damming the rain forest- the social and environmental costs of hydro power in the amazon
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DammingtheRainforest:
TheSocialandEnvironmentalCostsof
HydropowerintheAmazon
JustinCalles
Anthropology11SC
11October2010
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ABSTRACT
Recentlarge-scaledamproposalsintheAmazonrainforestpromptanalysisofhowtropical
damsaffecttheenvironmentandrainforestsocieties.Inadditiontobeingmassivelyexpensive,
damsunleashaplethoraofenvironmentalproblems,includingunexpectedlyhighamountsof
greenhousegasemissions.Theyalsohavehistoriesofdisturbingindigenoussocietiesandseverely
harmingnon-indigenouspeasantcommunitiesinwaysthatonlyexacerbatedeforestation.Seeing
hydropowerinthetropicsasagreensourceofenergymustbestoppedinordertohalt
hydropowersdestructiveprogress.
INTRODUCTION
DamsthathavebeenoperatingfordecadesincludingtheTucuruDamandCuru-Una
Dam,whichthispaperwillfocusonprovideatroveofinformationabouthowdamsoperateina
tropicalrainforestenvironment.Hydroelectricdamsrequiretheloodingoftheriverupstream
fromthedam,creatingareservoirthatdestroyshabitats,displacescommunities,creates
counterproductivesiltbuild-up,disruptsishmigration,
andthreatensindigenousreservations(LaRovere2000:
50-51,113-120).Considerablelocalenvironmental
degradationalsocomesfrompollutantsreleasedduring
theconstructionprocess.Increasedsettlingtothedam
areaafterconstructionleadstodeforestationand
increasedpressureonneighboringindigenousreserves.
Thelessobviousbutpossiblymorepotently
devastatingenvironmentalconsequenceofrainforest
damsisthelargeamountofmethanetheyarecapableof
emittingintotheatmosphere.Decomposingorganic
matterwithinarainforestdamsreservoirproduces
methane,andreleasesintotheatmospherethrough
bubbling,diffusion,turbineandspillwayemissions,and
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Fig.1.TheTambopataRiver,relativelyclosetothe
locationoftheproposedInambariDam(D.Schwartz).
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fromtheriverdownstream(Fearnside2005:675;Gurin2006:1).Becauseofthetendencyof
rainforestreservoirstohavelargedrawdownzones,theyarecapableofperpetuallyproducingand
emittingmethane.Furthermore,consideringthecarbondioxideequivalentsofthesemethane
emissions,studieshaverevealedthatAmazoniandamsemitmoregreenhousegasesthanwould
havebeenemittedfromsimilarlyproductiveburningoffossilfuels(Fearnside2005:686).
BACKGROUND
ProposalsfornewhydroelectricdamsintheAmazonBasinhasexperiencedaconsiderable
resurgenceinthepastdecade,duemostlytoBrazilsgrowingdemandforenergy,whichhascalled
fortheplanningofnewmulti-billion-dollarprojectsthatcanprovidemanythousandsofmegawatts
ofpower.Thisechoesthehydroelectricityboomfrom1969to1979,whenhydroelectricoutput
tripled,helpingbringhydroelectricitytothepointofproducing84%ofBrazilselectricityby2007
(Barrow1988:67;WorldNuclearAssn.2010).Theproposed2000megawatt(MW)InambariDam
isonesuchexample.EstimatedtocostUS$4billion,theInambariDamwouldbelocatedinthe
bufferzoneofPerusBahuaja-SoneneNationalParkandwouldbebuiltprimarilytopowerfar-away
Brazilianurbancenters.Itwouldalsolood400squarekilometersincludingthevillageof
InambariattheconluenceofRioMadredeDiosandRioInambariaswellaportionofthenewly
builtInter-OceanicHighwayanditwoulddisplaceover3,200locals(Barrera-Hernndez2009).
Similarprojectsinvaryingdegreesofsize,governmentalapproval,andconstruction
progressexistthroughouttheAmazonregion,mostnotablyincludingtherecentlyapprovedBelo
MonteDamonBrazilsXinguRiverandtheRioMadierahydroelectriccomplexattheborderof
Brazil,Peru,andBolivia.Hydroelectricdamssuchasthesearetoutedasnon-pollutingsourcesof
electricitythatcanprovidemuch-neededemploymentandinfrastructureforsparselyinhabited
regions(Giles2006:524;Fearnside1999:492).ItiseasyforacitizenofthedevelopedNorth,
inluencedbyromanticnotionsoftheingenuityandeficiencyofHooverDamandtheTennessee
ValleyAuthority,toseehydroelectricdamsintheAmazonasapproachestoproducingenergythat
arebothconservation-mindedandeconomicallystimulating.Twodecadesofevidence,however,
pointsintheoppositedirection.NotonlyhavehydroelectricprojectsinAmazonprovidedonly
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minimalemploymentrelativetotheirmassivecosts,thevariousenvironmentalcostsofrainforest
damsdispelanyideathattheyarenon-polluting.Furthermore,indigenousgroupssufferdirectly
andindirectlyfromtheintroductionofdamsneartheirlands.
HYPOTHESES
UsingestablishedcasestudiesofexistingAmazoniandamsofvaryingsizeandage,this
paperwillprovideevidencefortheenvironmentalandecologicaldestruction,methaneemissions,
anddetrimentaleffectstoAmazoniancommunitiescausedbydams.Thegoalofthiscasestudy
synthesisistoreverseanymisconceptionsabouttheeffecttropicalrainforestdamshaveontheir
localenvironmentandonglobalgreenhousegasemissions.Thispapersprimaryhypothesesabout
Amazoniandamsareasfollows:
1. RiverdisruptionandloodingintheAmazoncausedbytheconstructionofdamsandilling
ofreservoirshaveendangeredlocalecosystems;
2. Damprojectsfailtohelptