much less emphasis need be given to unsuccessful arguments that did not

convince the meeting. If there are good arguments on both sides and the

vote is close, separate sections should record the arguments on both sides;

this will be particularly helpful if the proposal is to be reviewed by a higher

body.

It is often unnecessary to reproduce the points in discussion in the order in

which they were made. It is better to look forward to the conclusion, and

arrange the points in the logical order in which they lead up to it.

The secretary should not hesitate to discard the irrelevant and the inessential.

Much said in a discussion need not be recorded and much that was relevant

to a certain stage in the discussion may, in retrospect, be irrelevant to the

conclusion eventually reached.

Conclusions

A minute should end with conclusions which are clear and precise. The

chairperson will sometimes have summed up the discussion and indicated



the conclusions reached. But, if they have not done so, it is the duty of the

secretary to draft a set of conclusions which express fairly the sense of the

meeting.

There are many occasions on which the members of a committee are not

altogether clear of what has been decided until they see the minutes. The

secretary should certainly consult the chairperson if there is doubt about

any conclusions. Occasionally it may be desirable to clear a difficult point

with the member most concerned in order to avoid subsequent queries or

amendments to minutes. It is a proper function of a secretary to clarify, as

well as record, the results of a meeting.

Where action is required, the conclusion should place the responsibility firmly

upon an individual, to carry it out. If several committee members are

concerned they should all be named but care should be taken to indicate

who has the main responsibility.

To make them stand out as clearly as possible, it is preferable to divide the

conclusions into constituent parts, putting each into a separate

provision, e.g.:

“It was resolved -

(a) that Dr X be requested to draft a revised statement on ...;

(b) that the Vice-Chancellor be invited to discuss the matter at the next

meeting of...”

The conclusions will normally be set out at the end of the minute. If, however,

the minute falls naturally into a number of different sections, the conclusions

can be interspersed in the record of the discussion instead of being brought

together at the end of the minute. In that event, each separate section should

end with the relevant conclusion, inset in the text.

Whatever layout is chosen for the conclusions, it should for ease of reference

apply uniformly to all minutes of the committee.

The preparation of minutes should be treated as urgent. Delay often means

that the taking of action on conclusions will be delayed. Moreover they are

easier to write while the discussion is fresh in the writer’s mind.



Questions for Assessment

1. What do we mean by appropriateness in a business letter?

2. What is the importance of the ‘you’ attitude in a business letter?

3. What is the main purpose of a business letter?

4. What are the essentials of a good business letter?

5. Discuss, with examples, the importance of accuracy, completeness and

clarity in a business letter.

6. Draft a letter to Hindustan Watch Company, Chennai-1 asking for a

copy of their latest catalogue. State that you propose to stock watches

for sale. Ask for their best trade terms for the supply of their watches

and clocks.

7. As a retailer, draft a letter to ABC India Ltd., Chennai, placing an

urgent order with them for certain goods required for the forthcoming

rainy season. Draw their attention to the needy for prompt delivery.

8. Draft a sales letter to promote sales of any one of the following:

a. A refrigerator; (b) An agricultural insurance policy.(c) An electric

portable sewing machine.

9. You have recently purchased a radio set from a local dealer. You are

dissatisfied with the performance of the set. The dealer refused to look

into the matter. Write a letter stating specific complaints to XYZ

company, New Delhi, requesting them to direct the local dealer to

look into the matter.

10. Draft a circular letter announcing a gift scheme on the occasion of the

Dewali to increase the sales of the latest design suitings.



MINUTE WRITING

SAMPLE FORMAT

The following is an example of how minutes for University committees can

be written. It should be read in conjunction with the guidelines on minute

writing. Clearly, the layout and content will vary to some extent between

committees depending on how the Chairperson and Secretary, in consultation

with the committee, decide to structure the formal committee papers.

TITLE ABC UNIVERSITY OF MUMBAI

NAME OF COMMITTEE

HEADING Meeting number x/01 of the (title) Committee was

held in (room) on (date).

PRESENT: List the members present at the meeting. Normally the

name of the Chairperson comes first followed by the names

of the members in alphabetical order. For formal commit

tees use titles and initials,

eg: Professor Jose (Chairperson), Ms A Arthi, Dr M Mohan,

Sir J Jones, Professor P Smith.

APOLOGIES: A list of those members who asked for their apolo

gies to be recorded.

IN ATTENDANCE: List here those who, while they are not members

of the committee, were present at the meeting and

took some part in it. This will normally include the

Secretary, but not observers whose names are gen

erally not recorded.

REPORTING

OF ITEMS: The reporting of items should follow the order used

in the agenda. If any items are still confidential at

the time the minutes are circulated, these items

should be reported in a confidential section of the

minutes to be sent only to committee members:



1 STARRING OF ITEMS

The following items were taken up for discussion: (List here all of the items

starred on the agenda and by members at the meeting)

The Committee resolved that all unstarred items be received or approved

as appropriate.

2. MINUTES

Copies of the minutes of the meeting held on (date) had been circulated

(Note: insert a document number if the minutes were circulated as part of

the agenda). The Committee resolved to confirm the minutes as a correct

record.

If an item in the minutes is queried it might be appropriate to record

this as follows:

In response to a point of clarification, it was agreed to rephrase the first

sentence under item x on page y:

Reproduce here the corrected version

With that amendment, the Committee resolved to confirm the minutes as a

correct record.

3 BUSINESS ARISING FROM THE MINUTES

With reference to item x in the minutes, a member sought clarification about

the progress being made on the development of the Strategic Plan. In

response, the Vice-Chancellor advised members that the plan is now in its

final draft and will be presented to the Academic Board at its next meeting.

4 COMMITTEE REPORTS

4.1 Finance Committee

A copy of the report of Meeting x/01 of the Finance Committee held on

(date) had been circulated as (document number). Note: as appropriate,

this can either be followed by an account of the Committee’s consideration

of each of the items in the report, or, if the items were not identified



separately on the agenda, by a minute which indicates that the report was

received or noted for information:

4.1.1 2006 Budget

The Committee noted the draft 2006 budget approved by Finance

Committee (Attachment A), which had also been referred to the Budgets

Committee. It was agreed to advise Finance Committee that the allocation

of Rs.500 000 for overseas travel should be increased by z% in response

to the rise in airfares announced recently by the major airlines.

The Committee received the report from Finance Committee for

information.

5 NEW BUSINESS

5.1 Education

There was a discussion about the admission of full fee-paying overseas

students during which the following points were raised:

• concern was expressed about the need to achieve a mix of nationalities

on campus;

• it was felt that the University’s fee structure should be reviewed with

reference to the policies of the other Indian universities;

• the role of the International Students’ Association was considered and

further clarification was thought to be useful.

The Committee received the report from the Academic Registrar, and

resolved:

(1) to ask the Vice-Chancellor to seek advice from the Government about

the fees charged to private overseas students;

(2) to invite the President of the International Students’ Association to at-

tend the next meeting to explain to members the structure and functions

of the Association.



5.2 Transport Committee

The Committee received a memorandum from the Manager, Buildings and

Property Division (document number) requesting the appointment of a

representative on the Transport Committee. It was agreed to appoint

Dr M Durai as the Committee’s representative on the Transport

Committee for a two year term to 30 September 2006.

Prior to the close of the meeting, a member foreshadowed the following

motion for discussion at the next meeting:

That the Committee recommend to Council that smoking be banned

throughout the University.

The Chairperson closed the meeting and thanked members for their

attendance.

CONFIRMED:

CHAIRPERSON:_______________________________________

DATE:______/______/2006

3. 8 LETTER OF APPLICATION

Your application letter is one of your most important job-search documents.

An effective letter can get you a phone call for an interview, but a poorly

written application letter usually spells continued unemployment. When

applying for employment by mail, a job application letter must accompany

your resume. Some employers may be flooded with a stack of a hundred or

more resumes on any given day. In such situations, getting an interview can

represent a major breakthrough for the job applicant. The job application

letter you write can and should be used to substitute for that all-important

interview that you may not otherwise get, regardless of your qualifications.

The difference can be a matter of how you handle a few key points. The

following are some tips to help you develop effective application letters.



Individualizing Your Letter

Give your readers some insight into you as an individual. In the example

below the writer chose to describe particular experiences and skills that

could not be generalized to most other recent graduates. Draft your letter to

show how your individual qualities can contribute to the organization. This

is your letter, so avoid simply copying the form and style of other

letters you’ve seen. Instead, strive to make your letter represent your

individuality and your capabilities.

Addressing a Specific Person

Preferably, the person you write to should be the individual doing the hiring

for the position you’re seeking. Look for this person’s name in company

publications . If the name is unavailable in these places, phone the organization

and ask for the person’s name or at least the name of the personnel manager.

Catching Your Reader’s Attention

Your introduction should get your reader’s attention, stimulate interest, and

be appropriate to the job you are seeking. For example, you may want to

begin with a reference to an advertisement that prompted your application.

Such a reference makes your reason for contacting the company clear and

indicates to them that their advertising has been effective. Or you may want

to open by referring to the company’s product, which you want to promote.

Such a reference shows your knowledge of the company. Whatever opening

strategy you use, try to begin where your reader is and lead quickly to your

purpose in writing.

First Paragraph Tips

Make your goal clear.

• If you’re answering an advertisement, name the position stated in the

ad and identify the source, for example: “your advertisement for a man-

agement trainee, which appeared in the Employment News, May 35,

2006,...”

• If you’re prospecting for a job, try to identify the job title used by the

organization.



• If a specific position title isn’t available or if you wish to apply for a line

of work that may come under several titles, you may decide to adapt

the professional objective stated in your resume.

Additionally, in your first paragraph you should provide a preview of the

rest of your letter. This tells your reader what to look for and lets him or her

know immediately how your qualifications fit the requirements of the job. In

the example letter, the last sentence of the first paragraph refers to specific

work experience that is detailed in the following paragraph.

Highlighting Your Qualifications

Organize the middle paragraphs in terms of the qualifications that best suit

you for the job and the organization. That is, if your on-the-job experience

is your strongest qualification, discuss it in detail and show how you can

apply it to the needs of the company. Or if you were president of the

Marketing Club and you are applying for a position in marketing or sales,

elaborate on the valuable experience you gained and how you can put it to

work for them. If special projects you’ve done apply directly to the job you

are seeking, explain them in detail. Be specific. Use numbers, names of

equipment you’ve used, or features of the project that may apply to the job

you want.

One strong qualification, described so that the reader can picture you actively

involved on the job, can be enough. You can then refer your reader to your

resume for a summary of your other qualifications. If you have two or three

areas that you think are strong, you can develop additional paragraphs.

Make your letter strong enough to convince readers that your distinctive

background qualifies you for the job but not so long that length will turn

readers off. Some employers recommend a maximum of four paragraphs.

Other Tips

• Refer to your resume. Be sure to refer to your enclosed resume at the

most appropriate point in your letter, for example, in the discussion of

your qualifications or in the closing paragraph.

• Conclude with a clear, courteous request to set up an interview, and

suggest a procedure for doing so. The date and place for the interview



should be convenient for the interviewer. However, you’re welcome to

suggest a range of dates and places convenient to you, especially if you

travel at your own own expense or have a restricted schedule. Be

specific about how your reader should contact you. If you ask for a

phone call, give your phone number and the days and times of the week

when you can be reached.

• Be professional. Make sure your letter is professional in format, orga-

nization, style, grammar, and mechanics. Maintain a courteous tone

throughout the letter and eliminate all errors. Remember that readers

often “deselect” applicants because of the appearance of the letter.

• Seek advice. It’s always good idea to prepare at least one draft to

show to a critical reader for comments and suggestions before revising

and sending the letter.

Sample Letter

333 Sardar Patel Street,

West Adyar, Chennai -25

June 6, 2006

Ms. Christine

Engineer

Aerosol Monitoring and Analysis, Inc.

P.O. Box 233

Mount Road, Chennai -2

Dear Ms. Christine:

Dr. Paul, a consultant to your firm and my Organizational Management

Professor, has informed me that Aerosol Monitoring and Analysis is looking

for someone with excellent communications skills, organizational

experience, and leadership background to train for a management position.

I believe that my enclosed resume will demonstrate that I have the

characteristics and experience you seek. In addition, I’d like to mention

how my work experience last summer makes me a particularly strong

candidate for the position.



As a promoter for Kentech Training at the 2005 Chennai Air Show, I

discussed Kentech’s products with marketers and sales personnel from

around the world. I also researched and wrote reports on new product

development and compiled information on aircraft industry trends. The

knowledge of the aircraft industry I gained from this position would help me

analyze how Aerosol products can meet the needs of regular and

prospective clients, and the valuable experience I gained in promotion, sales,

and marketing would help me use that information effectively.

I would welcome the opportunity to discuss these and other qualifications

with you. If you are interested, please contact me at (044) 555-0338 any

morning before 3:00 p.m., or feel free to leave a message. I look forward to

meeting with you to discuss the ways my skills may best serve Aerosol

Monitoring and Analysis.

Sincerely yours,

First name Last name

Enclosure: resume

Job Application Letter Checklist

Address

Did you address your letter to a specific, real individual?

Introducing yourself

Did you clearly provide your reader with key facts about you, such as where

you attend university and what your main subject is?

Did you clearly tell your reader what you want?

Knowledge of the Reader’s Organisation

Did you persuade your reader that you know about the reader’s

organisation? Look at the web sites and other sources.



Is the knowledge you demonstrate related to the specific job you want? If

so, explain the relevance.

Did you convey a sense that you like the company?

Qualifications

Did you explain how the knowledge, abilities, and experiences described in

your CV are relevant to the specific job for which you are applying?

Remember non-placement related employment, such as working in a bar or

restaurant, can be useful in demonstrating other skills learnt, e.g. responsibility,

stock checking and auditing, communication skills, etc. In your CV briefly

mention this ‘added value’.

Closing

Does your closing seem cordial, yet clearly set out a plan of action?

Format

Does your letter have all the elements of a business letter?

As well as:

• return address;

• date;

• full address (including title) for the person to whom you are writing;

• salutation;

• signature block;

• signature.

You would be amazed at how many people miss one or all of these things

out. Remember, first impressions are important.



Writing Style

Are all of your sentences immediately clear to your reader? Does your

letter flow in a way that is interesting and easy to follow?

Appearance

Does your letter look neat and attractive?

Correctness

Is all spelling, punctuation and grammar correct?

Overall

Does your letter show that you are aware of your reader’s goals and concerns

when hiring?

Does your letter persuade that you are a skilled communicator?

3.9 WRITING POSITIVE AND ROUTINE MESSAGES

Positive information—good news—typically establishes its own

rapport. Because virtually everyone responds in a positive way to good

news, stating it first helps get such messages off to a good start. Routine

messages, those containing neutral information, follow the same pattern as

those containing information typically considered positive and also place

the most important information from the reader’s perspective in the initial

position.

General Structure for Conveying Positive and Neutral Information

Because good news establishes its own rapport, begin by stating the good

news or the most important information from the reader’s perspective. As

is true for orders and inquiries (direct requests), the writer’s main task in

writing routine and positive messages is to convey the information clearly,

concisely, and completely. The opening should be positive and direct,

pacing the reader’s expectations. The message needs to answer all the

questions the reader may have asked and should anticipate questions that

may occur to the reader after the message is received. The closing of the



letter or memo should either make clear who should do what next and/or

help establish a better business relationship.

Use the following structure:

Pace

Meet the reader’s expectations by using a standard format for business

letters. The first sentence should help the reader identify the purpose of the

letter by answering your reader’s most important question, stating the good

news, or providing the most important piece of information.

When you need to apologize—when the reader expects an apology—doing

so first will help establish rapport. Treat apologies as though they were

positive messages, and, when possible, focus on correcting the problem

rather than on the apology itself. When your mistake has cost the reader

time or money or has created an inconvenience, begin with the apology, and

then correct the problem. When you cannot correct the problem, apologize

and move on to something more positive.

• I’m sorry you received an incorrect order, Ms. Jones. I’ve sent the size

12 blue jacket you actually ordered by UPS. I’ve also sent a prepaid

shipping voucher for your convenience in returning the original

shipment.

• Thank you for letting me know that one of our sales clerks was rude to

you. On behalf of XYZ’s, I apologize for your inconvenience and

embarrassment.

Lead

Provide the necessary explanatory information. State how the reader

can benefit from the product, service, or information you are providing.

Include natural transition from your opening statement to the additional

information you will provide as you blend your outcomes with those of

the reader.

• For the small difference in cost, Model B offers a number of additional

features. . . .



• We’re glad to cover repairs and your shipping costs under the provi-

sions of the warranty. . . .

• To be eligible for financial aid, complete the enclosed form entitled “Ap-

plication for Financial Aid,” and return it with your completed

application for admission.

Blend Outcomes

When possible, be specific about the ways in which you can meet the

reader’s needs. When that’s not possible, either because you are unwilling

or unable to provide everything your reader has requested, emphasize what

you can do. When you are responding to a request for information, make

sure that you have answered all of the reader’s questions. Also, anticipate

questions that your reader should have asked but didn’t, and provide

answers to those as well.

• Model B includes a CD-ROM drive.

• Yes, we can comfortably accommodate 750 for dinner on the 15th.

The enclosed menus show you the range of choices available through

our Executive Banquet Service.

• The XYZ will fit comfortably within the 25 square feet you have

available for it.

Motivate

In business situations, readers always need to know who is responsible for

doing what next. If you are going to do something, say so explicitly. If the

reader is responsible for the next step, be explicit about that. When no

specific future action is required, use the closing to build goodwill and

promote the future of the relationship.

• Use the enclosed coupon to receive a 10 percent discount on any ABC

product.

• As soon as you confirm the accommodations you desire, I will make all

the necessary reservations for you.



• I will bring a sample XYZ to your office in Chennai for our meeting at

9:00AM on Tuesday the 15th.

Note: Because passive voice is less explicit than active voice, use it only

when the reader will consider the required action unpleasant or a reminder

of a mistake he or she has made. In such cases, passive voice helps soften

the unpleasantness associated with the action or the mistake.

Not this: When the accommodations you desire have been confirmed,

the necessary reservations will be made for you. [Who confirms? Who

will make the reservations? Neither of these is negative, so active voice

would be better.]

Not this: The enclosed coupon can be used for a discount on any ABC

product. [Who will use the coupon? Active voice would be better: Use

the enclosed coupon....]

Say this: As soon as the enclosed financial disclosure form is

completed and returned, we can begin the process of evaluating your

eligibility for the scholarship. [The reader needs to do an unpleasant

task, so the passive voice is appropriate.]

Say this: When the XYZ has been reconnected to your computer as

shown in the enclosed diagram, call me at 800/555-5555 for

assistance with the software installation. [The passive voice helps avoid

accusing the reader of having made a mistake.]

Positive Replies

Acknowledgments are reader-initiated messages. They are replies to

readers’ orders and inquiries. In a positive reply, you are providing the

requested information about products, services, operations, personnel, or

some other item of mutual concern because your reader has asked you to

provide it. When a reader sends you an inquiry, you can respond in one of

three ways: you can say yes, no, or maybe. .

Now that so many businesses are online with email address and Web pages,

most people have an increased expectation for prompt responses. In

general, email orders and inquiries should be acknowledged within 24 hours,



and those that arrive by letter should be acknowledged within 48 hours.

Respond to email orders and inquiries with an email message, and send a

letter or postcard to acknowledge those received by mail.

Acknowledging Orders

People expect prompt, courteous replies to their requests for goods and

services, and by fulfilling that expectation you can increase the positive

feelings your readers have for you and your company. Acknowledgments of

orders are directed toward either dealers or consumers, and—as is true for

all business messages—the writer needs to adapt the message to the

particular needs of the audience.

The writer also needs to consider the cost of the acknowledgments relative

to the goods or services ordered. It makes no sense, for example, to send

a Rs.10 personal letter in response to a Rs.5 order. On the other hand, the

customer who places a Rs.20,000 order deserves a well-written, personal

reply, even if the bulk of the letter consists of standard paragraphs used to

acknowledge orders of specific types. Most orders should be

acknowledged with a carefully prepared form message that

1. Accompanies the shipment or lets the reader know that the correct

merchandise is on its way by specifying the items to be shipped and the

method of shipment.

2. Expresses appreciation for the reader’s business.

3. Suggests appropriate possibilities for future business transactions.

While printed cards or letters, along with a specific invoice, are sufficient in

many cases, word-processed form letters are generally more useful

because they can express more personal concern for the reader while being

inexpensive to produce. Whether you use email, a printed reply, or a

personal letter, be sure to include as much you-attitude as possible.

Resale material, which stresses the benefits of goods or services already

purchased, will help convince the reader that he or she has made the

correct decision. New sales material, which encourages the reader to



purchase additional goods or services from you, helps reinforce the idea

that the business relationship will continue in the future, which is a way of

futurepacing additional purchases.

Acknowledging Requests

Positive acknowledgments of requests fall into three general categories:

• Those that give you the opportunity to sell your goods or services to

your reader.

• Those that emphasize positive information but may include some sales

material.

• Those that should include no sales material.

Obviously, if you are in a business that exists by selling products or

services, you will want to use every opportunity to increase your chances of

making a sale. Before you answer any request for information about your

products or services, ask yourself whether you should concentrate on the

objective of supplying the information or the objective of selling a product

or service.

The two objectives call for different treatment. A message concentrating on

supplying the information, even though further sales opportunities may also

be mentioned, is a direct message because the information will pace the

reader’s expectation. A message concentrating on selling a product or

service, however, needs to pace the reader appropriately before

introducing sales material to avoid the loss of rapport. Replies that

emphasize sales are persuasive messages.

When you have determined that the communication context does not offer

you the opportunity to include sales material, you should still use your

acknowledgement of your reader’s request to build goodwill. When you

can provide what the reader has requested, you should say so in the

opening sentence. A positive answer to a reader’s question will pace the

reader ’s expectation and place the message in the appropriate

communication context. Avoid thanking the reader for having written or

saying that you have received the request:



Not this: We have received your request for a copy of our manual, “How to

Assert Yourself on the Job Without Being Fired.” [It’s obvious that you

received the request, or you would not be writing.]

Say this: Here is your copy of “How to Assert Yourself on the Job Without

Being Fired.” [The opening paces the reader by providing what he or she

requested.]

Not this: Thank you for asking me to speak at the monthly meeting of the

IEEE Chennai Chapter for Training and Development in April. [This opening

delays the positive reply, causing the reader to wonder what the answer will

be.]

Say this: I’ll be glad to speak at the April meeting of the IEEE Chennai

Chapter for Training and Development. Thank you for asking me. [This

opening lets the reader know right away that the answer is yes.]

Be sure to answer all of your reader’s questions, including those questions

asked explicitly, those implied, and those that should have been asked but

were not. Be specific in supplying information, and interpret any facts and

figures that may not be absolutely clear to your reader. When you aren’t

sure whether the reader will be familiar with your terminology, subordinate

the term in question to something the reader won’t already know.

Should some of your information be negative, de-emphasize it by placing it

in the middle of the letter or memo. Your closing should motivate by being

positive and forward-looking. Avoid clichés and negative statements that

presuppose a lack of confidence:

Not this: If I can be of further service, do not hesitate to contact me.

Not this: Feel free to call on me again.

Not this: I hope this letter answers your questions.

Say this: Let me know when I can help again.

Say this: I’m glad to have been of help.

Because the closing lines of the message receive so much reader attention,

it is especially important for you to make those lines work for you. Readers



tend to ignore clichés, and statements lacking confidence undermine the

objectives you are trying to achieve.

Avoid these Use these

I hope I’m glad (We’re glad)

We trust I’ll be glad to

Do not hesitate Write me (Call me)

If you have any questions When you’re in town

Why not call Visit our showrooms

At your earliest convenience Soon (Next week, next month)

Thank you again You’ve been a big help

Simple Replies: Most acknowledgments without sales opportunities are fairly

straightforward: You simply agree to do or provide what your reader has

requested.

Positive Replies to Claims: Positive replies to requests for adjustments or

refunds and to requests for credit require more thoughtful treatment than

positive acknowledgements because the reader’s ego is more involved in

the situation. When the reader has requested an adjustment or credit, she

or he has a strong interest in the action you decide to take. Even though

your positive reply to the request will help establish rapport, you will have

other issues to consider.

In the case of claims, in addition to using the positive reply to establish

rapport, the writer needs to repair the relationship—to restore the reader’s

confidence in the writer’s company, product, or service. Positive replies to

claims need to contain information on the resale on the product or service

already sold and appropriate new sales material to demonstrate confidence

in the future of the business relationship.

How much new sales material you should include will depend on the

circumstances. When the problem has been significant, costing the reader

either time or money for which you cannot fully compensate, concentrate

on resale. In such situations, the reader is primarily concerned with the fair

and complete resolution of his or her current situation and would find too

much sales material offensive.



Replies about People: Acknowledgments of requests for information about

people are usually a matter of completing the forms supplied by the

company making the request. Occasionally, however, you will need to write

a letter—either because the requestor did not supply a form or because the

circumstances are sufficiently unusual to make a standard form inadequate.

Replies to requests for information about people are frequently called

letters of recommendation because they are often used to recommend

someone for a scholarship, admission to graduate school, or a job. A more

accurate term, however, is letter of reference, because the writer may choose

not to recommend but simply reference his or her experience with the

individual being asked about.

When you can recommend the person in question, your recommendation

should be stated immediately. When you cannot provide an unqualified

recommendation, the negative material preventing the recommendation, like

all negative material, should be placed in the middle of the letter and stated

in as positive way as possible. Honesty dictates, however, that negative

information that would influence the reader’s decision be presented clearly.

Letters of reference reflect on the writer and his or her judgments as much

as they do on the person being written about.

Replies to requests about people should state whether the information is

confidential, whether it was requested, and how you know what you are

reporting (direct experience or observation, what others have told you, etc.).

Replies about Credit: Another kind of acknowledgment is a reply to a

request for credit. When you decide to extend credit, it will be because

your reader’s character, ability to pay, and business conditions all indicate

his or her willingness and ability to handle credit transactions honestly and

well. Your reply extending credit should acknowledge the reader’s having

earned the right to do business by credit. Note that credit is earned and not

granted or approved. Both granted and approved presuppose a

condescension, a relationship in which the writer is superior to the reader.

Not this: We are granting you credit in the amount of . . .

Not this: We have approved your request for credit.



Say this: Your excellent credit history qualifies you for . . .

Say this: Congratulations. Because of your excellent credit history, you have

earned the right to carry a Gold Card from XYZ Inc.

When the credit approval is accompanied by the shipment of goods, begin

the letter by saying that you have sent the merchandise. Sending the

merchandise implies the extension of credit, and except for the credit

information, letters of this type are similar to those acknowledging orders.

When writing to consumers, be sure to clarify your credit terms and the

procedures for paying. When you are writing to dealers, adapt your language

to avoid an explicit explanation of terms most dealers would know.

Subordinate the terms themselves to the specific benefits associated with

them.

To a Consumer: Your new Gold Card allows you to purchase up to

Rs.25,000 worth of goods and services in any monthly billing period. You

will receive your statement for the previous month’s charges

between the 2nd and the 5th of the month, and a minimum payment will be

due by the 20th, or you may pay the full amount without penalty.

To a Dealer: With our usual credit terms of 3/10, n/60, you can save Rs.680

on this order alone by paying the discount price by the date specified on the

enclosed invoice. Or, if you prefer to delay payment, the full amount is due

60 days after the date on the invoice.

Announcements

Messages that announce sales, special events (such as conferences,

meetings, formal parties or other celebrations), and special awards are all

good-news messages. Messages announcing minor changes in policy also

fall into this category, but messages announcing major changes in policy are

usually handled as persuasive messages.

Because many announcements imply an invitation, they are written in much

the same way as invitations. The principal differences are that invitations are

more exclusive (usually going to fewer people at a time) and have the

promise of greater benefit for the reader. Announcements are less special



and need to be more persuasive. Because announcements typically go to

groups of people at a time, they are typically printed and use various

persuasive strategies to catch attention.

Special Goodwill Messages

Messages that do not have a specific business purpose are known as

special goodwill messages because their main purpose is to improve the

relationship between writer and reader. These messages can be especially

meaningful to a reader precisely because they do not have any other

purpose. To include sales material of any sort or to attempt to conduct

other business in these letters would defeat their purpose. The following are

the typical categories of special goodwill messages:

1. Messages of congratulation. Significant accomplishments, such as

promotions, retirements, election to an office, winning a competition,

or marriage, deserve special messages of recognition and praise. When

your customers, clients, or associates achieve important milestones, they

will appreciate and remember messages congratulating them. The

routine sending of birthday cards, however, may convey only that you

keep a record of birthdays. Unless you can say something personal

and mean it, you will be better off skipping the birthday cards.

2. Messages of appreciation. Whenever someone does you a favor, you

owe that person a word of thanks. When the favor is large enough, the

person deserves a letter. Many businesses send routine thank-you

messages to customers for prompt payment, patronage, or

recommendations to others. Such messages reinforce the person’s

desire to do favors for you in the future.

3. Messages conveying season’s greetings. Special business relationships

merit an exchange of greetings at appropriate times of the year. Most

businesses limit season’s greetings to specially prepared cards. Note:

Be aware of cultural differences in the celebration of religious and

national holidays. Not all your customers, clients, or associates, for

example, may celebrate Christmas, and some may be offended if you

automatically assume that they do.



4. Messages of welcome. Businesses use messages of welcome to make

new customers, prospective customers, and new employees feel at

home. Messages of welcome should emphasize useful information and

a willingness to help the newcomer.

5. Get well messages and messages of sympathy. Messages extending

condolences are difficult to write, but your business friends will

appreciate your having cared enough to express your sympathetic

feelings. Even though the subject is melancholy and seems negative,

your reader will, of course, already know of the misfortune, so your

opening should acknowledge the unhappy event. Be careful to match

your language to the situation. Greatly distressed, for example, is more

appropriate for a death than a broken leg.

Except for season’s greetings, each of these messages requires specific

personal details to be convincing. Messages of congratulation and

appreciation should focus on the reader’s accomplishments and efforts, and

messages of sympathy should mention the deceased person’s fine qualities

if known or focus on your recognition of the reader’s loss.

Apologies

When apologies are required, they are positive messages. The apology

itself will pace the reader’s expectation. In many cases, however, apologies

serve no useful purpose because the reader is more concerned with having

his or her problem solved than with how sorry you are that it happened in

the first place. When you can correct the difficulty, state the solution to the

problem first.

Not this: I’m sorry that you were inconvenienced by having to return your

Astrosonic clock radio for repairs.

Say this: You’ll receive your fully repaired Astrosonic clock radio in just a

few days. I’ve sent it by UPS.

Apologies are required when you, your company, or a company

representative has made a mistake that cannot be corrected. Having caused

a minor inconvenience is not in itself a reason to apologize. People in



business and the general public expect things to go wrong once in a while:

Nothing—and no one—is perfect. Faulty products and mistakes are bound

to occur, and prompt correction is more important than apologizing.

Apologies are required in the following circumstances:

1. You have taken too long to answer a message (phone, email, or mail).

2. You tried to solve the reader’s problem once and failed; the reader had

to ask a second time.

3. A defect in your product injured a customer. Note: For legal reasons,

avoid admitting guilt. Check with your legal department before you send

a letter.

4. A representative of your company was rude to someone.

5. A defect in your product was of such a nature that the consumer will

not be interested in a correction (a cockroach in a jar of peanut butter,

a dead mouse in a bottle of beer).

6. A problem in your business operations has cost someone else time,

money, and exasperation.

When your reader deserves an apology, put it first in the message. I and we

beginnings are appropriate in only a few instances, and apologies are one of

them. I’m sorry is an effective way to begin an apology, and when the reader

believes that he or she deserves one, it effectively paces the reader’s

expectation.

Never try to subordinate an apology by placing it in the middle of a

message, and—even more important—never apologize at the end of a

message. After you have apologized, explain the situation as best you can,

and close in a positive, forward-looking way..

Transmittals

Letters and memos of transmittal are used to transmit (send) something

else—a report, a resume, or some other enclosure—to a reader. A

message is a letter of transmittal when the item transmitted provides the



principal reason for the letter. In most cases the transmittal begins with a

reference to the item transmitted, which paces the reader’s expectation:

• Here is the report you requested.

• Here are the brochures you asked for.

• The enclosed schedule shows you what I propose for the summer scout-

ing program.

Be sure to emphasize the importance of the enclosure to the reader rather

than the mere fact that something is enclosed, which would be obvious in

most circumstances.

Not this: Please find enclosed the descriptive brochure . . .

Not this: I am enclosing a brochure . . .

Say this: The enclosed brochure describes . . .

Note: Sales letters transmitting enclosures and letters transmitting resumes

are exceptions. In such cases, the enclosure is considered a supplement

and referred to late in the letter. For letters of this type see the sections on

persuasion.

Writing Negative Messages

A negative message is any message to which the reader will have an

unpleasant emotional reaction. Readers find negative messages

disappointing or threatening in some way. Such messages require special

care to avoid damaging the quality of the relationship because the negative

message—the bad news—will hurt the reader’s feelings or cause him or

her to lose face.

Not all messages saying no are negative. For a message to be negative, the

reader’s ego must be involved in the outcome. If a reader requests

information you and others in your organization are not equipped to

provide, for example, the reader’s feelings will not be hurt when you direct

him or her elsewhere. Treat messages of this variety as you would a

message conveying positive information: state the most important

information first, and use it to help establish rapport with the reader.



Also, be aware that saying no is more serious in some cultures than it is in

others. The Japanese, for example, will avoid saying no directly, and if they

are unable to avoid a negative reply, they will often apologize for the

negative message. Communicating negative information effectively requires

greater cultural sensitivity than does communicating something positive.

Before writing, do your best to ensure that you understand the cultural

implications of the message and the expectations of your audience.

General Structure for Conveying Negative Information

When your reader’s ego is involved, opening with the negative message

would violate the reader’s expectation and damage rapport. If you have

interviewed the reader for a job and have selected another candidate, for

example, the reader’s ego is involved in your response even if he or she has

already decided on another job with another organization. In such cases,

the opening should pace the reader’s expectation by mentioning something

about the subject with which the reader will agree.

Such letters require extra care—the more the negative information

concerns the reader as a person, the greater the need for psychological

preparation. Telling your reader that you can’t fill an order because you are

out of stock will not hurt his or her feelings as much as would your refusing

to extend credit.

The best preparation for bad news is a logical and believable reason that

the negative message is in the reader’s long-term best interest. If the

situation does not allow that approach, at least show that your reason is

legitimate, and help your reader save face by suggesting alternative courses

of action or ways to compensate for a shortcoming. The fact that a positive

alternative exists, however, is not a reason for refusal. The advantages of

buying with cash (such as a discount) are not a reason to refuse credit.

Use the following structure for conveying bad news:

Pace

Openings for negative messages are often called buffer beginnings because

they are designed to buffer the negative message that will follow. Buffers

are designed to establish rapport by being positive—something with which



the reader will agree or perhaps an honest compliment. To be effective,

however, they must also introduce the subject of the message without

misleading the reader into thinking that the message is positive and without

foreshadowing the negative. Also, recent research suggests that not

everyone appreciates a buffer beginning. For these reasons, buffers are

usually brief.

• Thank you for allowing us to examine your ABC. [In a letter refusing

warranty coverage.]

• Starting 1 May, you will have access to more than 500 channels on SS

Cable Service. [In a letter announcing an increase in rates.]

• You will receive the letterhead stock you ordered within the next few

days. We shipped it by UPS, as you requested. [In a letter stating that

the reader needs to clarify the type of envelope desired.]

Lead

As is typically the case in informational messages, the explanation and

reasons provide the transitional element from the opening to the kinds of

win-win solutions possible. Note that neither company policy nor the size

of the organization (either large or small) is a real reason—if you have a

policy, you should have a reason for it. Also note that one absolute reason

is sufficient. Use more than one reason only when the individual reasons are

weak—and be sure you have a good reason before saying no automatically.

Be especially careful to avoid negative transitions. Such words as but,

however, although, and even though signal a turn for the worse.

• When we examined your ABC, we discovered that the video card had

been installed incorrectly, which caused a number of circuits to short

out. [Provides transition from the opening to the reason for the refusal.

Note that passive voice helps subordinate what is probably the reader’s

mistake.]

• So that we may continue to bring you the kind of cable service you

desire, please review the enclosed list of optional packages and new

pricing structure and let us know your preference. [Provides transition



from the opening to the rate increase. Note that the emphasis is on the

reader and the benefit the increase will bring.]

• To receive the envelopes that will best meet your needs. . . . [Provides

transition and emphasizes the reader benefit.]

Blend Outcomes

When possible, be specific about the ways in which you can help the reader

meet his or her needs, even though you are unwilling or unable to do things

in the way he or she requested or desires. Your refusing to extend credit

now, for example, may keep your reader out of future credit difficulties.

Saying no to a special request may be necessary to help you keep prices

low. Subordinate the negative information itself by emphasizing a positive

alternative, using positive language, and avoiding blaming the reader for

having caused problems. When possible, put the most negative element in a

subordinate clause.

• Although the improper installation of the video card nullifies the

warranty on your ABC, we can repair the ABC and reinstall the video

card for Rs.20,000.

• Even though our banquet facilities are already booked for the evening

of 15th, we would be able to accommodate your group for lunch that

day or for lunch or dinner on the 16th.

• As soon as you decide which envelopes best meet your needs, fax your

order to me for fast service.

Motivate

When the reader needs to do something specific—return a form, confirm

an alternative, or make a decision—make sure that he or she knows exactly

what he or she needs to do and any appropriate deadline. When the reader

has no options with your organization, do your best to promote goodwill so

that, if future opportunities present themselves, the reader will have a

favorable opinion of you and your organization.



Sales material, including resale (on a product or service already purchased)

or new sales (on new product or services), can help make a closing effective

when it fits in well with the positive alternative suggested in blending

outcomes. Even when sales material is appropriate, however, be careful to

avoid sounding greedy and selfish. When further action is required, be

specific about who should do what next.

• The ABC is an excellent value, and once your machine is repaired, it

can provide you with years of excellent service.

• The enclosed menus show you the banquet options available for lun-

cheons and dinners. Whatever you choose, you can be sure that we

will provide your organization with the finest food and service avail-

able.

• In addition to custom letterhead stock and envelopes, we offer a com-

plete line of speciality brochure stock and mailers. Because you are a

new customer, I have included a complete catalog and sampler case

with the letterhead you ordered.

Negative Replies

A negative reply to a request for goods, service, an adjustment, or credit is

bound to upset the reader. Because in most cases your reader will expect

to have the request approved, your negative reply will come as a

disappointing surprise. When you decide that a negative reply is the only

one possible under the circumstances, you need to make the best of the

situation by working to maintain a positive relationship with the reader and

making certain that he or she understands the reasons for the decision and

knows what other courses of action are possible.

Delayed or Declined Orders

One type of negative acknowledgment is a message stating that an order

cannot be filled or that there will be a delay in filling it. The fault may be

either the reader’s or the writer’s (or the fault of the writer’s company).

When the reader has been at fault by not supplying complete order

information, the writer’s principal task is to obtain the information required



to complete the order without accusing the reader of having written an

inadequate order.

Not this: You forgot to specify which brand of multivitamins you

desired.

Say this: So that you can receive the brand of multivitamins you

prefer, please use the enclosed card [or “reply to this email message”] to

indicate your choice.

When the writer or writer’s company is responsible for the delay or refusal,

the writer’s principal task is to persuade the reader either to wait until the

order can be filled or to retain faith in the writer’s company or its products

in spite of having to order elsewhere.

Not this: Due to manufacturing difficulties, we will be unable to send the

two dozen 25-inch colour TV sets for about three weeks.

Say this: We will be able to send the 25-inch colour TV sets in about three

weeks.

Messages about delays in shipment for which the reader is at fault (because

of incorrect or incomplete information, missing check, or similar reason)

require

1. Careful, positive wording of a request for the missing information.

2. Inclusion of resale material to encourage the reader to continue with

the purchase process.

3. A request for specific, prompt action on the part of the reader.

The cost of individual letters would be low compared to the goodwill and

increased sales that would result. Other important considerations are the

following:

• When possible, send part of the order.

• Avoid thanking the reader for an incomplete or declined order because

it misleads the reader into thinking that you have filled it.



• Be careful to avoid accusatory language, such as you failed or you

neglected. Consider using passive voice to avoid a direct accusation.

Not this: You failed to specify the fabric options on p. 2 of the order

form.

Say this: The fabric options on p. 2 of the order form need to be

completed so that we can meet all your uniform needs.

• Include appropriate resale and new sales material, and make sure that

the reader knows what he or she needs to do next. What is appropriate

will, of course, depend on the circumstances, but be sensitive to the

fact that your customer or client would appreciate receiving the current

order before purchasing something new.

When you must decline an order because business conditions make it

impossible for you to supply the goods or service (or a reasonable

alternative), you need to explain the situation in a straightforward way. Your

reader will appreciate it if you supply information about where and how the

requested goods or services can be obtained. When the business

conditions are temporary (strikes, shipping problems, a manufacturing

problem, etc.), include appropriate resale or new sales material to

demonstrate your confidence in the future of the business relationship. Be

especially careful, however, to avoid making promises you may be unable

to keep.

Although an increasing number of companies are establishing direct

marketing strategies (most notably on the World Wide Web section of the

Internet), many companies still rely on a system of established dealers. If

you work for a company that sells only through established dealers and

receive an order, your objective will be to retain the reader’s goodwill while

persuading him or her to visit a local dealer.

If you need to decline an order from a dealer, it will be for one of the

following reasons:



1. The dealer has not established sufficient credit or is having other credit

problems. In this case your objective is to retain the order on a cash

basis, and, for this reason, this type of letter is a credit refusal and not

an order refusal.

2. You already have an exclusive dealer in the area. In this case, your

explanation of the arrangement you have with the existing dealer will

justify the refusal. Limit the positive close to simple goodwill, and, of

course, avoid resale, new sales, and positive alternatives.

3. The dealer does not meet your requirements. This is a broad category,

covering financial matters (the dealer wants a larger markup than you

offer), character (the dealer has a reputation for not providing the

high-quality customer service you expect from your dealers), and

circumstance (the dealer’s facilities or location are not suitable for your

corporate image or market needs).

Negative Replies to Requests

Most people make requests and claims only when they feel that they truly

deserve a positive reply. Any time you must refuse a request or claim, pace

the reader’s expectations by opening with something positive with which he

or she can agree. Subordinate the refusal itself by emphasizing the reasons

for it and any logical, positive alternatives.

Remember that alternatives themselves are not reasons and that the reasons

for the refusal should precede the alternatives. If the reasons and the

alternatives are sufficient to make the refusal clear, you may not need to

state the refusal explicitly.

Negative Replies to Claims

When a customer has written to you claiming that your product or service

was deficient in some way, you obviously need to consider the situation

carefully. Some companies have decided that the customer is always right

and approve every adjustment requested. Other companies feel that

unwarranted claims should be refused because it is unfair to make all

customers pay for the unreasonable requests of a few.



If you decide that a reader’s request is unwarranted and should be refused,

you need to be careful to avoid accusing the reader of carelessness,

misrepresentation, or fraud. Rather than assume that the reader is

deliberately trying to cheat you, assume that your reader does not

understand the nature of your service or the operation of your product.

Your principal objectives in such cases are to educate the reader and to

resell the product or service in question.

Credit Refusals

A letter refusing credit is more of a persuasive message than a negative

message because its objective is not so much to refuse credit as it is to

obtain the customer’s business on a cash basis. The purpose of the refusal

is to show the reader that while a credit purchase might look attractive at

the moment, it is in his or her long-term best interest to avoid risky credit

obligations.

When refusing credit, make your reasons clear, and suggest ways in which

the reader can improve credit eligibility. Emphasize your requirements for

credit rather than the ways in which the reader has failed to establish a good

credit rating, and invite the reader to apply for credit again when he or she

meets those requirements. Be careful to avoid promising to extend credit in

the future.

Because you still want the customer’s business on a cash basis, much of

your letter will consist of resale. Emphasize the advantages of doing

business for cash, but remember that those advantages are not reasons for

refusing credit. Also avoid thanking the reader for the order, which would

sound selfish in view of the situation, and emphasize the reader’s

alternatives (such as local bank credit based on collateral, smaller order, or

layaway purchases).

Negative Announcements

When your negative message is written in reply to something the reader has

requested, you at least have a logical starting point for your letter. Readers

who have requested favors, adjustments, or credit expect your reply and

know that their request may be denied. Negative announcements and



reminders present a more challenging problem. Even when your readers

know that they have not fulfilled some obligations, they do not fully expect

to receive your announcement.

Also, negative announcements and reminders are frequently prepared as

form messages to keep their costs low, which makes personalizing them

difficult, and it is easy to forget that the reader is still a customer—or

potential customer—who needs to be encouraged to act in a way that will

allow both of you to benefit rather than a nuisance whose behavior is

causing you a problem.

If negative announcements and reminders are to be read and taken

seriously, they must offer the reader something of value. When you can,

offer real and specific benefits. You should, at least, offer to discuss the

situation with the reader so that you can reach an agreement.

Not this: I regret to inform you that your admission to candidate status has

been delayed until you complete the following requirements.

Say this: Before your admission to candidate status, you will need to com

plete the following requirements.

Not this: On March 3, we sent you the accidental injury forms and

requested that you return the forms to the Coronary Clinic. It’s now March

27, and we have not yet received your reply.

Say this: To receive your check from United Insurance, you will need to

file the accidental injury forms we sent you on March 3.

Letters of reprimand also fall into this category. Even though these

messages stay within the company, they typically use letter format because

of the formality of the situation. Such letters are usually preceded by less

formal warnings, so the reader should be expecting the negative message.

Even so, when circumstances require you to reprimand an employee for his

or her behavior, delay the most negative aspects of the message until you

have reviewed the facts.



To help the person do a better job in the future, be specific about and

document what the person has been doing wrong (too much absenteeism,

too many personal phone calls, poor quality control, or other failures to

meet job requirements). You should also specify in the letter what the

person needs to do to perform satisfactorily. Letters of reprimand are often

delivered as part of a formal review procedure so that their contents can be

discussed. When writing such letters, use the following structure:

1. Review the facts: Begin with a point of agreement to pace the reader

and help establish rapport. Use positive language to specify what the

reader is doing wrong, and explain the reasons the reader should be

aware that the behavior is wrong.

2. State the expected behavior: Tell the reader exactly what should be

done to correct the problem. When appropriate, clarify future review

dates and progress expected by those dates. If failure to correct the

problem behavior could result in termination, say so explicitly.

3. Offer to help: Keep the communication channels open. Offer to

discuss the situation with the reader. Ask the reader to come up with

his or her own solution to the problem.

Apologies

Sometimes you must apologize for a negative announcement. If you have to

postpone or cancel an engagement at the last minute or otherwise renege on

a commitment to a reader, an apology may be necessary and appropriate.

Unlike most apologies (see “Apologies” in Conveying Good News),

apologies for negative announcements should be delayed until you have

presented the reason. Unless you must return a check or some other

obvious indicator of the bad news, beginning such a message with I’m sorry

would reveal the negative content before the reader is prepared to receive

it. In such cases, pace the reader’s expectation by beginning with

something with which the reader will agree, but keep it brief, and focus on

the actual reason you are writing:



Not this: It certainly has been hot this summer. [The reader may agree but

will wonder why you are writing.]

Say this: The Sales and Marketing convention you are planning for

September appears to be shaping up nicely. [The reader will know what the

letter is about and will wonder what you will say next, so introduce your

reason(s) quickly.]

Apologize either immediately before or immediately after clarifying the

negative aspect. Keep the apology brief to avoid encouraging the reader to

feel worse than she or he already does. When you can do so appropriately,

suggest alternatives that will help the reader solve the problem caused by

your inability to keep your commitment. The closing should be positive and

forward-looking. Be careful about making new promises, which may not be

taken seriously at this point, and avoid the temptation to apologize again.

Review Questions

1. Answer each of the following questions in a word, phrase or a

sentence:

i. Letter should be folded and placed properly. To which quality does this

statement pertain ?

ii. You want to write an order letter to the manager of a publishing

company. Which salutation will you use ?

iii. What should be the complimentary close for a letter, the salutation of

which is ‘Dear Shri Sanjay?

iv. What is the term used for a document that has been sent along with the

letter ?

v. A trader has written a very long letter to a producer. Which quality of

letters has he ignored ?

Answer the following questions.

1. Managing Director, Mr Raman, has written a letter to Bombay Motors

Pvt. Ltd. Write the complimentary close. Signature and designation in

the form in which he should write in his letter.

2. Write short notes on:



a. Inside address

b. Complimentary close

c. Salutation

d. The letter head

e. Courtesy in business letter writing.

3. What is meant by business correspondence?

4. How is personal correspondence different from business

correspondence?

5. Explain the importance of writing a business letter.

6. Describe the inner and outer qualities of a good business letter.

7. What is meant by Enquiry letter? What are the points one should

remember while writing an enquiry letter?.

8. Explain the various parts of a business letter with the help of a

specimen.

9. What is meant by Quotation letter? How does it differ from enquiry

letter?

10. What is meant by Recovery letter?

11. What is meant by Order letter? Give a specimen of an order letter.

12. What is meant by Complaint letter? Under what situations is a

complaint letter written?



4.1 INTRODUCTION

Technical reporting is the practical writing that people do as a part

of their jobs. Because it is practical, technical writing “aims to get

work done, to change people by changing the way they do things .”

Organisations use reports to provide a formal, verifiable link among people,

places, and times. Some reports are used for internal communication;

others are vehicles for corresponding with outsiders. Some serve as a

permanent record; others solve an immediate problem or answer a passing

question. Many move upward through chain of command to help managers

monitor the various units in the organisation; some move down to explain

managerial decisions to lower level employees responsible for day-to-day

operation. Although business reports serve hundreds of purposes, most

reports are used for one of the following six general purposes.

• To monitor and control operation

• To help implement policies and procedures

• To comply with legal and regulatory requirements

• To document work performed for a client

• To guide decisions on particular issues

• To obtain new business or funds

Each of these purposes imposes its own requirements on the report writer.

UNIT 4 TECHNICAL REPORTS




1. Understand the function of technical writing.

2. Manage the writing process (think, plan, write, revise, and edit).

3. Understand the structure of paragraphs and the role of topic sentences

and thesis statements.

4. Understand the sections of scientific/technical report.

4.3 REPORT WRITING FORMAT

What is a report?

A report is the conventional method of presenting precise information. A

report may be used to convey an assessment of any situation or the results

from qualitative and/or quantitative data analysis. A report has clearly stated

aims. It is tightly focused on the subject of investigation. A really effective

report will also be compelling and stimulating to read.

Understanding the Sections of Your Report:

Reports are generally divided up into sections. Each section has a specific

purpose, and often there are specific guidelines for formatting each section.

It’s always best to consult a style manual for your discipline, to talk to other

people in your discipline who have written reports, and to look at similar

reports that have been published in order to understand more fully the

expectations for reports in your field.

Generally, a report will include the following sections:

• Title page

• Abstract

• Table of contents

• Introduction



• Body

• Recommendations

• References

• Appendices

Title page

The title page of the research report normally contains four main pieces of

information: the report title; the name of the person, company, or

organization for whom the report has been prepared; the name of the

author and the company or university which originated the report; and the

date on which the report was completed. You might also include other

information on the title page such as contract number, a security

classification such as CONFIDENTIAL, or a copy number depending on

the nature of the report you are writing.

How do I come up with a title?

It is important to take your audience into account when developing a title

for your research report. It is a good idea to develop a “working title” for

your project as you draft your report initially, but be open to changing your

title after you are finished writing to accurately reflect your project. Be

sure that your title is accurate; it needs to reflect the major emphasis of your

paper and prepare readers for the information you present. Also, develop

a title that will be interesting to readers and that will make them want to

read the rest of your report. Try to imagine what you would want to see in

the title if you were searching for your paper by keyword; include

keywords in the title when possible and when they are relevant.

There are four common approaches that writers often take to writing their

titles. Notice how these approaches help to convey the nature of the

research and introduce the topic.

1. Include the name of the problem, hypothesis, or theory that was tested

or is discussed. Example: Demand and Supply Determination in a Public

Distribution System.



2. Include the name of the phenomenon or subject investigated.

Example: The Human Brain: Conservation of the Subcortical Auditory

System.

3. Name the method used to investigate a phenomenon or method

developed for application. Example: A Practical EMG-Based

Human-Computer Interface for Users with Motor Disabilities

4. Provide a brief description of the results obtained.

Omit obvious words and phrases such as “A study on . . .” and “An

investigation of . . .” whenever you can as well. These make your title

unnecessarily wordy.

Here is a sample title page. Note that this format may not be acceptable for

your context; always consult your supervisor, instructor, or a style manual

for your discipline to see how title pages should be formatted.

BUSINESS PROCESS MAPPING FOR STRATEGY AND ENTERPRISE

MANAGEMENT OF TELECOM SERVICE PROVIDERS

submitted to

Dr. David

Department of Management Studies

Anna University

Chennai-600025

May 7, 2006

by

S.SELVADEVAN

(2555506)

Abstract

An abstract is an accurate representation of the contents of a document in

an abbreviated form” (Porush 75). An abstract can be the most difficult

part of the research report to write because in it you must introduce your

subject matter, tell what was done, and present selected results, all in one



short (about 150 words) paragraph. As a result, you should usually write

the abstract last.

You will need to write an abstract when your dissertation for a higher

degree (M.S. or Ph.D.) is accepted, when you submit an article for

publication, or when your report will be disseminated to an audience that

needs a summary of its contents. You may not have to write an abstract for

reports written for a course; check the specific guidelines for your course

to see if one is required.

An abstract serves an important function in a research report; it

communicates the scope of your paper and the topics discussed to your

reader, and, in doing so, it facilitates research. Abstracts help scientists to

locate materials that are relevant to their research from among published

papers, and many times scientists will only read a paper’s abstract in order

to determine whether the paper will be relevant to them. Considering your

audience and their needs will help you to determine what should be

included in your abstract.

Ask yourself:

• Why would another researcher be interested in this research?

• What are the most important aspects of the research? What should a

reader be sure to know about the research?

• What information will the reader have to have in order to understand

the most important aspects?

• What are the main points from each section of your report? Summarize

each section in one sentence, if possible.

The most common type of abstract is the informative abstract. An

informative abstract summarizes the key information from every major

section in the body of the report, and provides the key facts and

conclusions from the body of the report. A good way to develop an

informative abstract is to devote a sentence or two to each of the major

parts of the report. If space permits, you can provide contextual

information such as background of the problem and the significance of the



research, but you can also omit contextual information because the abstract

is not supposed to serve as an introduction to the subject matter of the

report—your introduction will serve that role. You can also omit citations

for your sources in the abstract. If you summarize information that you

borrowed from other writers, you do not have to repeat the citation in the

informative abstract. You should, however, include key numerical facts to

make the informative abstract brief. Readers will not be surprised to see

numerical data in an informative abstract.

Be sure to summarize rather than describe your report in an informative

abstract. Phrases such as “This report discusses” or “Several solutions are

considered” describe what the content of the report will be rather than

actually summarize the report’s main points or solutions. Someone reading

your informative abstract should have a clear, albeit limited, understanding

of the scope and nature of your research, as well as the conclusions you

reach.

Table of Contents

Most reports will contain a Table of Contents that lists the report’s

contents and demonstrates how the report has been organized. You should

list each major section in your Table of Contents. Sometimes you may want

to use additional descriptive headings throughout your report and for your

Table of Contents. Using descriptive headings can help readers to see how

your report is organized if the section headings are not clear enough. This is

likely to be true especially if most of your report is contained in one long

section called Body or Discussion that includes everything from the

materials and methods you used to the results you found and the

conclusions you draw. In this case, it might be best to include additional

headings to indicate where readers can look specifically to read about your

materials and methods or conclusions.



Introduction

Contents

The introduction prepares readers for the discussion that follows by

introducing the purpose, scope, and background of the research. The

audience for your report largely determines the length of the introduction

and the amount of detail included in it. You should include enough detail so

that someone knowledgeable in your field can understand the subject and

your research.

You should begin your introduction at the top of a new page, preceded on

the page only by the report’s full title. The title is followed by the word

Introduction, which can be either a center or side heading. Most

introductions contain three parts to provide context for the research:

purpose, scope, and background information. These parts often overlap

one another, and sometimes one of them may be omitted simply because

there is no reason for it to be included.

It is very important to consider the purpose of your research and your

report in the introduction. If you do not completely understand what the

purpose is, there is little chance that the reader will understand your

purpose either. The following questions will help you to think about the

purpose of your research and your reason for writing a report:

• What did your research discover or prove?

• What kind of problem did you work on?

• Why did you work on this problem? If the problem was assigned, try

to imagine why the instructor assigned this particular problem; what

were you supposed learn from working on it?

• Why are you writing this report?

• What should the reader know or understand when they have finished

reading the report?



Scope refers to the ground covered by the report and will outline the method

of investigation used in the project. Considering the scope of your project

in the introduction will help readers to understand the parameters of your

research and your report. It will also help you to identify limiting factors on

your research and acknowledge these early in the report. For example, “if

18 methods for improving packaging are investigated in a project but only 4

are discussed in the report, the scope indicates what factors (such as cost,

delivery time, and availability of space) limited the selection” (Blicq and

Moretto 165). Scope may also include defining important terms.

These questions will help you to think about the scope of both your

research and your report:

• How did you work on the research problem?

• Why did you work on the problem the way you did?

• Were there other obvious approaches you could have taken to this

problem? What were the limitations you faced that prevented your

trying other approaches?

• What factors contributed to the way you worked on this problem? What

factor was most important in deciding how to approach the problem?

Background Information includes facts that the reader must know in order

to understand the discussion that follows. These facts may include

descriptions of conditions or events that caused the project to be

authorized or assigned and details of previous work and reports on the

problem or closely related problems. You might also want to review

theories that have a bearing on the project and references to other

documents although if you need to include a lengthy review of other

theories or documents, these should be placed in an appendix.

Ask yourself:

• What facts does the reader need to know in order to understand the

discussion that follows?



• Why was the project authorized or assigned?

• Who has done previous work on this problem?

• What theory or model informed your project?

• What facts are already known that support or don’t fit the theory?

• What will the reader know about the subject already and what will you

need to tell them so they can understand the significance of your work?

Beginning an introduction

Introductions serve as a place for you to catch your reader’s attention, and

they also help to place your project in its context (whether that context is

background information or your purpose in writing is up to you). As a

result, it is important to consider the approach you will take to begin your

introduction.

A good way to begin an introduction is to think of your audience and

consider how you might best orient them to your topic. State the problem

as specifically as possible and contextualize the project for them. Consider

placing either the purpose of your project or the background information

first, then moving on to consider scope after your topic has been

introduced.

The Body of Your Report

The body is usually the longest part of the research report, and it includes

all of the evidence that readers need to have in order to understand the

subject. This evidence includes details, data, results of tests, facts, and

conclusions. Exactly what you include in the body and how it is organized

will be determined by the context in which you are writing. Be sure to check

the specific guidelines under which you are working to see if your readers

are expecting you to organize the body in a particular way.

In general, the body of the research report will include three distinct

sections:

• a section on theories, models, and your own hypothesis



• a section in which you discuss the materials and methods you used in

your research

• a section in which you present and interpret the results of your

research.

You will usually use a heading to identify the beginning of each of these

sections.

Results: Presenting data

In the results section of your report, you will finally get to talk about what

you discovered, invented, or confirmed through your research, and you will

present your experimental data, observations, and outcome. Because this

section focuses on your specific research project, the results section is the

most straightforward of the sections to write, and it may be the simplest and

most enjoyable section you will write. Regardless of what other sections

you need to include, you will always write a section in which you present

results, although it might be called discussion rather than “results,” All

preceding sections of the report (Introduction, Materials and Methods, etc.)

lead in to the Results section of the report and all subsequent sections will

consider what the results mean (conclusion, recommendations, etc.).

Focus on the facts of your research in the Results section and present them

in a straightforward way. Consider how best to organize your results

section in the clearest and most logical way. The most common way to

organize information in a research report is chronologically. This method of

organization allows you to present information in the sequence that events

occurred. Organizing information chronologically can be very simple and

will not require much preplanning. It does tend to give emphasis to each

event regardless of its relative importance, however and, as a result, can be

difficult for readers to understand which event or what information is most

important, and it can also be difficult for the writer to keep their reader’s

attention.



How should I incorporate figures and tables into my report?

Most scientific reports will use some type of figure and/or table to convey

information to readers. Figures visually represent data and include graphs,

charts, photographs, and illustrations. Tables organize data into groups. You

will most likely use figures and tables in your report to represent numerical

data from measurements taken during your experiment. Figures and tables

should help to simplify information, so you should consider using them when

words are not able to convey information as efficiently as a visual aid would

be able to. For instance, if you have to subject numerical data to computer

analysis, it will be easier and more concise to represent this visually than it

would be through words. Consider using figures and tables when you need

to decipher information or the analysis of information, when you need to

describe relationships among data that are not apparent otherwise, and when

you need to communicate purely visual aspects of a phenomenon or

apparatus.

In some cases, you will not have to make a decision about what kind of

table or figure you will use. Such is the case when you need to include a

photograph in your report, for instance. In other cases, you may have trouble

in deciding what kind of table or figure would work best in your report.

Readers will expect to see certain kinds of information presented in certain

kinds of ways, and you can use reader expectations to your advantage.

David Porush outlines the purposes that different kinds of tables and figures

serve best and most often. It is important to choose the correct way to

represent your data; if you understand what your audience expects from

each one, you will be prepared to choose the best way to represent data.

• Tables or lists are simple ways to organize the precise data which points

themselves in one-on-one relationships.

• A graph is best at showing the trend or relationship between two

dimensions, or the distribution of data points in a certain dimension

(i.e., time, space, across studies, statistically).

• A pie chart is best at showing the relative areas, volumes, or amounts

into which a whole (100%) has been divided.



• Flow charts show the organization or relationships between discrete

parts of a system. For that reason they are often used in computer

programming.

• Photographs are not very good at calling attention to a particular part

within a larger structure. They are best at presenting overall shapes,

shades, and relative positionings, or when a ‘real-life’ picture is

necessary, as in the picture of a medical condition or an electron

micrograph of a particular microscopic structure.

• Illustrations are best when they are simple, unshaded line drawings.

Remove all but the essential details in order to keep your line drawing

as uncluttered as possible. They suit most purposes for representing

real objects or the relationship of parts in a larger object. (Porush 141).

When you include tables and figures in your report it is important that you

pay attention to some general guidelines for using them as well. These

guidelines can help you decide when to include a table or figure and they

will also help you to meet your audience’s expectations so that they will

understand what is most important from your text and from tables and

figures. The most important general rule is that tables and figures should

supplement rather than simply repeat information in the report. You should

never include a table or figure simply to include them. This is redundant and

wastes your reader’s time.

Additionally, all tables and figures should:

• be self-contained—they should make complete sense on their own with

out reference to the text

• be cited in the text—it will be very confusing to your audience to

suddenly come upon a table or figure that is not introduced somewhere

in the text. They will not have a context for understanding its relevance

to your report.

• include a number such as Table 1 or Figure 10—this will help you to

distinguish multiple tables and figures from each other.



• include a concise title—it is a good idea to make the most important

feature of the data the title of the figure

• include clear and proportionate labels so that readers will understand

your table or figure

Results: Interpretation of Data

It is unlikely that you will have a title a separate section of your report titled

“Interpretation of Data.” Usually, this section, combined with your

presentation of data, will be called “Results” or “Discussion.” Sometimes,

presentation of data and interpretation of data may be split into separate

categories, with presentation called “Results,” and interpretation called

“Discussion.” Regardless of its title, interpretation of data is also crucial to

a successful research report.

This section of the report is important because it demonstrates the meaning

of your research. Without this section, readers will not necessarily

understand what your research proves, or they might not see how it differs

from or improves on other research. In this section you will interpret your

results and your research as a whole and discuss the relationship of your

findings to earlier research. This section of the paper draws upon writing

skills that other sections do not because you need to write persuasively in

this section as you convince readers that your interpretation of data is

logical and correct. As you develop your argument in this section, consider

arranging your evidence in the order that best highlights your main point,

cite authorities that have come to similar interpretations under similar

circumstances, and consider the superiority of your conclusions to

opposing viewpoints.

Your interpretation will be most convincing if it proceeds logically. There

may be many ways to organize your interpretation of data logically;

consider your readers’ needs to help you decide how to organize your

information:

• What does your reader need to know before anything else in order to

understand and be persuaded to believe your argument?



• What does your reader need to know next, or what naturally follows

from this first idea?

• What is the most important thing for your reader to understand from

your interpretation? Consider placing this first.

One basic way to organize your information logically is to move from what

you are most certain about to what you are least certain about. For most

research reports, the most certain part of your case will be your data, and

many research reports will develop along this outline:

• begin with a discussion of the data

• move on to generalize about or analyze the data

• consider how the data addresses the research problem or hypothesis

outlined in the Introduction

• discuss what can be inferred from the data as they relate to other

research and scientific concepts

It is also very important for you to identify the nature and extent of any

limitations of your research in this section of your report, especially if your

results are inadequate, negative, or not consistent with earlier studies or

with your own hypothesis. Do not try to defend your research or minimize

the seriousness of the limitation in your interpretation; instead, focus on the

limitation only as it affects the research and try to account for it.

Conclusions

The Conclusion of a research report is usually a very short section that

introduces no new ideas. You may ask, then, why include conclusions? The

conclusion is important because it is your last chance to convey the

significance and meaning of your research to your reader by concisely

summarizing your findings and generalizing their importance. It is also a place

to raise questions that remain unanswered and to discuss ambiguous data.

The conclusions you draw are opinions, based on the evidence presented in

the body of your report, but because they are opinions you should not tell

the reader what to do or what action they should take. Save discussion of

future action for your section on Recommendations.



The Conclusion follows naturally from the interpretation of data, so, in some

cases, you will not need to title a new section “Conclusions,” but can simply

end your discussion with conclusions. It is helpful to consider the

conclusion a separate section even if you do not title it as such, though, so

that you are sure to accomplish the purpose of the conclusion in your

report. The most important thing to remember in writing your conclusion is

to state your conclusions clearly. Do not be ambiguous about them or leave

doubt in your readers’ minds as to what your conclusions are.

Once you have stated your conclusions clearly, you can move on to discuss

the implications of your conclusions. Be sure that you use language that

distinguishes conclusions from inferences. Use phrases like “This research

demonstrates . . .”, to present your conclusions and phrases like “This

research suggests . . .” or “This research implies . . .” to discuss

implications. Make sure that readers can tell your conclusions from the

implications of those conclusions, and do not claim too much for your

research in discussing implications. You can use phrases such as “Under

the following circumstances,” “In most instances,” or “In these specific cases”

to warn readers that they should not generalize your conclusions.

You might also raise unanswered questions and discuss ambiguous data in

your conclusion. Raising questions or discussing ambiguous data does not

mean that your own work is incomplete or faulty; rather, it connects your

research to the larger work of science and parallels the introduction in which

you also raised questions. The following is an example taken from a text

that evaluated the hearing and speech development following the

implantation of a cochlear implant. The authors of “Beginning To Talk At

20 Months: Early Vocal Development In a Young Cochlear Implant

Recipient,” published in Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research,

titled their conclusion “Summary and Caution.” Using this title calls readers’

attention to the limitations of their study.

Recommendations

You may or may not need to include a section titled “Recommendations.”

This section appears in a report when the results and conclusions indicate

that further work needs to be done or when you have considered several



ways to resolve a problem or improve a situation and want to determine

which one is best. You should not introduce new ideas in the

recommendation section, but rely on the evidence presented in the results

and conclusions sections. If you find that you need to include a

recommendations section you have another opportunity to demonstrate how

your research fits within the larger project of science, and the section can

serve as a starting point for future dialogue on the subject. It demonstrates

that you fully understand the importance and implications of your research,

as you suggest ways that it could continue to be developed. Do not include

a recommendations section simply for the sake of including one; this will

waste your readers’ time and take up unnecessary space in your report.

References

It is important to include a References section at the end of a report in

which you used other sources. Informal or short reports may not have a

references section or only a short one while more formal reports will likely

have reference sections, sometimes very lengthy ones. If you included a

section on the background of your research topic or discussed other

theories and models related to your research, you will need a references

section.

Reference sections are important because, like the sections on the

procedure you used to gather data, they allow other researchers to build on

or to duplicate your research. Without references, readers will not be able

to tell whether the information that you present is credible, and they will not

be able to find it for themselves. Reference sections also allow you to refer

to other researchers’ work without reviewing that work in detail. You can

refer readers to your reference page for more information.

You should include references that you cited directly in the report or that

greatly informed your research. You do not need to include secondary

materials that are only slightly related to your topic. Do not include references

simply to make this section longer.

Reference styles vary greatly from one instructor to another, one journal to

another. You should always format your references according to the



guidelines provided by the journal or teacher to whom you are submitting

your report. One of the most common reference styles used for research

reports in the social sciences and some other disciplines is that outlined by

the American Psychological Association (APA). Do not assume that this

will be the style you should use, however. Talk to your instructor, your

supervisor, or look up the appropriate style guide for your discipline.

It is best to compile your own reference list containing a variety of information.

This will save you from having to track down pieces of information you may

have neglected to make note of if they are specifically requested after you

have filed a source, returned it to the library, or misplaced it.

Information to include on your reference list:

• author’s name and initials

• date of publication

• title of the book, paper or journal

• publisher

• place of publication

• page numbers

• details of the journal volume in which the article has appeared.

References should be listed in alphabetical order of the authors’ names.

Make sure that your references are accurate and comprehensive.

Appendices

An appendix contains additional information related to the report but which

is not essential to the main findings. This can be consulted if the reader

wishes but the report should not depend on this. You could include details

of interview questions, statistical data, a glossary of terms, or other

information which may be useful for the reader.



4.4 PROCESS OF REPORT WRITING

To help you to produce a report four stages in the process have been

identified for you to follow. This may help you to tackle key issues and

understand the task set. These four stages are

(a) preparation

(b) planning

(c) writing

(d) pre-submission editing.

(a) Preparation

To fail to prepare is to prepare to fail. The importance of preparation

and planning cannot be stressed too highly. Often, however, writers simply

ignore this aspect or dismiss it as too mechanical to be worthwhile. As a

result they start too quickly into the writing process itself and end up failing

to realise their full potential. Anything you commit to paper before your

overall plan has taken shape is likely to be wasted; it will be like a

bricklayer starting to build the wall of a house before the architect has drawn

up the plans.

The first stage is to make a choice from the list of titles – in particular do

you want to do some primary research? Choose a title which you are

interested in. The time spent at this stage of producing the report is vital.

Careful preparation is an investment. It allows you to make the best use of

the time available. During this period you should decide WHAT you are

writing and WHY, before resolving HOW to write your report. Establish

the broad focus of your report first with reference to the specification and

the assessment objectives and then with reference to the generalisation.

Undertake some individual background reading using the suggested

bibliography. Use a search engine to look for more possibilities. This

enables you to define the subject and your aims more precisely. If you are

going to do some primary data collection it is best to make your

appointments for people you need to see, and do an initial survey at this

stage. When you have completed your reading and feasibility study, review

the key issues and research methods that will be used within your report.

Make a note of them.



4.4.1 Planning

Before you write a single word you must:

• Set your objective.

• Assess your readership.

• Decide what information you will need.

• Prepare your skeletal framework.

• Test and revise your skeletal framework.

Collectively these activities constitute the planning stage of report writing.

The amount of time and thought you spend on them will make a vast

difference to the effectiveness of all the work that will follow, by:

• continually reminding you of your overall objective

• making you constantly ‘think readers’

• ensuring you know what information you will need to gather

• giving you clear guidelines to follow when writing each section

• enabling you to rise above the detail and obtain an overview of the

entire report at any time.

Setting your Objective

It is vital to establish your precise objective. You must first be absolutely

sure of the purpose of your report. Only then can you even begin to think

about what you are going to write and how you are going to write it.

A clearly defined objective has a number of important benefits:

• It helps you decide what information to include and leave out.

• It helps you pitch the report at the right level.

• It makes it easier to write the report.

Assessing your Readership

The next stage is to identify and assess your readership. In many cases, you

know who will be reading your report and the detailed content, style and

structure can then be matched to their level of knowledge and expertise:



• Concentrate on points they will care about.

• Explain things they do not know.

• Address questions and concerns they would be likely to raise.

Deciding What Information you will Need

Planning is essential. It saves time and promotes clarity in collecting the

information you require, in organising the material and in writing the report.

You will find it easier if you break the whole process down into a number of

distinct tasks:

(a) data collection and analysis can be broken down either according to

the source or the subsection of the report;

(b) similarly, the writing process can be broken down – the writing of text

into subsections, and presentation into graphs, tables and maps.

You will also be faced with a number of questions:

(a) what evidence is needed to meet the overall objective of the report?

(b) where is that evidence?

(c) how much evidence should be collected?

(d) how should the evidence be analysed?

(e) how should the evidence and the analysis be ordered for writing the

report?

Attempting to deal with all of these factors in a chaotic way leads to

confusion and wasted effort. Therefore, after “preparation” you should

begin to plan the data collection, analysis and writing process. Good

organisation is the key to success. Using the following sequence may help

you to plan and to determine the method for writing your report:

(a) identify the sources of evidence (data and/or literature), look for a range

of views on the issue;



(b) decide what is the most appropriate and relevant evidence to collect.

Be precise in this, understand the evidence;

(c) decide how you will present your findings including the order in which

they will be used to create a structure to the report – the plan;

(d) identify likely figures – maps, tables, diagrams, and think how you can

use them;

(e) decide on the order of priority of each of the tasks;

(f) draw up a realistic timetable for the completion of each task, including

writing the draft of the report.

4.4.2 The writing process

There are three main factors to consider at this stage to give your report a

sound framework, clear style and an attractive appearance:

• structure

• language

• presentation.

Structure

You need to give form and shape to your report. A basic structure helps the

reader digest the report. It also helps you to write and organise your

material logically. A structure implied the assessment criteria, but your

report should have the following:

(a) report cover sheet, title page and contents;

(b) executive summary/abstract; [on front cover]

(c) introduction and definition of the question or issue;

(d) sources of research information used, methods of collection and

analysis and their limitations;



(e) analysis and interpretation;

(f) evaluation and conclusion;

(g) bibliography and appendices.

First, concentrate on writing the body of the report. This is the introduction,

the findings, and the conclusions. Then deal with the other sections. The

following order for writing is suggested.

(a) Analysis and interpretation. This is the section in which you present

your findings. When you are writing this section all of your material

should have been sorted, selected and arranged in note form. This

section includes:

(i) the results of your analysis;

(ii) your interpretation of those results. This section forms the basis for

your conclusions. You should help the reader by ending each separate

section with its own conclusion.

(b) Methods. In this section you should discuss:

(i) the sources of evidence you have used and then possible bias;

(ii) how you have collected and analysed the evidence;

(iii) the limitations of the sources and methods of collection and analysis.

(c) Conclusions. This section is a summary of all the major findings made

at stages throughout the report. No new evidence should appear here.

The conclusion considers the evidence presented in the main body, draws

out the implications and brings it to one overall conclusion or an

ordered series of final conclusions.

(d) Introduction. After having written your findings and conclusions you

now know clearly what you want to introduce. The introduction is where

you acquaint the reader with the purpose of the report and guide them

through the structure of your report.



(e) Appendices. This section is set aside for supplementary evidence not

essential to the main findings, but which provides useful back-up

support for you main arguments e.g. transcript of an interview or analy-

sis of a complex set of statistics.

(f) Contents. All the sections of the report should be listed in sequence

with page reference.

(g) Bibliography. This section covers the books and other sources which

have been used in your research. It must include every reference

mentioned in the text and be presented correctly.

(h) Title page. This should include the title, which indicates the central theme

of the report. It should also include the candidate’s name and the date

of completion of the report.

(i) Executive summary or abstract. This is a very important part of the

report and should be the last thing you write. You need to read through

your report and develop a list of the ‘headlines’.

• Language

The strength of good technical writing lies in being able to write with:

objectivity, clarity, accuracy, criticality and appropriateness.

OBJECTIVITY You make the underlying assumptions of your argument

clear. You have a balanced view given the data and results you have. You

take care not to write your opinions as though they were facts. You avoid

words like: obviously, surely, and of course. You critically reflect on your

own work as well as that of others.

CLARITY You write clearly with simple sentences that are put together

logically showing evidence of clear scientific thinking.

ACCURACY The statements you make are related to the evidence -either

your evidence of that of other researchers. Your sentences are precise and

not woolly and you don’t make general sweeping statements without

evidence.



CRITICALITY| you are able to be dispassionate and evaluate your own work

(and that of others).

APPROPRIATENESs| you are aware of your reader and you know what

information they need to understand your work. You present your work

clearly in order to facilitate this. You understand the kind of report you are

writing and you write with the appropriate style.

Other important things to remember.

(a) Keep sentences short and simple. Long complex sentences slow the

reader down and confuse and impede understanding. The same applies

to paragraph.

(b) Poor spelling automatically detracts from your work and will annoy the

reader. Use a dictionary and you can also check the final document

using the spell checker on a PC. (Remember, however, that this may

well use American spellings and its dictionary may not include all the

words you use in the report.)

4.4.4 Presentation

Your report must look good in addition to reading well. Adequate

headings and numbering make it easier for the reader to comprehend what

you are saying. This stage of report writing requires the same level of care

that went into composing the text. Do not be afraid to use bullet points to

present arguments. The presentation of statistics is

often more informative and eye-catching if they are shown visually, for

example by using graphs, pie charts or histograms.

Layout is important. This is the relationship between print and space on the

page. This applies whether it is hand-written or word processed. A crowded

page with dense blocks of print and little space looks unattractive and is

off-putting. Always ensure that there are:

(a) adequate margins;

(b) either double or 1.5 spaced lines;



(c) headings that stand out clearly from the page.

(d) Pre-submission editing.

It is important not only to read the draft through from start to finish before

submission but also to edit and refine the report. It is so easy when word

processing. As you read, mark pages which will need attention later. Do not

stop to deal with them now. You need to get a feel of the overall structure

and impact of the report first so your initial read through must be

continuous. Put yourself in the reader’s shoes and be highly critical of what

you have written. Proof-reading is vitally important. Regardless of the time

and effort put into writing the report, the required result will not be achieved

without sufficient care being devoted to proof-reading. A poorly typed

report, full of errors and inconsistencies in layout, has a damaging effect

regardless of the quality of the content.

(a) The report must be checked in great detail, for grammar and spelling

errors.

(b) Ask yourself whether you could have expressed yourself in a better

way. If so, change the sentence or the paragraph.

(c) Assess whether the structure of the main body of work is really the

most suitable one to present your material, ideas and arguments.

(d) Is each paragraph structured well? Make sure every idea or piece of

information has a separate paragraph.

(e) Are all the maps and diagrams included in the correct place and inte-

grated into the text (as figures)?

(f) Are all the references in the text included in the bibliography with full

format details?

(g) Does the report fulfil the stated aims and assessment objectives?

(h) Is your argument watertight and easy to follow?

(i) Does your conclusion make your argument all the more convincing?



(j) Does your executive summary/abstract convey the key points of the

report?

(k) Finally, assess the layout and general appearance of the document.

4.5 Technical Writing Style

4.5.1. Language and Style

Aim to inform

Scientific or technical writing is different from literary writing in a number of

ways. Primarily, the aim of technical writing is to inform rather than to

entertain. Hence, the style of writing adopted is generally simple and

concise.

An example of a

literary sentence

The wind was blowing fiercely and the air outside was

growing chilled.

An example of a

scientific sentence

Onshore winds traveling at 45km per hour brought

temperatures down to 15 degrees Celsius.

As informing an audience is the primary aim of the scientific writer, emotive

language is avoided. The scientific writer should try to transmit information

as objectively as possible.

Be Concise

Long sentences are confusing to read. Your text will probably read better if

you consider making two sentences instead of one long sentence. If you

want to include a qualification or an example then a long sentence is usually

appropriate.

An example

of a long

sentence

After consulting three manufacturers: Dorthy and Co., Simthy

Ltd. and Murthy Pty, we have found that there are two types of

vibration suppression devices for portable CD players and both

are simple in design but have inherent drawbacks.

More

concise

sentence

Three manufacturers were consulted: Dorthy and Co., Simthy

Ltd. and Murthy Pty. We found two types of vibration

suppression devices for portable CD players. Both are simple

in design but have inherent drawbacks.



Use words and expressions economically. If you can use one word instead

of 2 or 3 then chose the one word (get around = avoid).

Be Clear

Avoid being unclear and ambiguous. This can happen when you do not

specify what you are writing about and can even depend how you use words

like ‘it’, ‘this’, ‘thing’, ‘way’, ‘some’ etc.

An example of

unclear expression

The way we did the study was not so successful. Some of

what we needed wasn't there.

An example of

clear expression

We were unable to complete the study. The SPPS and

EXCEL software required for the study were not

available in Computer laboratory GO25.

Do not use contractions of verbs and pronouns as these are ‘spoken forms’

(doesn’t, can’t, it’s, they’re). The formal writing you will do at university

and in the workplace will require the full form (does not, cannot, it is, they

are).

Be Correct

Check that the spelling, punctuation and grammar of your sentences are

correct. If using a computer spell checker, be careful. Make sure that you

know which word to select. Many easily corrected errors in your written

work will affect your presentation and your marks. Sometimes you can see

errors more easily if you do not proofread your writing until a day or two

after finishing writing. This is called ‘the drawer treatment.

4.5.2 Jargon

Jargon is the technical terminology of any specialised field. Jargon is

commonly used when communicating with others in your field.

Communication problems can begin when jargon is used in communications

aimed at a more general audience.

Jargon also includes sub-technical words. These have multiple meanings in

general and technical contexts. For example the word ‘fast’ has different

meanings in medicine (resistant to), mining (a hard stratum under poorly

constructed ground) and painting (colours not affected by light, heat, or



damp). A specialist dictionary is required for learning technical and sub

technical vocabulary. Aim to write for your intended audience. If your

report is for your supervisor or a colleague, then the use of jargon may

be-both appropriate and expected. If, however, you are writing a report

for a general audience or an expert from another field, jargon should be

avoided and simple, clear descriptions should be used instead.

4.5.3. Abbreviations and Acronyms

In scientific and technical writing abbreviations and acronyms are commonly

used. Abbreviations are pronounced as letters, e.g. IIM B, whereas

acronyms are pronounced as words, e.g. LASER. The first time you use an

abbreviation or acronym, you must spell out the full term followed by the

abbreviation or acronym in brackets. Subsequent use of the term is then

made by its abbreviation or acronym.

e.g.: The Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore (IIMB) is situated in

Bangalore. The best way to travel to IIMB is by public transport.

The use of an abbreviation is largely dictated by the number of times you

are going to be using the term. If the term is only to be used three or four

times, it may be better to use the full term each time. This will improve

readability, especially if you are using a number of different abbreviations

throughout your report.

4.5.4 Can I use ‘I’ in technical and scientific writing?

There is no single easy answer to this question—it depends. First we

recommend that you check with your lecturer/ tutor if and when you can

use ‘I’ in your writing.

Reasons for using ‘I’ include:

• The more practised a writer is, the more latitude the writer can have in

being casual or creative.

• If a writer is an accomplished engineer/scientist/professional, then as

an ‘expert’ in their field the writer can use ‘I’ to give authority to their

ideas.



Reasons for not using “I’’ include :

When ‘I’ is used too often it can make your writing sound casual or spoken

in style rather than formal and objective.

• Not using ‘I’ can make your writing more believable. The reader may

interpret your use of ‘I’ to mean that you are not aware of formal

writing conventions. By following conventions you show you are aware

of the practices in your field. The reader may also interpret your use of

‘I’ to mean that you are not aware or clear about what other experts in

the field have done or think, so instead you are making your own choice.

• In a student’s writing using ‘I’ can suggest absorption with the self or

that the student does not recognise that their work needs to stand up to

scrutiny.

4.5.5. Where possible use active voice

Using active verbs is the first rule of good writing. All authorities on good

writing, including scientific and technical bodies, recommend active verbs

rather than passive verbs. Why? Passive verbs are longwinded, ambiguous

and dull. Active verbs make your writing simpler, less awkward, clearer

and more precise. Here’s an example:

Technical writing is full of passive verbs because most people learn to write

in the third person because it is supposedly more objective. This is a false



notion. In the next example, the passive and active are both objective but

the active sentences sound more natural and by 29 words shorter.

In switching your style from passive verbs to active verbs throughout your

writing, you face several problems.

· You must accurately spot them. Often writers miss passive verbs or

try to change verbs that are already active.

· You need to measure your use of passive verbs. One or two

passive verbs a page will not ruin your style, nine or ten will.

· You need to know how to turn passive verbs to active verbs.

While we encourage you to use the active voice, this does not mean that

you cannot use passive voice, as it can be convenient and necessary. Most

writing will have a mixture of active and passive clauses depending on what

word is chosen for the subject of a sentence.

4.5.6 Non-discriminatory Language

Non-discriminatory language is language that treats all people equally. It

does not use any discriminatory words, remarks, or ideas. It is very

important that the business writer communicates in a way that expresses

equality and respect for all individuals. Discriminatory language can come



between your message and your reader. Make sure your writing is free of

sexist language and free of bias based on such factors as race, ethnicity,

religion, age, sexual orientation, and disability.

Suggestion Not: But:

Use neutral job titles. Chairman Chairperson

Avoid demeaning or

stereotypical terms.

After the girls in the

office receive an order,

our office fills it within

24 hours.

When orders are received from

the office, they are filled within

24 hours.

Avoid words and phrases

that unnecessarily imply

gender.

Executives and their

wives

Executives and their spouses

Omit information about

group membership.

Chandra performed the

job well for her age.

Chandra performed the job

well.

If you do not know a

reader’s gender, use a

nonsexist salutation.

Dear Gentlemen: To Whom it May Concern:

Do not use masculine

pronouns.

Each student must

provide his own lab

jacket.

Students must provide their

own lab jackets. Or Each

student must provide his or her

own lab jacket.

4.6 PARAGRAPH DEVELOPMENT

This section will…

· help you understand how paragraphs are formed

· help you develop stronger paragraphs

· help you learn how to completely and clearly express your ideas

What is a paragraph?

One of the central components of a report is the paragraph. When most

students think of a paragraph, they hold onto the old myths about length:

a paragraph is at least 5 sentences, a paragraph is half a page, etc.

A paragraph, however, is “a group of sentences or a single sentence that

forms a unit” (Lunsford and Connors,116). Length or appearance is not a

factor in determining whether a section in a paper is a paragraph. In fact, it

is not the number of sentences that construct a paragraph, but it is the unity



and coherence of ideas among those sentences that makes a paragraph .

For instance, in some styles of writing, particularly journalistic styles, a

paragraph can be one sentence. As long as that sentence expresses the

paper’s central idea, that sentence can serve the function of a paragraph.

Ultimately, strong paragraphs contain a sentence or sentences unified around

one central, controlling idea. When the paragraph reaches completion it

should serve to bring the reader into your report and guide his/her

understanding of what has been read. Whether that completion happens

with one sentence or with twenty, the end result is still a paragraph.

Parts of a

Paragraph

Topic Sentence

Supporting Details

Closing Sentence

How to Write a

Paragraph

Prewriting Paragraphs

Writing Paragraphs

Editing Paragraphs

Publishing Paragraphs

Kinds of

Paragraphs

Definition

Classification

Description

Compare and Contrast

Sequence

Choice

Explanation

Evaluation

PARAGRAPH



4.6.1 Composition of a Paragraph

Before you begin to determine what the composition of your paragraphs

will be, you must understand what the controlling idea in your specific piece

of writing is. What is the main point or expression that you are trying to

convey to your reader? The information that comprises your paragraphs

should always have a relationship to this controlling idea. In other words,

your paragraphs should remind your reader, at every possible point, that

there is a recurrent relationship between your controlling idea and the

information in each paragraph. The controlling idea functions like a seed

through which your paper, and your ideas, will grow. The whole process is

an organic one—a natural progression from a seed to a full-blown paper

where there is direct, relationships between all of the ideas in your paper.

Once you have decided what your controlling idea will be, then you should

choose information that will help to support and perpetuate that idea

throughout the entire paper. That information takes the form of sentences

that comprise each paragraph of your paper.

The decision about what to put into your paragraphs, ultimately, begins with

the germination of a seed of ideas. This “germination process” is better

known as the process of brainstorming. Whatever the topic of your paper

may be, it is always a good idea to think about all the issues that surround

your topic and the ultimate goal that you want to express. This process can

take on many forms. What form you choose will depend heavily on your

style or approach to writing in the pre-writing stage of your writing process.

For some writers, the key is writing down all of the relevant issues in a

series of phrases or words that express some greater idea. For others, this

process involves a collection of information in the form of sentences.

Whatever your method for prewriting, this part of paragraph development

cannot be avoided. Often, these prewriting efforts become the first signs of

development. Building paragraphs can be just as involved as building a major

skyscraper: there must be a careful foundation that supports each

paragraph just as there must be a careful foundation that supports each

building. Any cracks, inconsistencies, or other corruptions of the

foundation can cause the whole paper to crumble.



Every paragraph in a paper should be

• Unified - The sentences should all refer to the main idea, or thesis, of

the report/paper (Rosen and Behrens 119).

• Coherent-The sentences should be arranged in a logical manner and

should follow a definite plan for development (Rosen and Behrens 119).

• Well-Developed - Every idea discussed in the paragraph should be

adequately explained and supported through evidence and details that

work together to explain the paper’s controlling idea (Rosen and Behrens

119).

4.6.2 5-step process to paragraph development

1. Controlling idea- the expression of the main idea, topic, or focus of

the paragraph in a sentence or a collection of sentences.

• Paragraph development begins with the formulation of the controlling

idea. This idea directs the paragraph’s development. Often, the

controlling idea of a paragraph will appear in the form of a topic

sentence. A topic sentence announces and controls the content of a

paragraph . Topic sentences can occur at four major points in a

paragraph: the beginning of the paragraph, the middle of the paragraph,

the end of the paragraph, or at both the beginning and the end of the

paragraph. Here’s how you might begin a paragraph on handing in

homework:

Idea - Learning how to turn in homework assignments on time is one

of the invaluable skills that college students can take with them into

the working world.

2. Explanation of controlling idea- the writer’s rationale into his/her

thinking about the main topic, idea, or focus of the paragraph

• Paragraph development continues with an expression of the rationale

or the explanation that the writer gives for how the reader should

interpret the information presented in the idea statement or topic



sentence of the paragraph. Here’s the sentence that would follow the

controlling idea about homework deadlines:

Explanation - Though the workforce may not assign homework to its

workers in the traditional sense, many of the objectives and jobs that need

to be completed require that employees work with deadlines. The

deadlines that students encounter in the classroom may be different in

content when compared to the deadlines of the workforce, but the

importance of meeting those deadlines is the same. In fact, failure to meet

deadlines in both the classroom and the workforce can mean instant

termination.

3. Example — the example serves as a sign or representation of the

relationship established in the idea and explanation portions of the

paragraph.

• Paragraph development progresses with the expression of some type

of support or evidence for the idea and the explanation that came

before it. Here are two examples that you might use to follow the

homework deadline explanation:

Example A--For example, in the classroom, students form a contract

with the teacher and the university when they enroll in a class. That

contract requires that students complete the assignments and

objectives set forth by the course’s instructor in a specified time to

receive a grade and credit for the course.

Example B—Accordingly, just as a student risks termination in the

classroom if he/she fails to meet the deadline for a homework

assignment, so, too, does that student risk termination in the workforce.

4. Explanation (of example) - the reasoning behind why you chose to use

this/or these particular examples as evidence to support the major claim, or

focus, in your paragraph.

• The next movement in paragraph development is an explanation of each

example and its relevance to the topic sentence and rationale given at

the beginning of the paragraph. This pattern continues until all points/



examples that the reader deems necessary have been made and

explained. NONE of your examples should be left unexplained; the

relationship between the example and the idea should always be

expressed. Look at these two explanations for examples in the

homework deadline paragraph:

Explanation for example A—When a student fails to complete those

assignments by the deadline, the student breaks her contract with the

university and the teacher to complete the assignments and objectives of

the course. This often leaves the teacher with no recourse than to fail the

student and leaves the university with no other recourse than to terminate

the student’s credit for the course.

Explanation for Example B— A former student’s contract with his/her

employer functions in much the same way as the contract that student

had with his/her instructor and with the university in a particular course.

4.6.3 Completion of Paragraph’s idea or transitiong into next

paragraph—a review for your reader about the relevance of the

information that you just discussed in the paragraph, or a transition or

preparation for your reader for the paragraph that follows.

• The final movement in paragraph development involves tying up the

loose ends of the paragraph—and reminding the reader of the relevance

of the information in this paragraph to the main or controlling idea of

the paper. You might feel more comfortable, however, simply transitioning

your reader to the development in the next paragraph. Here’s an

example of a sentence that completes the homework deadlines

paragraph:

Idea-Developing good habits of turning in assignments in class now, as

current students, will aid your performance and position as future

participants in the working world.

Notice that the example and explanation steps of this model (steps 3 and 4)

can be repeated as needed. The idea is that you continue to use this pattern

until you have completely developed the main idea of the paragraph.



Now here is a look at the completed paragraph:

Learning how to turn in homework assignments on time is one of the

invaluable skills that college students can take with them into the working

world. Though the workforce may not assign homework to its workers in

the traditional sense, many of the objectives and jobs that need to be

completed require that employees work with deadlines. The deadlines that

students encounter in the classroom may be different in content when

compared to the deadlines of the workforce, but the importance of meeting

those deadlines is the same. In fact, failure to meet deadlines in both the

classroom and the workforce can mean instant termination. For example, in

the classroom, students form a contract with the teacher and the university

when they enroll in a class. That contract requires that students complete

the assignments and objectives set forth by the course’s instructor in a

specified time to receive a grade and credit for the course. Accordingly,

just as a student risks termination in the classroom if he/she fails to meet the

deadline for a homework assignment, so, too, does that student risk

termination in the workforce. When a student fails to complete those

assignments by the deadline, the student breaks her contract with the

university and the teacher to complete the assignments and objectives of

the course. This often leaves the teacher with no other recourse than to fail

the student and leaves the university with no other recourse than to

terminate the student’s credit for the course. Developing good habits of

turning in assignments in class now, as current students, will aid your

performance and position as future participants in the working world.

4.6.4 Formula for Paragraph Development

There are some other central components of paragraph development that

help to make this formula work. These components are often overlooked,

but developing the sentences that complete the steps of the paragraph

development process is not possible without these two components:

1) Topic Sentences - A topic sentence is a sentence that expresses the

main idea of a paragraph. It tells the reader what to expect about the

information that will follow. Without the use of a topic sentence, developing

a paragraph can be extremely difficult. Topic sentences can appear at

several points in a paragraph:



• the beginning of the paragraph

• the middle of the paragraph

• the end of the paragraph

• the beginning and the end of the paragraph

*Notice how the development of the paragraph (in the 5-Step example

above) is framed by two topic sentences (beginning and end) which work

to reinforce the same idea and close the discussion and multiple examples

given by the writer.)

A topic sentence (also known as a focus sentence) encapsulates or organises

an entire paragraph, and you should be careful to include one in most of

your major paragraphs. It might be helpful to think of a topic sentence as

working in two directions simultaneously. It relates the paragraph to the

thesis, and thereby acts as a signpost for the argument of the paper as a

whole, but it also defines the scope of the paragraph itself. For example,

consider the following topic sentence:

Many fast-food chains make their profits from adding a special

ingredient called “forget sauce” to their foods.

If this sentence controls the paragraph that follows, then all sentences in the

paragraph must relate in some way to fast food, profit, and “forget sauce”:

Made largely from edible oil products, this condiment is never listed in the

menu.

This sentence fits in with the topic sentence because it is a description of the

composition of “forget sauce.”

In addition, this well-kept industry secret is the reason why ingredients are

never listed on the packaging of victuals sold by these restaurants.

The transitional phrase “In addition” relates the composition of “forget sauce”

to secret fast-food industry practices.

“Forget sauce” has a chemical property which causes temporary

amnesia in consumers.



Now the paragraph moves on to the short-term effect on consumers:

After spending too much money on barely edible food bereft of any nutritional

value, most consumers swear they will never repeat such a disagreeable

experience.

This sentence describes its longer-term effects:

Within a short period, however, the chemical in “forget sauce” takes effect,

and they can be depended upon to return and spend, older but no wiser.

Finally, I finish the paragraph by “proving” the claim contained in the topic

sentence, that many fast-food chains make their profits from adding a

special ingredient called “forget sauce” to their foods.

Analysing a Topic Sentence

Topic sentences often act like tiny thesis statements. Like a thesis

statement, a topic sentence makes a claim of some sort. As the thesis

statement is the unifying force in the essay, so the topic sentence must be

the unifying force in the paragraph. Further, as is the case with the thesis

statement, when the topic sentence makes a claim, the paragraph which

follows must expand, describe, or prove it in some way. Topic sentences

make a point and give reasons or examples to support it.

Consider the last paragraph about topic sentences, beginning with the topic

sentence itself:

Topic sentences often act like tiny thesis statements.

All the sentences that follow this topic sentence must relate to it in some

way.

Like a thesis statement, a topic sentence makes a claim of some sort. As the

thesis statement is the unifying force in the essay, so the topic sentence must

be the unifying force in the paragraph.

These two sentences show how the reader can compare thesis statements

and topic sentences: they both make a claim and they both provide a focus

for the writing which follows.



Further, as is the case with the thesis statement, when the topic sentence

makes a claim, the paragraph which follows must expand, describe, or prove

it in some way.

Using the transitional word “further” to relate this sentence to those

preceding it, I expand on my topic sentence by suggesting ways a topic

sentence is related to the sentences that follow it.

Topic sentences make a point and give reasons or examples to support it.

Here is an example of a topic sentence in the middle of a paragraph (in bold

print):

Homework is one of those necessary evils of being a student. The one sure

way that a teacher knows how to measure your progress in his/her course

is to assign homework that tests your knowledge of the information that is

taught. Some instructors, however, seem to use homework as a way of

reassuring themselves that they have “taught” the information to the students.

Many students, aware of these ideas about homework, tend to treat

homework as a chore, putting little or no thought into the work that is turned

in. However, like any designated task, homework is a reflection not

only on you as a student, but also on you as an individual. When an

employer has to decide whether or not to hire you, he or she has to

consider your ability to complete the demands of the working world. For

many employers, the way you handle your “homework” in college often

indicates the way you will handle your homework on the job. For example,

often your grade in a class is determined by the quality of the homework

that you do. That homework grade can be a significant part of your final

grade for the course. In fact, many students can attest to an experience

where the homework grade made the difference in their final course grade.

Once you leave college and attempt to find a job, those homework grades

translate into final GPAs for your major. Those final GPAs show up on

résumés and job applications and employers look to see if you have done

your “homework” in school as a key factor in determining if you will do

your “homework” on the job.

The paragraph writing process consists of prewriting stage, writing stage

and publishing stage.



4.6.5 Prewriting Stage

The prewriting stage is when you think carefully and organize your ideas for

your paragraph before you begin writing.

Six Prewriting Steps:

1. Think carefully about what you are going to write. Ask yourself: What

question am I going to answer in this paragraph or essay? How can I

best answer this question? What is the most important part of my

answer? How can I make an introductory sentence (or thesis state-

ment) from the most important part of my answer? What facts or ideas

can I use to support my introductory sentence? How can I make this

paragraph or essay interesting? Do I need more facts on this topic?

Where can I find more facts on this topic?

2. Open your notebook. Write out your answers to the above questions.

You do not need to spend a lot of time doing this; just write enough to

help you remember why and how you are going to write your

paragraph or essay.

3. Collect facts related to your paragraph or essay topic. Look for and

write down facts that will help you to answer your question. Timesaving

hint: make sure the facts you are writing are related to the exact

question you are going to answer in your paragraph or essay.

4. Write down your own ideas. Ask yourself: What else do I want to say

about this topic? Why should people be interested in this topic? Why is

this topic important?

5. Find the main idea of your paragraph or essay. Choose the most

important point you are going to present. If you cannot decide which

point is the most important, just choose one point and stick to it

throughout your paragraph or essay.

6. Organize your facts and ideas in a way that develops your main

idea. Once you have chosen the most important point of your paragraph or

essay, you must find the best way to tell your reader about it. Look at the

facts you have written. Look at your own ideas on the topic.



Decide which facts and ideas will best support the main idea of your

paragraph. Once you have chosen the facts and ideas you plan to use, ask

yourself which order to put them in the paragraph. Write down your own

note that you can use to guide yourself as you write your paragraph or

essay.

What is the writing stage?

The writing stage is when you turn your ideas into sentences.

Five Writing Steps:

1. Open your notebook and word processor.

2. Write the topic sentence, supporting sentences, and closing sentence.

3. Write clear and simple sentences to express your meaning.

4. Focus on the main idea of your paragraph.

5. Use the dictionary to help you find additional words to express your

ideas.

Editing Paragraphs

What is the editing stage? The editing stage is when you check your

paragraph for mistakes and correct them.

Grammar and Spelling

1. Check your spelling.

2. Check your grammar.

3. Read your essay again.

4. Make sure each sentence has a subject.

5. See if your subjects and verbs agree with each other.

6. Check the verb tenses of each sentence.

7. Make sure that each sentence makes sense.



Style and Organization

1. Make sure your paragraph has a topic sentence.

2. Make sure your supporting sentences focus on the main idea.

3. Make sure you have a closing sentence.

4. Check that all your sentences focus on the main idea.

5. See if your paragraph is complete.

Publishing Paragraphs

What is the publishing stage?

The publishing stage is when you produce a final copy of your paragraph

to hand in.

Three Publishing Steps:

1.Make a paper copy of your paragraph.

2.Show your work to your teacher, tutor, or classmates.

3. Ask them for hints on how to improve your writing.

Types of Paragraphs

Definition Paragraph

When writing a definition paragraph, you take a thing or an idea and explain

what it is.

Example: Write a paragraph giving the definition of a pest.

The following words can help you to write a good definition paragraph:

1. “is defined as”

Example:A pest is defined as any animal or plant that damages crops, forests, or

property.

2. “is a kind of”



Example: A pest is a kind of animal or plant that damages crops, forests, or property.

In a description paragraph, you are writing about what a person, place, or

thing is like. Sometimes, you may describe where a place is located.

Write a paragraph describing how a polar bear looks like.Examples:

Describe where Canada's industry is located.

The following words can help you to write a good description paragraph:

Helper Words:

Properties Measurement Analogy Location

size length is like in

colour width resembles above

shape mass/weight below

purpose speed beside

near

north/east/south/west

Compare and Contrast Paragraph

In a compare and contrast paragraph, you write about the similarities and

differences between two or more people, places, things, or ideas.

Example: Write a paragraph comparing the weather in Vancouver and

Halifax.

The following words can help you to write a good compare and

contrast paragraph:



Helper Words:

4.7 TRANSITIONS

Transitions come in the form of single words, phrases, sentences, and even

whole paragraphs. They help to establish relationships between ideas in a

paragraph and to create a logical progression of those ideas in a paragraph.

Without transitions, your paragraph will not be unified, coherent, or well

developed. Look at the following paragraph and the transitions that it uses

from idea to idea (in bold print):

Juggling the demands of a job with the demands of being a full-time student

makes good academic performance difficult. Many students are forced to

choose between good work on the job and good work in the classroom.

Often, good work in the classroom is compromised for good work on the

job because the job pays the rent. In addition, those students who do

manage to perform well in both areas usually do so at the expense of their

health. For example, several students complain of the inability to handle the

stress of both a job and school. In fact, the stress of both can often cause

headaches, dizziness, fatigue, and other ailments which slow the body down

and prevent adequate performance in either area. To eliminate the threat of

being in the middle between job and school, students have to form a

balance between the demands of work and the demands of the classroom.

Ultimately, managing your time more effectively, working the same number

of hours in smaller chunks, and planning ahead can all help in alleviating

some of the stress to the body and to the mind.



Some Useful Transitions

To show addition: again, and, also, besides, equally important, first

(second, etc.), further, furthermore, in addition, in the first place, moreover,

next, too

To give examples: for example, for instance, in fact, specifically, that is,

to illustrate

To compare: although, and yet, at the same time, but, despite, even though,

however, in contrast, in spite of, nevertheless, on the contrary, on the other

hand, still, though, yet

To summarize or conclude: all in all, in conclusion, in other words, in

short, in summary, on the whole, that is, therefore, to sum up

To show time: after, afterward, as long as, as soon as, at last, before,

during, earlier, finally, formerly, immediately, later, meanwhile, next, since,

shortly, subsequently, then, thereafter, until, when, while

To show place or direction: above, below, beyond, close, elsewhere,

farther on, here, nearby, opposite, to the left (north, etc.)

To indicate logical relationship: accordingly, as a result, because,

consequently, for this reason, hence, if, otherwise, since, so, then, therefore,

thus

4.8 COHERENCE

In a coherent paragraph, each sentence relates clearly to the topic sentence

or controlling idea, but there is more to coherence than this. If a paragraph

is coherent, each sentence flows smoothly into the next without obvious

shifts or jumps. A coherent paragraph also highlights the ties between old

and new information to make the structure of ideas or arguments clear to

the reader. Along with the smooth flow of sentences, a paragraph’s

coherence may also be related to its length. If you have written a very long

paragraph, one that fills a doublespaced typed page, for example, you should

check it carefully to see if it contains more than one controlling idea. If it

does, you should start a new paragraph where the original paragraph wanders



from its controlling idea. On the other hand, if a paragraph is very short

(only one or two sentences, perhaps), you may need to develop its controlling

idea more thoroughly, or combine it with another paragraph. A number of

other techniques that you can use to establish coherence in paragraphs are

described below.

Repeat key words or phrases .

Particularly in paragraphs in which you define or identify an important idea

or theory, be consistent in how you refer to it. This consistency and

repetition will bind the paragraph together and help the reader understand

your definition or description.

Create parallel structures.

Parallel structures are created by constructing two or more phrases or

sentences that have the same grammatical structure and use the same parts

of speech. By creating parallel structures, you make your sentences clearer

and easier to read. In addition, repeating a pattern in a series of consecutive

sentences helps your reader see the connections between ideas. The

parallel structures help the reader see that the paragraph is organized as a

set of examples of a general statement.

Be consistent in point of view, verb tense, and number.

Consistency in point of view, verb tense, and number are subtle but

important aspects of coherence. If you shift from the more personal you to

the impersonal one, from past to present tense, or from a man to they, for

example, you make your paragraph less coherent. Such inconsistencies can

also confuse your reader and make your argument more difficult to follow.

Use transition words or phrases between sentences and between

paragraphs.

Transitional expressions emphasize the relationships between ideas and help

readers follow the train of thought or see connections that they might

otherwise miss or misunderstand.



Business and industry cannot function without short written reports. You

may write an occasional report in response to a specific question or you

may be required to write a daily or weekly report on routine activities about

which your readers expect detailed information. Many organizations –

businesses, clinics, mass transportation systems, universities – must submit

regularly scheduled reports in order to maintain their accreditation or

funding by state, municipal or central agencies. Since a large part of your

annual evaluation for raises and promotions will depend on the caliber of

your short reports, it is important to know how to write them effectively.

4.9 WRITING SHORT REPORTS

Although there are many different kinds of short reports, they all have

certain features in common. The most important point to keep in mind is

that reports are written for readers who need information so that they can

get a job accomplished. Never think of reports you write as a series of

short notes jotted down for your own convenience.

1. Do Necessary Research. An effective short report needs the same

careful planning that goes into other types of on-the-job writing. Some

types of research you can expect to do on the job include checking

data in reference manuals, exploring the Web, searching databases,

conferring with colleagues, and reviewing a client’s file.

2. Anticipate How an Audience Will Use Your Report. Employers,

who constitute the largest audience for your reports, may not always

know (or be interested in) the technical details of your work. Instead

they may want you to focus on the bottom line: costs, personnel,

organizational structure, problems, or delays. To meet your reader’s

needs, answer the following questions appropriately for your readers:

• Why are you writing? This may be your reader’s most significant,

and urgent, question. Always explain your reasons for writing.

• What happened? Explain what steps you followed in a lab report,

what specific events or circumstances occurred, what conclusions can

be made, what prospects are likely for future business.



• When did something happen? Always give dates and specify the

exact period the report covers. Just listing “Thursday” is not enough.

Give date, and indicate A.M. or P.M.

• Where did something happen? Give the precise locations.

• Who did something or who was involved? Give readers the names

of clients, contact people, technical staff you consulted, members of

your collaborative team, or individuals involved in a test or accident.

• How did something happen? Tell readers how a test was conducted

Describe the procedures you used. Explain whether a presentation was

relevant and effective and how it might affect your business.

3. Be Objective and Ethical. Your readers expect you to report facts

objectively and impartially – costs, sales, weather conditions,

eyewitness accounts, observations, statistics, test measurements, and

descriptions. Your reports must be correct, complete and candid.

4. Choose a Reader-Centered Format and Design. Most reports for

internal readers within your company will be written or emailed as

memos, while those submitted to external clients will be letters. You

can help your readers easily find information by including a clear

subject line, headings, bulleted or numbered lists, and visual aids.

5. Write Concisely and Clearly. Being concise means avoiding

wordiness and repetition. Being to the point and clear require effort.

Call machines and other equipment by their precise names. Never use

“thing” to refer to parts or tools.

6. Organize Carefully. This means including the right amount of

information at the most appropriate places for your audience. Many

times a simple chronological order will be acceptable. Your employer

may have very precise instructions on how to organize routine reports,

but here is a fairly standard organizational plan to follow:



• Purpose. Begin by telling readers why you are writing and by alerting

them to what you will discuss. You might also need to provide

necessary background information (such as a summary of an earlier

report or occurrence) to assist readers.

• Findings. This is the longest part of the report: the facts about prices,

personnel, equipment, events, locations, incidents, or experiments.

• Conclusion. Your conclusion tells readers what your data mean. A

conclusion can summarize what has happened, review what actions were

taken, or explain the outcome or results of a test, a visit, or a program.

• Recommendations. A recommendation informs readers what specific

actions you think your company or client should take.

Recommendations must be based on the data you have collected and

the conclusions you reached. The placement of recommendations in a

short report can vary. Some employers prefer to see recommendations

at the beginning of a report; others want them listed last. Information

reports do not give recommendations.

4.9.1 Information Reports

Information reports present information in an objective, organized way.

Qualities of Information Reports

Informational texts often depend on the traditional prompts of who, what,

when, where, and how. Informational writing asks writers to answer

research questions, assess problems, define concepts, explain insights and

principles, and summarize information and ideas.

Effective informational business reports

• Maintain a clear sense of purpose and focus on the topic

• Create or use an organizing structure appropriate to purpose, audi-

ence, and context



• Use language and style appropriate to the audience and context

• Include appropriate detail and information for audience and context

• Use a range of appropriate strategies, such as

– Providing facts and details

– Describing or analyzing the subject

– Narrating relevant anecdote(s)

– Comparing and contrasting

– Explaining benefits and/or limitations

– Demonstrating claims or assertions

– Offering scenario(s) to illustrate

– Incorporating effective visual or media aids

• Develop details rather than relying on general references

• Avoid extraneous and/or inappropriate information

• Use transition words to increase coherence between ideas

• Contain a beginning, middle, and end.

In addition to information, you should also look for a visual aid to include

within your report. The visual aid is an essential part of helping the reader

fully understand the benefits of your proposal. Get into the habit of

providing visual aids whenever you can.

Visual aids are particularly helpful in business reports because they help our

readers understand (and then act correctly upon) our reports.



Kinds of Information Reports

Business documents of all types - those that give facts and research - are

information. Business and industry cannot function without short written

reports. People often need informative reports that gather and present

information on a subject in one compact package.

4.9.2 Progress Reports

One kind of information report is the progress reports.

A periodic report discusses the headway you’re making in an on-going

project, such as sales reports of a quarter (notice how the project

continues.) On the other hand, a progress report discusses about

headway you’re making on an one-time, limited project, such as on a

committee’s work to organize a Christmas party or on renovations (notice

how these projects end.) You write a progress report to inform a

supervisor, associate, or customer about progress you’ve made on a project

over a certain period of time. In the progress report, you explain any or all

of the following:

• How much of the work is complete

• What part of the work is currently in progress

• What work remains to be done

• What problems or unexpected things, if any, have arisen

• How the project is going in general

Progress reports have several important functions:

• Reassures recipients that you are making progress, that the project is

going smoothly, and that it will be completed by the expected date.

• Provides recipients with a brief look at some of the findings or some of

the work of the project.

• Gives recipients a chance to evaluate your work on the project and to

request changes.



• Gives you a chance to discuss problems in the project and thus to

forewarn recipients.

4.9.3 Accident Reports

Workplace accidents require written reports to record the incident, to

document actions, and preserve evidence and testimony, information of

victims, witnesses, and bystanders. Accident reports must meet both legal

and company rules, usually have specific forms to fill out, and often have

filing deadlines. If the employee makes medical, disability of other claims,

the information will serve as documentation. Accident reports can also be

formatted as memo reports.

Minimally, the report should contain the following information:

1. Time and Place of Accident

2. Description of Accident and the Victim – full description of how injury

or illness occurred

3. Cause of the Accident

4. Information about the victim – visitor? employee? body parts affected?

difficulty breathing?

5. Witness information (names)

6. Result – first aid given? doctor called? ambulance called? victim taken to

hospital? (treatment, ambulance called, incapacity, hospitalization)

Recommendation Report

Recommendation reports differ from information reports in one important

way: the recommendation reports advise readers to take a certain course of

action: build or not build, purchase or not purchase.

This type starts from a stated need, a selection of choices, or both and then

recommends one, some, or none. Imagine, for example, you receive this

assignment from your supervisor: Recommend the grammar-checking

software for purchase. As the report writer on this project, you research



the market to learn everything you can about the nature and extent of the

problem and the feasibility of various solutions. Based on your analysis, you

recommend one particular product, a couple of products (differing perhaps

in their strengths and their weaknesses), or none (if none are any good.)

The recommendation report answers the question “Which option should

we choose?” (or in some cases “Which are the best options?) by

recommending Product B, or maybe both Products B and C, or none of the

products.

Kinds of Recommendation Reports

A feasibility report studies a situation (for example, a problem or

opportunity) and a plan for doing something about it and then determines

whether that plan is “feasible” —which means determining whether it

technologically possible and whether it is practical (in terms of current

technology, economics, social needs, and so on). The feasibility report

answers the question “Should we implement Plan X?” by stating “yes,” “no,”

but more often “maybe.” Not only does it give a recommendation, it also

provides the data and the reasoning behind that recommendation.

Recommendation report starts from a stated need, a selection of choices,

or both and then recommends one, some, or none.

An evaluation report provides an opinion or judgment rather than a

yes-no maybe answer or a recommendation. It provides a studied opinion

on the value or worth of something. Did it work? Was it worthwhile?—

These are questions an evaluation report would attempt to answer. This

type of report compares a thing to a set of requirements (or criteria) and

determines how well it meets those requirements. (And of course there may

be a recommendation — continue the project, scrap it, change it, or other

possibilities.)

Steps to writing the recommendation report

Step 1: Define the key problem. As you see the situation, what is the

most important problem to be solved? State exactly why you believe it is a

problem worth serious attention. Do not assume the reader sees the



problem as you do—if you fail to define it, and the reader does not see it as

you do—the rest of your analysis may be discounted, misinterpreted, or

rejected because of misunderstanding.

• Be careful to separate the problem from its causes, its effects, and

decisions.

• Phrase the key problem as a neutral question: What option is the best?

• Define the problem as concretely and precisely as you can—not

abstractly or generally.

• Define terms.

Step 2: Specify the cause (s) of the problem. Now that you’ve described

the nature of the problem exactly, identify the causes that account precisely

for the difficulties.

• Explain what is wrong. Focus on explanation.

• Where is it wrong? What caused “it” to go wrong?

• When did it go wrong?

• Extent to which it is wrong.

Step 3: Suggest and evaluate possible solutions.

• What is the nature of each proposed solution (cost, actions, changes

implied)?

• Can you group various solutions?

• What elements are common to all solutions and are therefore probably

desirable?

• How do the proposed solutions differ?

• Which solutions should be eliminated, which should be considered

further?



Step 4: Outline the course of action you consider best.

• Explain why and how the course of action you recommend not only

solves the problem but also takes into account the causes of the prob-

lem better than the alternative courses of action do.

• Show how the action is practical.

• Anticipate relevant problems or objections readers may think of.

• Specify individuals or agencies that need to take action and in what

order.

• Avoid imperative verbs (“Buy Software ABC” or “You should buy...”).

Instead, tell what should be done (“XYZ Company should buy Sofware

ABC”) or what the best option is (“Software ABC is the best option

for XYZ Company”).

Organize the recommendation report

Order your ideas. The recommendation may be organized as a traditional

memo:

1. Introduction

2. Discussion/Comparison of Options

3. Recommendations

4. Conclusion

A stronger format puts the most important information - the

recommendations - first:

1. Recommendations – what the reader should do

2. Introduction – what the situation is

3. Discussion/Comparison of Options – comparison with all facts

4. Conclusion – restatement of the recommendation



This format works well because it tells the reader what s/he wants to

know at the very start of the memo.

Specifically, make sure to do the following:

• Write a good introduction in which you indicate the situation and the

audience and provide an overview of the contents.

• State requirements—those factors that influence the decision

or the choice of options.

• Indicate how the field of options was narrowed to the ones being

compared.

• Organize the comparison of the options using the point-by-point

approach. Don’t use the whole-to-whole approach.

• At the end of each comparative section, state the best choice in

terms of that point of comparison.

• In addition to information, look for a visual aid to include within your

report. The visual aid is an essential part of helping the reader fully

understand the benefits of your proposal get into the habit of providing

visual aids whenever you can. Visual aids are particularly helpful in

business reports because they help our readers understand (and then

act correctly upon) our reports.

• Provide technical background, if necessary for understanding the com-

parative discussion.

• Discuss the background on the problem or opportunity—what brought

about the need for the report.

• Include strong sections of definition, description, or both, as necessary,

using the guidelines on content, organization, and format in the

chapters on definition and description.

• Include a conclusions section where you restate all the key con-

clusions from the comparison section.



• State secondary conclusions in the conclusions section—and base them

on requirements that you state in the requirements section of the report.

• State a final conclusion in the conclusions section—one that states which

is the best choice.

• Include a recommendation section where you make the

recommendation and the key factors influencing the recommendation.

4.9.4 Sales Proposal

A sales proposal is a persuasive document used to sell your goods and

services. A sales proposal offers to sell services or products, usually

for a set completion date for an agreed-upon price.

Writing for the reader’s needs The proposal’s readers are usually in a

position of authority - supervisors, managers, department heads, company

buyers, elected officials, civic leaders - to endorse or reject the writer’s

plan. Sales proposals are persuasive plans: your proposal must convince

the reader that your plan will help them improve business — that you are

“uniquely qualified.” The tone of the proposal should be “Here is what I can

do for you.” Stress the precise benefits your plan has for the reader. Show

readers how approving your plan will save time and money or will improve

employees’ morale or customer’s satisfaction. Above all, make sure you

answer the reader’s most important questions:

• How will you serve our needs better than your competitors:

or

• Why should we hire you instead of someone else?

Competition is fierce in the world of work, and a persuasive proposal

frequently determines which company receives a contract. Demonstrate to

your reader why your plan is better - more efficient, practical, economical -

than a competitor’s. In a sense,a proposal combines the persuasiveness of

a sales letter, the documentation of a report, and the binding power of a

contract, for if the reader accepts your proposals, s/he will expect you to

live up to its terms to the letter.



4.9.5 Kinds of Proposals

Proposals are classified according to how they originate — solicited or

unsolicited and where they are sent after they are written — internal or

external.

• A solicited proposal responds to a specific call for proposals.

• An unsolicited proposal is not a response to a specific call but is usually

originated by the writer who identifies a need and prepares the

proposal in the chance that it will be seriously considered.

• As they suggest, the terms “internal” and “external” refer to the

audience and the format the proposal takes.

• Internal (memos) proposals are for supervisors and are also called

justification reports because they justify a change in policy or an

expenditure.

• External (letter memo with headings) proposals are for customers and

clients.

Organization of proposal

Remember that a proposal is essentially a sales or promotional kind of thing.

1. Introduce the proposal, telling the readers its purpose and contents.

The introduction answers all these questions that apply to the situation:

• Statement of Problem and Objective - What problem do you propose

to solve? In general, what solution are you proposing?

• Benefits - What are the benefits?

• Qualifications - What are your qualifications for this project?

From the beginning, your goal is to sell your idea, to persuade readers the

job needs doing and you are the one to do it. If your introduction is

long-winded, evasive, or vague, readers might stop reading. Make it

concise, specific, and clear.



Spell out the problem to make it clear to the audience—and to show that

you understand it fully. Explain the benefits of solving the problem or

undertaking the project. Identify any sources of data. In a research or sales

proposal, state your qualifications for doing the job. If your plan has

limitations or contingencies, explain them. Finally, give the scope of your

plan by listing the subsections to be discussed in the body section.

2. Present the background —the problem, opportunity, or situation that

brings about the proposed project. Get the reader concerned about

the problem, excited about the opportunity, or interested in the

situation in some way.

3. State what you propose to do about the problem and how you intend to

help them with the situation.

4. Discuss the benefits of doing the proposed project, the advantages that

come from approving it.

The body will receive most attention from readers. It answers all these

questions that are applicable:

• Methods - How will it be done?

• Timetable - When will it be done? How long will it take?

• Materials, Equipment, and Personnel - What materials, methods, and

personnel will it take?

• Facilities - What facilities are available?

• Cost - How much will it cost, and why?

• Expected Results - What results can we expect?

• Feasibility - How do we know it will work?

Here you spell out your plan in enough detail for readers to evaluate its

soundness. If this section is vague, your proposal stands no chance of being

accepted. Be sure your plan is realistic and promises no more than you can

deliver. The main goal of this section is to prove that your plan will work.



5. Describe exactly what the completed project would consist of, what it

would look like, how it would work—describe the results of the

project.

6. Discuss the method and theory or approach behind that method—

enable readers to understand how you’ll go about the proposed

work.

7. Provide a schedule, including major milestones or checkpoints in the

project.

8. Briefly list your qualifications for the project; provide a

mini-resume of the background you have that makes you right for the

project.

9. Now (and only now), list the costs of the project, the resources

you’ll need to do the project.

10. Conclude with a review of the benefits of doing the project (in case

the shock from the costs section was too much), and urge the audience

to get in touch or to accept the proposal. End on a strong note, and

keep it short.

Notice the overall logic of the movement through these section:

(1) you get them concerned about a problem or interested in an opportunity,

(2) then you get them excited about how you’ll fix the problem or do the

project,

(3) then you show them what good qualifications you have

(4) and then hit them with the costs, but then come right back to the good

points about the project.

Revising and proofreading

As you reread and revise your proposal, watch out for problems such as

the following:



• Make sure you use the right format. Remember, the memo format

is for internal proposals; the business-letter format is for proposals written

from one external organization to another. (Whether you use a cover

memo or cover letter is your choice.)

• Make sure the sections are in a logical, natural order. For ex-

ample, don’t hit the audience with schedules and costs before you’ve

gotten them interested in the project.

• For internal projects, don’t omit the section on costs and qualifica-

tions: there will be costs, just not direct ones. For example, how much

time will you need, will there be printing, binding costs? Include your

qualifications—imagine your proposal will go to somebody in the orga-

nization who doesn’t know you.

Review questions

1. Distinguish between active-voice sentences and passive voice

sentences. Give examples.

2. Describe three kinds of sentences used to develop ideas in paragraphs.

3. Describe three paragraph plans. Identify the uses for each.

4. What is coherence, and how is it achieved?

5. Why writers should plan for revision?

6. What is jargon, and when is it appropriate for business writing?

7. What are compliance reports?

8. What should a progress report include?

9. What are the major differences between informational and

analytical reports?

10. How is an abstract different from an executive summary?

11. What materials go in an appendix?

12. Why are proposals important to many businesses?



13. Read the following paragraph carefully and answer the questions..

(1) An effective public speaker uses nonverbal signals from the audience to

adjust his or her presentation. (2) For example, an effective public

speaker adds more examples or explanations when members of the

audience look befuddled or confused. (3) An effective speaker tries to

liven up his or her presentation or asks the audience questions when

members of the audience start showing signs of boredom or lack of

interest. (4) Fidgeting, doodling, reading instead of listening, shuffling

papers, or leaving the room are obvious signs that the audience has lost

interest. (5) The speaker can acknowledge opposing points of view

when he or she sees frowns, scowls, head shaking, or gestures from the

audience that show signs of disagreement or disapproval. (6) Glazed

looks, lack of eye contact with the speaker, or lack of response to

questions or humorous anecdotes are other signs of boredom. (7) Any

public speaker will be more effective and dynamic if he or she watches

for listeners’ nonverbal signals and adjusts the speech accordingly.

1. Which sentence breaks the coherence of this paragraph?

A. Sentence 2

B. Sentence 4

C. Sentence 6

2. The details are arranged in

A. the random order of confused, bored, and in disagreement or

disapproval.

B. chronological order.

C. spatial order.

3. The writer of this paragraph could strengthen the coherence of the para-

graph by

A. giving more details.

B. adding more kinds of nonverbal responses audiences give to

speakers.

C. using more transition words and repeating the words nonverbal

signals.



4. The topic sentence is “An effective public speaker uses nonverbal sig-

nals from the audience to adjust his or her presentation.” The subject of

these sentence is

A. speaker.

B. nonverbal signals.

C. presentation.

5. In the independent clause “An effective speaker tries to liven up his or

her presentation and to ask the audience questions,” the verb or verbs

in the sentence are

A. tries.

B. tries, to liven up.

C. tries, to ask.

6. In a summary paragraph, the first sentence should quote the thesis

statement from the essay or the article.

A. True

B. False

7. In a formal summary, the first sentence includes the title of the article,

the author’s full name, and the thesis statement.

A. True

B. False

8. When you write a formal summary, you should organize the main ideas

in an order that flows smoothly and logically.

A. True

B. False

9. In a formal summary paragraph, the writer should introduce each new

main idea by using the author’s last name and a present-tense verb.

A. True

B. False



5.1 INTRODUCTION

Reports communicate information which has been compiled as a result of

research and analysis of data and of issues. Reports can cover a wide range

of topics, but usually focus on transmitting information with a clear purpose,

to a specific audience. Good reports are documents that are accurate,

objective and complete. They should also be well-written, clearly

structured and expressed in a way that holds the reader’s attention and

meets their expectations. The true value of the research may be assessed

through a report since the written report may be the “only tangible product

of hundreds of hours of work. Rightly or wrongly, the quality and worth of

that work are judged by the quality of the written report - its clarity,

organization and content.” (Blake & Bly, 1993: 119). Often reports are

structured in a way that reflects the information finding process and the

writing up of the findings: that is, summary of the contents, introduction or

background, methods, results, discussion, conclusion and/or

recommendations. The inclusion of recommendations is one reason why

reports are a common form of writing in industry, as the informed

recommendations are useful for decision making.


• Learn to define a research problem clearly in writing

• Know the various types of reports and their essential elements

UNIT V PROJECT REPORTS

AND PROPOSALS



• Develop skills in organising information and outlining

• Describe the role and content of reports

• Understand the role and use of graphics in reports.

5.3 SCOPE AND STYLE OF REPORTS

The scope and style of reports varies widely. It depends on three key

factors: the report’s intended audience, the report’s purpose and the type

of information to be communicated; for example, technical reports

communicate technical information, so the degree of technicality in the

report will depend on the reader’s familiarity and understanding of technical

concepts.

At university, you may be required to write several different types of

reports.

Technical and Business disciplines with an applied focus such as

Engineering, Information Technology, Commerce, Accounting and Finance,

will set report writing assignments that simulate the process of report

writing in industry. Assignments are set in the form of a problem or a case

study. The students research the problem, and present the results of the

research in a report format to an imaginary client.

Field reports are common in disciplines such as Law, Industrial Relations,

Psychology, Nursing, History and Education. These types of reports require

the student to analyse his or her observations of phenomena or events in the

real world in light of theories studied in the course. Examples of field reports

are a Court observation report, an observation report of a child or a patient

for Developmental psychology or Nursing, a History site report, and a

teaching observation report for Education.

Scientific reports (also called laboratory reports) are another kind of

report. They are common in all the Sciences and Social Sciences. These

reports use a standard scientific report format describing methods, results

and conclusions to report upon an empirical investigation.



Reports depend upon the organisation’s business requirements can

be classified as

Ø Routine/Periodic/Progress reports. These are the most common types

of reports written at regular intervals. These may be weekly reports

from the sales/production/operations/customer service personnel. The

reports facilitate monitoring of work and decision making.

Ø Informational reports. These are reports that examine business situa-

tions and provide factual information.

Ø Justification reports with recommendations. Often managers have to

justify a decision that arises out of the facts gathered and relevant to the

problem. In such cases, managers offer recommendations based on the

analysis and interpretation.

Ø Situational reports. Managers are also expected to submit reports about

their office trips, conferences, and seminars to keep the organization

informed about what they have gained from these activities. Such re-

ports do not follow a formal order. Since they are informal in nature,

letter or memo format is generally used.

Ø Feasibility report. All business projects may not appear profitable.

Therefore, based on analysis and interpretation of cost, benefits, dis-

advantages, and future possibilities, managers have to point out whether

it is feasible to proceed with the project.

Ø Research reports. Research reports are backbone of an organization.

Decisions about growth depend much on research that has

continuously carried out. Often, business houses commission research

studies that must examine the real problem objectively and completely.

5.4 DEFINING A BUSINESS REPORT

A business report is an orderly and objective communication of factual

information that serves a business purpose. The keywords in this definition

deserves emphasis. The objective quality of a report is its unbiased

approach. Reports seek truth. They avoid human biases. The basic

ingredient of reports is factual information. Factual information is based on



events, records, and data and alike. Not all reports are business reports.

Research scientists, medical doctors, ministers, students and many others

write them. To be classified as a business report, a report must serve a

business purpose.

Where should I begin?

Since a research report is the vehicle through which you will share your

research with others, you should have completed most of your research

before beginning to work on the report. When your research is completed,

and you have gathered all the necessary data and interpreted it, you are

ready to begin thinking about the content of your research report. It is a

good idea to start by conducting a literature search in your area of research.

This will help you to see what has been published on your topic in the past

and will give you sources to use in writing your own report. You can conduct

a literature search by browsing through journals important in your field or

by conducting a keyword search through library databases. After you have

finished your research and conducted a literature search, the prewriting

exercise below will help you to think through the information you have to

present, and the answers that you provide will easily become the basis for

your report and will save you time later in the writing process. Of course,

depending on the application of your report, some of the questions may be

more useful than others in crafting a first draft.

Take out a piece of paper and write down your answers to the following

questions, or open up a text editor window and copy and paste the following

questions into it so you can answer them on your computer.

1) Describe the purpose of your research. Are you presenting the results

of research, outlining a new theory or method, and/or offering a new

interpretation of old data?

2) Describe the most important feature of your research.

3) Make a list of anyone who contributed to your research and who could

be involved in writing the research report. Describe the contribution

they might make to your research report.



4) Compile a list of works by other researchers that you used in your own

research or that is related to your research.

5) Describe the ways in which your research proves or disproves other

researchers’ work.

6) Describe the background of this subject.

7) Describe what you expected to find before you began your research.

How did your project change over time? How did your results differ

from your expectations?

8) Describe your results. How did you check your results? How can you

best represent them: with text, in a table, with a figure, etc?

9) Describe the consequences of your research. What does it mean for

the subject? How will it affect future research on this subject?

10) Describe the ideal audience for your report. Who would be most

impacted by your research? Who would best understand the conse-

quences of your research?

11) If you are seeking to publish your report, describe the journals in which

you would like to see your research appear. What are the specific

requirements for these journals? Additionally, what type of language

should you use in writing your report? Look carefully at journals to

which you are interested in submitting; how do writers describe their

experimental data?

12) Consider the specific guidelines under which you are working. If

relevant, make a list of the sections you are required to include in your

report. If you have freedom in choosing sections to include, make a list

of the sections you think will be necessary to include.

After you have finished, move on to the next section to read more about

audience analysis, or use your pre-writing exercise to help you get started

in drafting the sections of your report.



5.4.1 Who is my audience and what will they expect?

It is important to consider your audience before you begin and while you

write your research report so that your report will adequately communicate

your research and its significance to your readers. For instance, if you don’t

consider your readers’ needs, you might use language that they don’t

understand or you might explain the background of your work in too much

or too little detail. It is best to think of the audience for your research report

as peers in your immediate discipline or in a discipline closely related to

your subject. This is true even when you write a report for a class that will

be graded by an instructor rather than read by other researchers.

If you are writing a research report for a teacher, the greatest challenge you

face in writing your report is to write as though the professor is not your

only reader. Imagine a broader audience of your peers and colleagues who

will not be grading your work. If you visualize an audience of people with a

similar background who are interested in your subject, but who do not know

as much about it as you do, you will likely make writing your report easier

than if you visualize your audience as a group of experts or someone

uninterested in your subject. Keep in mind that your goal should be to

write in such a way that someone skilled in the art could reproduce your

work precisely.

It can help to know why your readers will be motivated to read your

research report. Although they might read it for a variety of reasons, in

general they will read :

• to learn about research related to their particular research interests

• to keep abreast of research in the discipline in general

• to keep current with research related to their teaching interests

• to keep informed about the scientific literature in related disciplines.

(Wilkinson 10).

It is also best to assume that your readers will be very busy people and will

want information to be presented to them clearly and concisely. This does



not mean that you don’t need to be accurate or thorough, but it does suggest

that you should put information where readers will expect to find it, and it

places great emphasis on the abstract of your report. While readers from

your own discipline and area of research might read your report closely and

all the way through, many other readers will read only the title and abstract.

This helps them to keep abreast of research but does not take up a great

deal of their time.

Once you have an idea of who your audience is and why they might read

your report, you can imagine more easily what their needs as readers are

and how you might meet these needs. You should try to think about your

research from the perspective of your audience, and ask what you would

like to see in your report if you were reading about your particular research

for the first time. Thinking about your audience before you write your

report can help you to determine the level of detail you need to include in

your report and how to organize information.

The following prewriting activity can help you to think about your audience.

Take out a piece of paper and write down the answers to these questions,

or copy and paste them into a text editor.

• Describe your audience. What is their position? Why will they read

your report?

• What does your audience already know about this topic?

• What information will be new to your reader?

• What is the most important thing for your reader to understand from

your report?

• List terms and/or procedures that are important to your research but

that your audience may not be familiar with. Include terms that you are

using in a new or unique way.

• Thoroughly report analytical data supporting your conclusions.



You might return to the issue of your audience after your report is written to

determine whether you have met your readers’ basic needs. Considering

the first draft of your report from your audience’s perspective can reveal

areas that need revision to you and can lead to your second draft. Some

questions you can ask about your report (after it is written to determine

whether it has met your readers’ basic needs) are:

• Is my main point easy to identify early in the report?

• Have I carefully described the procedures used?

• Have I defined unfamiliar or technical terms and clearly explained

new concepts?

• Have I provided a context for the research or is more background

information needed?

• Have I used tables and figures to represent data? Are these easy to

read?

• Have I summarized my findings?

• Have I written clearly?

• Have I stayed on topic throughout the report?

These are some of the basic needs and expectations that your readers will

have. You may be able to think of others. What else do you expect when

you read a report? What things do you hope would not be a part of a

report you were reading? You can use these questions as the basis for

revision of your research report after you have a first draft. The easiest

way to understand what readers will expect is to become a reader yourself

if you aren’t already one. It will be helpful for you to read a variety of

reports to determine the features you particularly like and don’t like before

writing your own report.



Purpose of the Report

Defining the goals and objectives of a research project is one of the most

important steps in the research process. Do not underestimate the importance

of this step. Clearly stated goals keep a research project focused. The

process of goal definition begins by writing down the broad and

general goals of the study. As the process continues, the goals become more

clearly defined and the research issues are narrowed.

Here are a few examples of how you might phrase your goals and

objectives:

I want to discover if customers are satisfied with ...(service, quality, etc.)

I want to learn how employees feel about ...(policy, pay, hours, etc.)

I want to know if there are relationships between x and y.

I want to understand the differences between x and y.

The preliminary investigation

Getting the problem clearly in mind is largely a matter of gathering all the

information needed to understand it and then applying the best logic to it.

Gathering right information involves many things, depending on the

problem. It may mean gathering material from company files, talking over

the problem with experts, searing through print and electronic sources, and

discussing the problem with those who authorized the report. In general,

you should continue this preliminary investigation until you have the

information you need to understand your problem.

5.4.2 Statement of the Problem

The statement of the problem is the focal point of your research. It is just

one sentence (with several paragraphs of elaboration).

You are looking for something wrong.

....or something that needs close attention.

....or existing methods that no longer seem to be working.



Example of a problem statement:

“The frequency of job layoffs is creating fear, anxiety, and a loss of

productivity in middle management workers.”

The problem definition takes one of the three forms: infinitive phrase,

question or declarative statement. To illustrate each, we will use the

problem undermining why sales at a certain store have declined.

1. Infinitive phrase: “To determine the cause of declining sales at store X”

2. Question: “What are causes of decreasing sales at store X?”

3. Declarative statement: “Stores X sales are decreasing, and

management wants to know why”

While the problem statement itself is just one sentence, it is always

accompanied by several paragraphs that elaborate on the problem. Present

persuasive arguments why the problem is important enough to study.

Include the opinions of others (politicians, futurists, other professionals).

Explain how the problem relates to business, social or political trends by

presenting data that demonstrates the scope and depth of the problem. Try

to give dramatic and concrete illustrations of the problem. After writing this

section, make sure you can easily identify the single sentence that is the

problem statement.

Purpose

The purpose is a single statement or paragraph that explains what the

study intends to accomplish. A few typical statements are:

The goal of this study is to...

... overcome the difficulty with ...

... discover what ...

... understand the causes or effects of ...

... refine our current understanding of ...

... provide a new interpretation of ...

... understand what makes ___ successful or unsuccessful



Significance of the Study

This section creates a perspective for looking at the problem. It points

out how your study relates to the larger issues and uses a persuasive

rationale to justify the reason for your study. It makes the purpose worth

pursuing. The significance of the study answers the questions:

Why is your study important?

To whom is it important?

What benefit(s) will occur if your study is done?

5.4.3 Research Questions and Hypotheses

The research questions for this study will be:

1. What are the attitudes of...

2. Is there a significant difference between...

3. Is there a significant relationship between...

Well-designed surveys always begin by committing your research questions

to writing. Research questions are not the same as the questionnaire items.

Research questions are global in nature. They are the goals and objectives

of the study. Questionnaire items, on the other hand, are designed to help

answer the global research questions.

How to write research questions

The goals of the study are easily transformed into research questions. Once

again, research questions are global and broad, and they are not the same

as the questionnaire items. There are basically two kinds of research

questions: testable and non-testable. Neither is better than the other, and

both have a place in customer satisfaction and employee surveys.

“Non-testable” means that the research question cannot be answered by

performing a statistical test. The answers to these questions might be

important to know, but the decision - making criteria does not involve a

statistical test.

Examples of non-testable research questions are:

What do customers feel is fair price for the new product?



How do customers feel about our service?

How do customers feel about the quality of our products?

What are employees’ attitudes towards the new management? What

changes would improve employee productivity?

Respondents’ answers to these questions can be summarized in descriptive

tables and the results might be extremely valuable to administrators and

planners. Business and social science researchers often ask non-testable

research questions. The shortcoming with these types of questions is that

they do not provide objective cut-off points for decision-makers.

For example, imagine that we’ve done our survey, and now we need to

decide what constitutes satisfactory service? Each of us might give a

different answer. There is no exact cutoff point where we would say “yes”

our customers are satisfied, or “no” they are not. When we ask questions

like this, it’s important to establish a decision - making guideline before

doing the survey.

How to write testable research questions

It is perhaps more important to ask questions that involve decision making

criteria. Business research usually seeks to answer one or more testable

research questions. Nearly all testable research questions begin with one of

the following two phrases:

Is there a significant difference between ...?

Is there a significant relationship between ...?

Examples of testable research questions are:

Is there a significant relationship between a customer’s age

and their level of satisfaction with the service?

Is there a significant difference between the level of male and

female satisfaction with the service?

Is there a significant relationship between managerial level

and support of the new budget?

Is there a significant difference between the productivity of

workers in plant A and workers in plant B?



How to convert research questions into hypotheses and null hypotheses

A research hypothesis is a testable statement of opinion. It is created from

the research question by replacing the words “Is there” with the words

“There is”, and also replacing the question mark with a period. The

hypotheses for the four sample research questions would be:

There is a significant relationship between a customer’s age and their level

of satisfaction with the service.

There is a significant difference between the level of male and female

satisfaction with the service.

There is a significant relationship between managerial level and

support of the new budget.

There is a significant difference between the productivity of

plant A and plant B.

It is not possible to test a hypothesis directly. Instead, you must turn the

hypothesis into a null hypothesis. The null hypothesis is created from the

hypothesis by adding the words “no” or “not” to the statement. For example,

the null hypotheses for the two examples would be:

There is no significant relationship between a customer’s age and their

level of satisfaction with the service.

There is no significant difference between the level of male and female

satisfaction with the service.

There is no significant relationship between managerial level and support of

the new budget.

There is no significant difference between the productivity of

plant A and plant B.

All statistical testing is done on the null hypothesis, never on the hypothesis.

The result of a statistical test will enable you to either 1) reject the null

hypothesis, or 2) fail to reject the null hypothesis. Never use the words

“accept the null hypothesis”. When you say that you “reject the null



hypothesis”, it means that you are reasonably certain that the null

hypothesis is wrong. When you say that you “fail to reject the null

hypothesis”, it means that you do not have enough evidence to claim that

the null hypothesis is wrong.

5.4.4 Review of Literature

A literature review is an account of what has been published on a topic by

accredited scholars and researchers. In writing the literature review, your

purpose is to convey to your reader what knowledge and ideas have been

established on a topic, and what their strengths and weaknesses are. As a

piece of writing, the literature review must be defined by a guiding concept

(e.g., your research objective, the problem or issue you are discussing, or

your argumentative thesis). It is not just a descriptive list of the material

available, or a set of summaries.

Besides enlarging your knowledge about the topic, writing a literature

review lets you gain and demonstrate skills in two areas:

information seeking: the ability to scan the literature efficiently, using manual

or computerized methods, to identify a set of useful articles and books

critical appraisal: the ability to apply principles of analysis to

identify unbiased and valid studies.

A literature review must do the following things:

a) be organized around and related directly to the thesis or research

question you are developing

b) synthesize results into a summary of what is and is not known

c) identify areas of controversy in the literature

d) formulate questions that need further research

Ask yourself questions like these:

What is the specific thesis, problem, or research question that my literature

review helps to define? What type of literature review am I conducting?

Am I looking at issues of theory? methodology? policy? quantitative research

(e.g. on the effectiveness of a new procedure)? qualitative research (e.g.,

studies )? What is the scope of my literature review? What types of

publications am I using (e.g., journals, books, government documents,



popular media)? What discipline am I working in (e.g., industrial

psychology, sociology, management)? How good was my information

seeking? Has my search been wide enough to ensure that I’ve found all the

relevant material? Has it been narrow enough to exclude irrelevant

material? Is the number of sources I’ve used appropriate for the length of

my paper? Have I critically analysed the literature I use? Do I follow through

a set of concepts and questions, comparing items to each other in the ways

they deal with them? Instead of just listing and summarizing items, do I

assess them, discussing strengths and weaknesses? Have I cited and

discussed studies contrary to my perspective? Will the reader find my

literature review relevant, appropriate, and useful?

Literature review should also contain a definition of terms section when

appropriate. Include it if your paper uses special terms that are unique to

your field of inquiry or that might not be understood by the general reader.

“Operational definitions” (definitions that you have formulated for the study)

should also be included. An example of an operational definition is: “For the

purpose of this research, improvement is operationally defined as post-test

score minus pretest score”.

5.4.5 Methodology

The methodology section describes your basic research plan. It usually

begins with a few short introductory paragraphs that restate purpose and

research questions. The phraseology should be identical to that used in the

beginning. Keep the wording of your research questions consistent

throughout the document.

Population and sampling

The basic research paradigm is:

1) Define the population

2) Draw a representative sample from the population

3) Do the research on the sample

4) Infer your results from the sample back to the population

As you can see, it all begins with a precise definition of the population. The

whole idea of inferential research (using a sample to represent the entire



population) depends upon an accurate description of the population. When

you’ve finished your research and you make statements based on the

results, who will they apply to? Usually, just one sentence is necessary to

define the population. Examples are: “The population for this study is

defined as all adult customers who make a purchase in our stores during the

sampling time frame”, or “...all home owners in the city of Chennai”, or

“...all potential consumers of our product”.

While the population can usually be defined by a single statement, the

sampling procedure needs to be described in extensive detail. There are

numerous sampling methods from which to choose. Describe in minute

detail, how you will select the sample. Use specific names, places, times,

etc. Don’t omit any details. This is extremely important because the reader

of the paper must decide if your sample will sufficiently represent the

population.

Instrumentation

If you are using a survey that was designed by someone else, state the

source of the survey. Describe the theoretical constructs that the survey is

attempting to measure. Include a copy of the actual survey in the appendix

and state that a copy of the survey is in the appendix.

Well-designed surveys always begin by committing your research questions

to writing. Research questions are not the same as the questionnaire items.

Research questions are global in nature. They are the goals and objectives

of the study. Questionnaire items, on the other hand, are designed to help

answer the global research questions.

.Procedure and time frame

State exactly when the research will begin and when it will end. Describe

any special procedures that will be followed (e.g., instructions that will be

read to participants, presentation of an informed consent form, etc.).

Analysis plan

The analysis plan should be described in detail. Each research question will

usually require its own analysis. Thus, the research questions should be

addressed one at a time followed by a description of the type of statistical



tests that will be performed to answer that research question. Be specific.

State what variables will be included in the analyses and identify the

dependent and independent variables if such a relationship exists. Decision

making criteria (e.g., the critical alpha level) should also be stated, as well

as the computer software that will be used.

Validity and reliability

If the survey you’re using was designed by someone else, then describe the

previous validity and reliability assessments. When using an existing

instrument, you’ll want to perform the same reliability measurement as the

author of the instrument. If you’ve developed your own survey, then you

must describe the steps you took to assess its validity and a description of

how you will measure its reliability.

Validity refers to the accuracy or truthfulness of a measurement. Are we

measuring what we think we are? There are no statistical tests to measure

validity. All assessments of validity are subjective opinions based on the

judgment of the researcher. Nevertheless, there are at least three types of

validity that should be addressed and you should state what steps you took

to assess validity.

Face validity refers to the likelihood that a question will be misunderstood

or misinterpreted. Pre-testing a survey is a good way to increase the

likelihood of face validity.

Content validity refers to whether an instrument provides adequate

coverage of a topic. Expert opinions, literature searches, and pretest

open-ended questions help to establish content validity.

Construct validity refers to the theoretical foundations underlying a

particular scale or measurement. It looks at the underlying theories or

constructs that explain a phenomena. In other words, if you are using

several survey items to measure a more global construct (e.g., a subscale of

a survey), then you should describe why you believe the items comprise a

construct. If a construct has been identified by previous researchers, then

describe the criteria they used to validate the construct. A technique known

as confirmatory factor analysis is often used to explore how individual

survey items contribute to an overall construct measurement.



Reliability is synonymous with repeatability or stability. A measurement

that yields consistent results over time is said to be reliable. When a

measurement is prone to random error, it lacks reliability.

There are three basic methods to test reliability : test-retest, equivalent

form, and internal consistency. Most research uses some form of

internal consistency. When there is a scale of items all attempting to

measure the same construct, then we would expect a large degree of

coherence in the way people answer those items. Various statistical tests

can measure the degree of coherence. Another way to test reliability is to

ask the same question with slightly different wording in different parts of the

survey. The correlation between the items is a measure of their reliability.

Assumptions

All research studies make assumptions. The most obvious is that the sample

represents the population. Another common assumption is that an

instrument has validity. Still another assumption is that respondents will

answer a survey truthfully. The important point is for the researcher to state

specifically what assumptions are being made.

Scope and limitations

All research studies also have limitations and a finite scope. Limitations are

often imposed by time and budget constraints. Precisely list the limitations

of the study. Describe the extent to which you believe the limitations

degrade the quality of the research.

5.4.6 Results

Description of the sample

Nearly all research collects various demographic information. It is important

to report the descriptive statistics of the sample because it lets the reader

decide if the sample is truly representative of the population.



Analyses

For each research question:

1) Restate the research question using the exact wording.

2) If the research question is testable, state the null hypothesis.

3) State the type of statistical test(s) performed.

4) Report the statistics and conclusions, followed by any

appropriate table(s)

Numbers and tables are not self-evident. If you use tables or graphs, refer

to them in the text and explain what they say. An example is: “Table 4 shows

a strong negative relationship between delivery time and customer

satisfaction (r=-.72, p=.03)”. All tables and figures have a number and a

descriptive heading.

Example:

Table No: The relationship between delivery time and customer satisfaction.

Avoid the use of trivial tables or graphs. If a graph or table does not add

new information (i.e., information not explained in the text), then don’t include

it.

5.4.7 Conclusions and Recommendations

Begin the final chapter with a few paragraphs summarizing what you did

and found.

“Summary of Results,” “Conclusions,” and sometimes “Concluding

Remarks” are the common headings for this section. These headings

connote somewhat different contents distinguished by the degree of

generality and certainty of the material included in them. Since statements

made in this section are often quoted by other investigators, each

statement should be critically evaluated for accuracy and clarity. A useful

stage-setting approach to the concluding section is to briefly state the

purpose and scope of your work.



A few ground rules should be observed in writing the concluding section:

1. Do not use undefined symbols.

2. Do not cite equations, tables, figures, references, and appendixes.

3. Do not introduce new material.

Concluding Remarks

When it is not possible to draw adequate, clear-cut conclusions, a

Concluding Remarks section may be used. With this approach you are not

constrained by the connotations of the headings “Summary of Results” and

“Conclusions.” You are free to give opinions, to evaluate, and to

recommend. Of course the views you express should be based on the

information provided by your investigation.

Sometimes both a Concluding Remarks section and a Summary of Results

section are used. Dual concluding sections allow a concise summary of the

major results as well as speculation or recommendations. When both

sections are used, the Concluding Remarks usually precedes the Summary

of Results as a “further discussion” of the results.

Discussion

Discuss the findings. Do your findings support existing theories? Explain

why you think you found what you did. Present plausible reasons why the

results might have turned out the way they did.

Recommendations

Present recommendations based on your findings. Avoid the temptation to

present recommendations based on your own beliefs or biases that are not

specifically supported by your data. Recommendations fall into two

categories. The first is recommendations to the study sponsor. What

actions do you recommend them to take based upon the data. The second

is recommendations to other researchers. There are almost always ways

that a study could be improved or refined. What would you change if you

were to do your study over again? These are the recommendations to other

researchers.



Advice for avoiding human errors

1. Report the facts as they are: Do nothing to make them more or less

exciting.

2. Do not think conclusions are always necessary. When the facts do not

support a conclusion, you should just summarise your findings and

conclude that there is no conclusion.

3. Do not interpret a lack of evidence as a proof to the contrary. The fact

that you cannot prove something is true does not mean that it is false.

4. Do not compare non-comparable data. When you look for relationship

between sets of data, make sure they have similarities.

5. Do not draw illogical cause-effect conclusions. Just because two sets

of data appear to affect each other does not mean they actually do.

Use your good logic to determine whether a cause-effect relationship is

likely.

6. Beware of unreliable and unreprentative data. Much of the information

to be found in secondary source is incorrect to some extent.

7. Do not over simplify. Most of the business problems are complex, and

often we neglect some important parts of it.

5.4.8 References

References are citations of work related to points brought out in the report

and are given as sources of additional information for the reader.

The question of whether a reference is needed can only be answered with

experience. A reference may be appropriate

1. To show work pertinent to the subject.

2. To acknowledge the work of others in the same field, particularly quo-

tations.

3. To save repetition of lengthy descriptions of apparatus or procedures,

development of theories, or other information.



4. To support your assumptions, reasoning, viewpoints, or explanations.

5. To compare previous results with those of your report.

Reports, books, papers, and other publications referred to in reports are

listed in the References section at the end of the text, after any appendixes

but before tables or figures appearing at the back of the report.

Review Quiz

1. Which type of research would be most likely to have a section entitled

“Design”?

1. historical

2. descriptive

3. experimental

4. survey

5. qualitative

2. Which section of a research plan usually describes the instruments to

be used in measuring the study’s variables?

1. introduction

2. method

3. data analysis

4. implications

3. Indicating to participants the nature and consequences of a research

study is called

1. informed consent.

2. non-participant clarity.

3. physiological intervention.

4. researcher collaboration.



4. Who has the most responsibility in ensuring ethical treatment of

subjects in a research study report?

1. the researcher

2. the researcher’s institution

3. the participants

4. state regulatory agencies

5. the researcher’s professional organization

5. Which of the following research components is NOT likely to appear

in the introduction section of a research plan?

1. participants

2. topic statement

3. hypothesis

4. literature review

5.5 Visual Aids in Business Reports

Visual aids are important in business reports. They make reports more

exciting and interesting to read.

The Purpose of Visuals

Visuals can improve the professional quality and readability of business

documents.

1. Visuals arouse reader’s immediate interest. Because many

readers are visually oriented, visuals unlock doors of meaning. Readers

who place great emphasis on visual thinking will pay special attention

to the visuals. Visuals catch the reader’s eye quickly by setting

important information apart and by giving them relief from looking at

sentences and paragraphs. Because of their size, shape, colour and

arrangement, visuals are dramatic and maintain reader interest.



2. Visuals increase reader’s understanding by simplifying concepts.

A visual shows ideas whereas a verbal description only tells them.

Visuals are especially important and helpful if you have to explain a

technical process to a non-specialist audience. Moreover, visuals can

simplify densely packed statistical data, making a complex set of

numbers easier to comprehend. Visuals help readers see percentages,

trends, comparisons and contrasts.

3. Visuals are especially important for non-native English speak-

ing and multicultural audiences. Visuals speak a universal language

and so can readily be understood. Because visuals pose fewer prob-

lems in interpretation, they can help reduce ambiguities and misunder-

standing.

4. Visuals emphasize key relationships. Through their arrangement and

form, visuals quickly show contrasts, similarities, growth rates, down-

ward and upward movements and fluctuations in time, money and space.

Pie and bar charts, for example, show relationships of parts to the whole,

and an organizational chart can graphically display the hierarchy and

departments of a company or agency.

5. Visuals condense and summarize a large quantity of information

into a relatively small space. The saying, “A picture says a thousand

words,” is true. Enormous amounts of statistical or financial data, over

many weeks, months, and even years, can be incorporated concisely

into one compact visual. A visual also results in streamlined messages

by saving words. It can record data in far less space than it would take

to describe these facts in words alone.

6. Visuals are highly persuasive. Placed in appropriate sections of a

document, visuals can capture the essence of ideas to convince a reader

to buy our products or services or to accept our points of view. A

visual can display, explain, and reinforce the benefits and opportunities

of plan we are advocating. Readers are far more likely to recall the

visuals than verbal description or summary of it.



Characteristics of Effective Visuals

Visual aids are useful when selected and presented correctly. Here are

suggestions for choosing effective visuals.

• Using visuals only when they are relevant for our purpose and

audience. A visual should contribute to the tent, not be redundant.

A visual must not simply be a decoration. A short report on secretarial

procedures, for example, doesn’t need a picture of a secretary.

• Considering how a specific visual will help readers. What the

reader needs to know visually, what type of visual will best meet the

readers’ needs, and how the visual can be created (scanned, imported,

drawn) help us determine what will be included in visuals.

• Using visuals in conjunction with, and not as a substitute for,

written work. Visuals add to – and not take the place of – clearly

written words. A visual may need an explanation.

• Helping the reader connect the visuals to the text. By indicating

within the text exactly when the reader should look at the visual the

visual has a greater impact on the reader. Readers should be told where

visuals can be found .

• Inserting Visuals Appropriately. Visuals are best when placed as

close as possible to the first mention of them in the text. Visuals are

most effective at either the top or bottom of a page. If visual is small

enough, it should be inserted directly in the text rather than on a

separate page.

• Identifying and citing the sources of visuals. Professional visual

aids have identifying elements within a caption (title) that indicated the

subject or that explains what the visual illustrates. A different typeface

and size in the title makes the visuals stand out. Credit to sources of

visuals is credited in a simple statement or in in-text citations.

• Using high quality visuals. Visuals should be clear, easy to read,

and relevant. Visuals that are of poor quality (too small, done in pencil,



crooked lines) can actually create a poor impression of the report and

upon us as professionals. Visuals should not be distorted for emphasis

or decoration.

5.5.1 Kinds of Visual Aids

The two types of visuals are tables and charts.

Tables

Tables are parallel columns or rows of information that present data in

categories to show changes in time, distance, cost, employment or some

other distinguishable or quantifiable variable. Tables are used so that

readers can identify the numbers exactly.

Tables have two basic structures: the boxhead and the stub. The box head

is the label across and the stub is the label down. Common and

understandable units are used and rounded numbers as well. For example,

12.37% can be rounded to 12%. Column and row totals or averages are

very useful. Tables are best used to convey precise statistics and

information.

Pie Charts

Pie charts are used for audience to measure area. A pie chart is a circular

chart divided into sectors, illustrating relative magnitudes or frequencies. In

a pie chart, the arc length of each sector (and consequently its central angle

and area), is proportional to the quantity it represents. Together, the sectors

create a full disk. A chart with one or more sectors separated from the rest

of the disk is called an exploded pie chart.

While the pie chart is perhaps the most ubiquitous statistical chart in the

business world and the mass media, it is rarely used in scientific or technical

publications. It is one of the most widely criticised chart, and many

statisticians recommend to avoid its use altogether pointing out in particular

that it is difficult to compare different sections of a given pie chart, or to



compare data across different pie charts. While pie charts can be an

effective way of displaying information in some cases, in particular when the

slices represent 25 or 50% of the data, in general, other plots such as the

bar chart or the dot chart are more adapted for representing information.

Example

A pie chart for the example data.

Am exploded pie chart for the example data, with the largest party group

exploded.



The same data plotted using a pie chart and a bar chart.

Pie charts should be used only when the sum of all categories is meaningful,

for example if they represent proportions.

Pie charts are rare in scientific literature, but are more common in business

and economics. One reason for this may be that it is more difficult for

comparisons to be made between the size of items in a chart when area is

used instead of length.

Bar Charts

Because charts are less complex, they work best with a consumer

audience. Unlike graphs, which are plotted according to specific

mathematical coordinates, charts do not display exact and complex

mathematical data. Bar charts are easy to understand and useful. They are

used to compare one item to another, to items over time, and to show

correlations. Horizontal lines are used for long labels and vertical or horizontal

bars are used for short labels. Horizontal and vertical axes are labeled.

There are many different types of bar charts: pictogram/histogram, grouped

bar charts, segmented bars, or deviation bar charts.

A bar chart visualizing the results of the 2004 election can look like this:

(If all the values were arranged in descending order this type of bar graph

would be called a pareto chart.)



Fig. 3: Bar Chart (Segmented) (Source: http://www.visualmining.com)

Line Graphs

Line graphs are easy to interpret. Line graphs take statistical data presented

in tables and put them into rising and falling lines, steep or gentle curves.

They are used to compare items over time, to show frequency or

distribution, and to show correlations. Line graphs visually portray data

that changes, such as cycles, fluctuations, trends, distributions, increases

and decreases in profits, employment, energy levels and temperatures. A

simple graph has a horizontal and a vertical axis that intersect to form a right

angle. All axes are labeled. When time is used as a variable, it is usually put

on the horizontal axis.

Line chart



Dot Charts

Dot charts are used to show correlations and other large data sets.

Horizontal and vertical axes are labeled and dots are usually small.

Radar Graphs

Also called spider or star graphs, these complex-looking visual aids

compare data between sets. They are interpreted by reading each

individual value or by reading the items on each axis..

Gannt Charts

Gannt charts, or time charts, show separate events that have a set starting

and ending point. These kinds of charts are excellent for planning the use of

resources, such as time. Gannt charts can show multiple sets of data. Each

data set can represent one or more tasks. The data sets can be delineated

by the use of separate colors. The data can be laid out as a horizontal set of

boxes that describes the range for the data in terms of starting to ending

values.

Photographs

Good photographs are cropped for best results to eliminate distracting

backgrounds and have no markings. Their chief advantage is realism and

clarity. Photographs of “before and after” are especially effective. As easy

and convenient are photographs to use, they must be presented with care.

Maps

Maps are used for locations or to compare items in different locations. A

largescale map displays a lot of social, economic, or physical data (such as

population density, location of retail businesses, hills, freeways, or rivers)

for a small area. States, provinces, or countries are labeled. Job requirements

will dictate how detailed maps should be. Architectural maps are extremely

detailed, showing the location of pipes, telephone cables, and easement

lines. Site plans for a company’s new location are less detailed maps.



Flow Charts

Flow charts show movement. They display the stages in which something is

manufactured, accomplished, developed, or operated. Flow charts can also

be used to plan the day’s or week’s activities. A flow chart tells a story with

arrows, boxes, and sometimes pictures. Boxes are connected by arrows to

visualize the stages of a process. The presence and direction of the arrows

tell the reader the order and movement of events involved in the process.

Three or four stages minimum should be shown. Flow charts often proceed

from left to right or from top to bottom. Computer programming

instructions tend to be written this way.

Organizational Charts

Organizational charts do not display statistical data, nor do they record

movements in space or time. Rather, they picture the chain of command in a

company or agency , with the lines of authority stretching down from the

chief executive, manager or administrator to assistant manager, department

heads or supervisors to the workforce of employees. Organizational charts

inform employees and customers about the makeup of a company and the

various offices and departments through which orders and information flow

in the company or agency. Organizational charts are also useful for

coordinating employee efforts in routing information to appropriate

departments.

Drawings

Drawings can show where an object is located, how a tool or machine is

put together, or what signals are given or steps taken in a particular situation.

By studying the drawing and following the discussion, readers will be better

able to operate, adjust, repair, or order parts for equipment. Drawings are

especially helpful when giving instructions. Drawings have two advantaged

over photographs: (1) as little or as much detail as necessary may be included

in a drawing and (2) a drawing can show interior as well as exterior views,

which may be important when the reader must understand what is going on

under the case, housing or hood.



Computer Graphics

With computer graphics software, writers can locate, create, edit and

position in documents visually all of the kinds of visuals discussed above. A

presentation graphics package guides you through the process of inputting

data and selecting the way to display them. Raw data is plugged into the

computer software (or data already stored in the database or from a spread

sheet program.) The computer then plots the data into the correct chart,

graph or table.

5.6. WRITING PROPOSALS

Introduction

Writing a proposal for a sponsored activity such as a research project or a

curriculum development program is a problem of persuasion. It is well to

assume that your reader is a busy, impatient, skeptical person who has no

reason to give your proposal special consideration and who is faced with

many more requests than he can grant, or even read thoroughly. Such a

reader wants to find out quickly and easily the answers to these questions.

• What do you want to do, how much will it cost, and how much time will it

take?

• How does the proposed project relate to the sponsor’s interests?

• What difference will the project make to: your university, your students,

your discipline, the state, the nation, the world, or whatever the

appropriate categories are?

• What has already been done in the area of your project?

• How do you plan to do it?

• How will the results be evaluated?

• Why should you, rather than someone else, do this project?

These questions will be answered in different ways and receive different

emphases depending on the nature of the proposed project and on the agency



to which the proposal is being submitted. Most agencies provide detailed

instructions or guidelines concerning the preparation of proposals (and, in

some cases, forms on which proposals are to be typed); obviously, such

guidelines should be studied carefully before you begin writing the draft.

5.6.1 The Parts of a Proposal

Proposals for sponsored activities generally follow a similar format, although

there are variations depending upon whether the proposer is seeking

support for a research grant, a training grant, or a conference or curriculum

development project. The following outline and explanation chiefly

concern the components of a research proposal. This section concludes

with a discussion of certain variations in format required if one is seeking

support for other kinds of academic programs.

A. Research Proposals

Typical parts of a research proposal are:

Title (or Cover) Page, Abstract, Table of Contents, Introduction (including

Statement of Problem, Purpose of Research, and Significance of Research)

Background (including Literature Survey), Description of Proposed

Research (including Method or Approach), Description of Relevant

Institutional Resources, List of References, Personnel Budget

The Title (or Cover) Page.

Most sponsoring agencies specify the format for the title page, and some

provide special forms to summarize basic administrative and fiscal data for

the project. Generally, the principal investigator, his or her department head,

and an official representing the University sign the title page. In addition, the

title page usually includes the University’s reference number for the

proposal, the name of the agency to which the proposal is being submitted,

the title of the proposal, the proposed starting date and budget period, the

total funds requested, the name and address of the University unit

submitting the proposal, and the date submitted. Some agencies want the

title page to specify whether the proposal is for a new or continuing project.



And some ask to which other agencies the proposal is being submitted.

A good title is usually a compromise between conciseness and explicitness.

Although titles should be comprehensive enough to indicate the nature of

the proposed work, they should also be brief. One good way to cut the

length of titles is to avoid words that add nothing to a reader’s

understanding, such as “Studies on...,” “Investigations...,” or “Research on

Some Problems in....”

The Abstract

Every proposal, even very brief ones, should have an abstract. Some

\readers read only the abstract, and most readers rely on it initially to give

them a quick overview of the proposal and later to refresh their memory of

its main points. Agencies often use the abstract alone in their compilations

of research projects funded or in disseminating information about

successful projects.

Though it appears first, the abstract should be written last, as a concise

summary (approximately 200 words) of the proposal. It should appear on

a page by itself numbered with a small Roman numeral if the proposal has a

table of contents and with an Arabic number if it does not.

To present the essential meaning of the proposal, the abstract should

summarize or at least suggest the answers to all the questions mentioned in

the Introduction above, except the one about cost (which is excluded on

the grounds that the abstract is subject to a wider public distribution than

the rest of the proposal). Certainly the major objectives of the project and

the procedures to be followed in meeting these objectives should be

mentioned.

The abstract speaks for the proposal when it is separated from it, provides

the reader with his first impression of the request, and, by acting as a

summary, frequently provides him also with his last. Thus it is the most

important single element in the proposal.

The Table of Contents. Very brief proposals with few sections ordinarily

do not need a table of contents; the guiding consideration in this is the reader’s



convenience. Long and detailed proposals may require, in addition to a

table of contents, a list of illustrations (or figures) and a list of tables. If all of

these are included, they should follow the order mentioned, and each should

be numbered with lower-case Roman numerals. If they are brief, more than

one can be put on a single page.

The table of contents should list all major parts and divisions (including

the abstract, even though it precedes the table of contents). Subdivisions

usually need not be listed.

The Introduction. The introduction of a proposal should begin with a

capsule statement of what is being proposed and should then proceed to

introduce the subject to a stranger. You should not assume that your reader

is familiar with your subject. Administrators and program officers in

sponsoring agencies want to get a general idea of the proposed work

before passing the proposal to reviewers who can judge its technical merit.

Thus the introduction should be comprehensible to an informed layman. It

should give enough background to enable him to place your particular

research problem in a context of common knowledge and should show how

its solution will advance the field or be important for some other work. Be

careful not to overstate, but do not neglect to state very specifically what

the importance of your research is.

In introducing the research problem, it is sometimes helpful to say what it is

not, especially, if it could easily be confused with related work. You may

also need to explain the underlying assumption of your research or the

hypotheses you will be using.

If the detailed exposition of the proposed research will be long or complex,

the introduction may well end by specifying the order and arrangement of

the sections. Such a preview helps a reviewer begin his reading with an

orderly impression of the proposal and the assurance that he can get from it

what he needs to know.

The general tone of the introduction should reflect a sober self-confidence.

A touch of enthusiasm is not out of place, but extravagant promises are

anathema to most reviewers.



The Description of Proposed Research. The comprehensive

explanation of the proposed research is addressed not to laymen but to

other specialists in your field. This section, which may need several

subsections, is, of course, the heart of the proposal and is the primary

concern of the technical reviewers. Research design is a large subject and

cannot be covered here, but a few reminders concerning frequently

mishandled aspects of proposals may be helpful.

1. Be realistic in designing the program of work. Overly optimistic notions

of what the project can accomplish in one, two, or three years or of its

effects on the world will only detract from the proposal’s chances of

being approved. Probably the comment most frequently made by

reviewers is that the research plans should be scaled down to a more

specific and more manageable project that will permit the approach to

be evaluated and that, if successful, will form a sound basis for further

work. In other words, your proposal should distinguish clearly between

long-range research goals and the short-range objectives for which

funding is being sought. Often it is best to begin this section with a short

series of explicit statements listing each objective, in quantitative terms

if possible.

2. If your first year must be spent developing an analytical method or

laying groundwork, spell that out as Phase 1. Then at the end of the

year you will be able to report that you have accomplished something

and are ready to undertake Phase II.

3. Be explicit about any assumptions or hypotheses the research method

rests upon.

4. Be clear about the focus of the research. In defining the limits of the

project, especially in exploratory or experimental work, it is helpful to

pose the specific question or questions the project is intended to

answer.

5. Be as detailed as possible about the schedule of the proposed work.

When will the first step be completed? When can subsequent steps be

started? What must be done at each stage, and what can be done at the



same time? For complex projects, a calendar detailing the projected at

each stage sequence and interrelationship of events often gives the

sponsor assurance that the investigator is capable of careful step-by-

step planning.

6. Be specific about the means of evaluating the data or the conclusions.

Try to imagine the questions or objections of a hostile critic and show

that the research plan anticipates them.

7. Be certain that the connection between the research objectives and the

research method is evident. If a reviewer fails to see this connection, he

will probably not give your proposal any further consideration. It is

better here to risk stating the obvious than to risk the charge that you

have not thought carefully enough about what your particular methods

or approach can be expected to demonstrate.

The Description of Relevant Institutional Resources. The nature of

this section depends on your project, of course, but in general this section

details the resources available to the proposed project and, if possible,

shows why the sponsor should wish to choose this University and this

investigator for this particular research. Some relevant points may be the

institution’s demonstrated competence in the pertinent research area, its

abundance of experts in related areas that may indirectly benefit the project,

its supportive services that will directly benefit the project, and its unique or

unusual research facilities or instruments available to the project.

References

If a list of references is to be included, it is placed at the end of the text

proper and before the sections on personnel and budget. The items should

be numbered and should be in the order in which they are first referred to in

the text. In contrast to an alphabetical bibliography, authors’ names in a list

of references should not be reversed.

In the text, references to the list can be made in various ways; a simple way

is to use a raised number at the appropriate place, like this.1 Such numbers

should be placed outside any contiguous marks of punctuation.



The style of the bibliographical item itself depends on the disciplinary field.

The main consideration is consistency; whatever style is chosen should be

followed scrupulously throughout.

The Personnel Section. This section usually consists of two parts: an

explanation of the proposed personnel arrangements and the biographical

data sheets for each of the main contributors to the project. The

explanation should specify how many persons, at what percentage of time

and in what academic categories will be participating in the project. If the

program is complex and involves people from other departments or

colleges, the organization of the staff and the lines of responsibility should

be made clear.

Any student participation, paid or unpaid, should be mentioned, and the

nature of the proposed contribution detailed. If any persons must be hired

for the project, say so, and explain why, unless the need for persons not

already available within the University is self-evident.

The biographical data sheets should follow immediately after the

explanatory text of the “ personnel” section, unless the agency guidelines

specify a different format. For extremely large program proposals with eight

or more participants, the data sheets may be given separately in an

appendix. All biographical data sheets within the proposal should be in a

common format. A convenient, easily read format is illustrated in the sample

following this item. These sheets should be confined to relevant information.

Data on marital status, children, hobbies, civic activities, etc., should not be

included unless the sponsor’s instructions call for them. The list of

publications can be selected either for their pertinence to the proposed work

or for their intrinsic worth. All books written and a selection of recent or

important journal articles written may well be listed, but there is no need to

fill several pages with a bibliography. The list can be labeled “Selected

Publications,” “Recent Publications,” or “Pertinent Publications,”

whichever best fits the facts.

The Budget Section. The budget should be worked out with the

appropriate project representative. Sponsors customarily specify how

budgets should be presented and what costs are allowable. The overview

given here is for preliminary guidance only.



The budget section may require not only the tabular budget but also a

budget summary and explanation or “budget justification” if the budget is

complicated or if all its details are not made completely clear by the text of

the proposal. The need for consultants, for example, or the unavailability

within the University of an item of equipment proposed for purchase may

need to be explained. Foreign travel should be specifically detailed and

justified, not combined with domestic travel, and the need to travel to

professional meetings should be tied specifically to the proposed project, if

possible.

Typical divisions of the tabular budget are personnel, equipment, supplies,

travel, and indirect costs. Other categories, of course, can be added as

needed. The budget should make clear how the totals for each category of

expenses are reached. Salary information, for example, often needs to be

specified in detail: principal investigator (1/2 time for 3 months at Rs.24,000

[9-month appointment]) = Rs.4,000. If salary totals involve two different

rates (because of an anticipated increase in salary during the budget

period), this should be made clear.

The category of personnel includes not only the base salary or wage for

each person to be employed by the project but also (listed separately) the

percentage added for staff benefits. The current figure used for

approximately the average cost of staff benefits is 30% of the total salaries

and wages. Project representatives should be consulted on the calculation

of staff benefits, because the rate may vary significantly owing to the kinds

of personnel involved and the selected benefit option.

Indirect costs are shown as a separate category, usually as the last item

before the grand total. Indirect costs are figured as a fixed percentage of

the total direct costs .

Research Proposals — The Appendices

Some writers are prone to append peripheral documents of various kinds

to their proposals on the theory that the bulk will buttress their case.

Reviewers almost never read such appendices, and may resent the padding.

The best rule of thumb is: When in doubt, leave it out.



Appendices to proposals are occasionally used for letters of endorsement

or promises of participation, biographical data sheets (when there are too

many—say, eight or more—to be conveniently placed in the “personnel”

section), and reprints of relevant articles.

If two or more appendices are included in a proposal, they should be

designated Appendix A, Appendix B, etc.

Why Proposals Are Rejected

Assuming that funds are available, that geographical distribution is not a

criterion, and that political considerations are not present, the success of a

proposal will depend both on the quality of the project itself and the quality

of its presentation in the proposal. Different reviewers, of course, will weigh

merits and defects differently.

Writing the Proposal

1. Find a sponsor that is interested in funding your idea.

All grant making organizations have mission statements which guide

decision-making on projects to fund. Your job as a proposal writer is to

find sponsors who fund the type of work you want to accomplish. The

more flexible your ideas are, the more likely you are to be funded. You may

need to look at the “bigger picture” outside of your specific area, and ask

yourself how your work can yield benefits to the broader scholarly

community and general public, as well.

Ask yourself the following questions when searching for a potential sponsor:

• Does my work align with the sponsor’s priorities or mission?

• Does it fund projects in my locality?

• Does it fund my applicant-type, i.e., individuals, non-profit or for-profit

organizations?

• Is it making grants this year?

• Does it fund the type of activities in which I need support, e.g.,

publication, presentation, research, equipment, travel?



2. Write a Letter of Inquiry

A sponsor may request that you write a letter (not more than two pages)

describing your idea. Based on this information, it will decide whether you

should apply for a grant. If so, the sponsor will send you an application

package, including guidelines for writing the proposal.

The Letter of Inquiry should include:

• a statement explaining why the sponsor should be interested in your

project, based on its mission and previously funded grants. (This shows

that you are acquainted with the work that the sponsor supports in this

field.) Read its annual report to get this information.

• a brief statement of why this work is important and who will benefit.

• a summary of what the project will accomplish.

• a short description of the duration and activities of the project.

• an estimate of how much you are requesting from the sponsor for the

project. If this is less than the total cost of the project, explain why and

how you will obtain other funds.

• a brief statement of your qualifications (or those of your organization)

in pursuing this work.

• a request for a response and your contact information.

If you know someone on the sponsor’s Board of Directors or staff, it is a

good idea to contact that person for insight into their funding priorities and

procedures. If you have questions about process, call the sponsor’s

Program Officer for clarification; often the Officer will be happy to discuss

your ideas and help evaluate whether you are on target with their funding

programs.

3. Write the Narrative

If your Letter of Inquiry is successful, you should now have the complete

set of guidelines for writing the proposal from the potential sponsor. The



first step is to read the guidelines at least three times. Before you write your

project description, have a very good idea about the sponsor’s

requirements, evaluation criteria it wants included, limits on the proposal

length, topics to cover and in what order, formatting restrictions, deadline

for submission, and how to present the budget. Be sure to follow the

directions.

If the sponsor does not provide an outline, use these guidelines:

A. Summary - no more than 1 page (less is better)

B. Background and Significance of Project

C. Goals and Objectives (What do you plan to accomplish?)

D. Planned Activities (include a time line for accomplishing major

activities)

E. Resources (staff and physical capabilities)

F. Evaluation Plan (to determine whether you have accomplished your

objectives)

G. Budget (cover all aspects of the work and be realistic)

H. Appendices (these usually include letters of support and resumes of

key personnel)

4. Special considerations

Cost Sharing: Many sponsors are willing to fund a portion of the cost of

the project, and want the applicant to come up with money or other

resources to accomplish the rest of the project. Other resources (or “in

kind” contributions) may include such items as staff or volunteer time spent

on the project, equipment/materials, or space. Cost sharing may come from

other sponsors. Some projects may receive a donation from a local

business or community foundation if the employees or citizens either

partake in, or are invited to attend, an event. Be resourceful!

Significance: It is especially important to show how someone will benefit

from this work, and how this project is unique, innovative, or fills a gap. If

work similar to your’s exists, acknowledge it and explain how your work is

different, better, or serves other constituencies.



Expertise: is important to all grant proposals. You need to show that you

are well-qualified (with your training and experience) to accomplish your

objectives. In the case of interdisciplinary work, the sponsor assumes that

more than one expert will be involved in key staff roles. Frequently

applications are strengthened when outside expertise is brought in for a

portion of the work, e.g., evaluation, technical assistance, community

involvement. These positions should be part of the budget, either as

consultants or staff.

Dissemination: is also an important way to share your work with the

public. If the sponsor includes dissemination in its evaluation criteria, be

sure to make it a specific objective of the project, and include these

activities in the budget.

Planned Activities: The planned activities, or work plan, section describes

when, where, and how your objectives will be met. You will want to describe:

• the sequence of activities you will perform in order to accomplish your

objectives

• a rationalization for your plans if you have selected among options

• the major responsibilities of the key participants

• a time line with major accomplishments scheduled

• a management plan, if appropriate

• a description of how other groups will collaborate

• a discussion of anticipated roadblocks, and how you will deal with them

Peer Evaluation: Share your proposal draft with peers for evaluation. Ask

them for feedback about your ideas, and about the clarity and readability of

the text.

Chances for Funding: Remember that most grant applications do not get

funded the first time around. Usually, the applicant will receive feedback

from the sponsor about the initial, unsuccessful attempt, along with an offer

to revise and resubmit the proposal. If your sponsor has not sent you a

written evaluation report, do not hesitate to call the Program Officer to

discuss why you did not get funded, and what you might do to improve your

chances at another time.



5.6.2 SALES PROPOSAL

Writing a sales proposal is a very important step in gaining a new client, or

selling to a current one.

To effectively sell a proposal, you need to structure the document

logically, clearly, and persuasively. Most sales proposals are structured as

follows:

• Executive Summary

• Description of Proposed Product or Service

• Benefits to Prospective Client

• Value Proposition to Prospective Client

• Conclusion

The following are brief descriptions on each organizational element.

Executive Summary

The executive summary is the most important, yet most overlooked

proposal component. It’s a separate, stand-alone section at the beginning

of your proposal that introduces your organization, summarizes what you

will do for the prospect, and persuades the prospect to select your

company.

The executive summary most likely is the very first section the prospect will

read in your proposal. The prospect’s first impression of your company is

formed from this section and you want it to be the best. Keep your summary

focused on the prospect and the benefits of your product, and keep it short.

Depending upon the size and complexity of your proposal, plan to write

approximately 1-2 pages per 25 pages of the proposal.

Description of Proposed Product or Service

This section provides specific details about your recommended product.

Approach this section by anticipating the questions the prospect will ask

about your product. Thoroughly describe the product features and

functionality, how you will implement it, how long it will take, and what

resources you and the prospect needs for implementation. You also might

want to talk about staff training, product testing, and any other components

that show the value your company brings with the product.



Benefits to Prospective Customer

It is important to highlight the benefits of your product in its own section and

not to include them with the description of the product. The prospect will

want your product if the benefits clearly meet their needs. Placing the

benefits in a separate section calls attention directly to the benefits and

enables you to focus on persuasively selling these points. A good technique

is to provide the benefits in a numbered or bulleted list with concise and

detailed descriptions of each benefit

Value Proposition to Prospective Customer

Most businesses differentiate themselves from the competition by the

overall value their product provides. Focus on what makes your product

unique in the marketplace so that it truly differentiates your company from

the competition.

Avoid using worn-out, clichéd approaches by using the “So What?” test.

For example, if your value statement is “Our product increases efficiency

by 20%,” imagine the prospect asking you, “So what?” Your response might

be, “This enables your company to reduce overhead expenses by

approximately $25,000 in the first year, which is the same amount you

invested in our product - it pays for itself.”

Now that’s your value proposition — the increased efficiencies translate

into real cost savings for the prospect in the first year.

· Conclusion

The conclusion to a proposal enables you to provide a quick summary of

your proposal highlights and state what you would like the next steps to be

in the process. For example, your final sentence can state, “I will contact

you by April 15, 2004, to review this proposal with you and answer any

questions you may have”.



Example

XYZ Fishing Tackle Company Sales Proposal

Theme And Intro

The development of an effective sales proposal must have measurable

objectives. The ultimate goal for ABC marketing company is to produce

sales and profits via XYZ Fishing Tackle Company’s advertising

investment. Four specific areas were given consideration, and they are:

• Competitive Pressures And Advertising Activities

• The Setting Of Attainable Reach And Frequency Goals

• Creative Considerations

• Budget

Current Situation

Fresh and saltwater fisherman are closely related and within the range of

seven to 65+ years. However, the primary audience for advertising

activity is the 25 to 54 year range and comprises 48.8% of the total

market. This market includes both men and women with two-thirds of the

participants in sport fishing being male. Most frequent fishing is done by

those whose income levels are between $15,000 and $50,000 per year.

Geographically, the South and North Central regions of the country have

the largest and most frequent fresh water sport fishing activity followed

by the Western and Northeastern areas of the country.

Objectives

The objectives are to select the media which prove to be the most cost

efficient and to design hard-hitting advertising to assure the message will

reach the target audiences with sufficient frequency to provide

memorability. Further objectives include selecting media which will

synergistically support the creative strategy and create a media mix which

will allow each medium to exercise its full potential to generate sales and

deliver the sales message in a stimulating manner.



Approach

According to our experience and thorough research, we will evaluate

radio as a primary medium. It is a semi-intrusive medium offering very

distinct advantages, one of which is to sharply define a demographic

target without excessive spillover. By carefully researching station

formats and audience analysis figures, we can reach predetermined age

and income levels of potential purchasers.

We will also evaluate print because this medium will strategically support

radio and can offer the opportunity to effectively segment the market both

demographically and psycho-graphically at reasonable costs. The use of

magazines that focus on trade and consumer, and local newspapers will

maximize the print effort.

Television, too, will be considered as it is a medium that works effectively

at the highest level of intrusion and emotional stimulation. This medium

has an enviable track record for launching new products and is universally

used to introduce broad consumption products and services.

Deliverable

Weekly progress reports will be submitted to the individual appointed as

our key contact, and a final presentation given to senior management at

the conclusion of the project.

Benefits

A thorough analysis of your market and of the media to reach that market

will help to properly allocate your promotional budget to get the fullest

utilization of your marketing dollars. This planned marketing approach

will synergistically result in the fullest coverage and deepest penetration

possible with your current budget. Also, since we are one of the largest

and oldest marketing firms specializing in the fishing industry, we have

contracts with some of the popular magazines, radio and television

stations. This enables us to negotiate the best media rates for our

customers.

Costs

We are pleased to offer the following quotations for the necessary work



to be done. The costs for running on radio and television will be supplied

once frequency and choice of broadcast stations is finalized. The costs to

produce a series of six radio spots, 60 seconds in length will be

Rs.1,30,000 which includes scripting, narration, talent fees, music rights,

production and post production. These spots can be completed within six

days of final script approval.

The costs to produce two full-color, full-page ads to run in Fisherman

Today and Sports Fishing magazine, a combined circulation of over 2.8

million readers, will be Rs.87,958.00 including photography, copy,

layout, and finished film to be shipped to the publication. The time to

complete the production of the print ads will be 4 weeks from approval of

layout, copy and photography. The cost of running the ads in both

publications, six times will be Rs.93448.00 which is commissionable at

the rate of 15%.

We will produce a series of six 30 second spots for television. The cost

will be Rs.3,20,000 and will include concept, scripting, talent, narration,

music rights, location selection, production, post-production, special

effects and master tapes in acceptable formats to the television stations.

Production can be started within seven days after receiving a signed

purchase order and a check for payment of one third of the costs for each

item included.

Closing

We have been in the marketing and advertising industry for sixty-one years.

We have been successful at promoting products for Sea Witch Power

Boats, Bensons Buoys, Daiwa Fishing Reels and Strarkweather Fishing

Rods in Australia. We know the industry as well as the market and are

ready to help you get your market share.

We want to thank you for your consideration as well as your cooperation

in assembling the information needed to do a thorough study of your

company’s objectives and goals. If you have any questions, whatsoever,

please feel free to call me at (555)555-1000.



Review Questions

1. What are the six steps to follow to create good visuals?

2. What are some good ways to find stories to convey your data?

3. What are paired graphs?

4. What is the difference between tables and figures?

5. Briefly explain how each of the following should be used:

Tables

Pie chart

Bar chart

Line graph

Dot chart

Photographs

Drawings

Sketches

Maps

Gannt charts

6. What four items does the title page of a report usually contain?

7. How does one determine what headings should be included in the Table

of Contents of a report?

8. How should a transmittal be organized?

9. How do summary, descriptive, and mixed abstracts differ?

10. What are the characteristics of a good executive summary?



11. How do information reports, analytical reports, and recommenda-

tion reports differ?

12. What three things must a good purpose statement make clear?

13. What six questions must a good proposal answer?

14. What four things must a proposal for a class research project prove?

15. How should a cover letter for a sales proposal be organized?

16. What should a proposal for funding stress?

17. What three ways may a progress report be organized?

18. What function can positive emphasize play in a progress report?

19. What factors can help you decide whether to use a Web site as a

source in a research project?

20. How do surveys, questionnaires, and interviews differ?

21. What four criteria should good surveys and questionnaires fulfill?

22. How do closed questions and open questions differ?

Review Quiz

1. Which of the following reports is an example of an informational report?

a. A report that shows a manufacturing firm has complied with

environmental regulations.

b. A report that tries to convince the board of directors to offer on-site

child care.

c. A report that compares three possible solutions to solving a

company’s turnover problem.

d. A memo report that provides three alternatives to the company’s

order processing system and tries to persuade management to adopt

the best one.



2. The first step in writing a report is to:

a. prepare a work plan.

b. implement your research strategy.

c. compose the first draft.

d. analyze the problem and purpose.

3. A good work plan for a business research project should include a

statement of the problem, a statement of purpose, a tentative outline,

and a:

a. list of visual aids.

b. list of all primary and secondary resources.

c. research strategy.

d. deadline for submission of the work plan.

4. Visual aids in written and oral reports are useful to clarify, condense,

and ________ data.

a. magnify

b. formulate

c. expand

d. simplify

5. Which of the following is the best visual aid for showing the procedure

to follow to handle a customer return?

a. Pie graph

b. Photograph

c. Flow chart

d. Table



6. State wheter the following statements are true or false

i. As long as you paraphrase the information you find during your re-

search, you don’t have to document it.

True

False

ii. The major advantage of line charts is that they show changes over time,

thus indicating trends.

True

False

iii. Probably the most frequently used graphic in reports is a pie graph

True

False

iv. Documenting data presented in a research report lends credibility to

your findings.

True

False

v. Primary data can be generated from surveys, interviews, observation,

and experimentation.

True

False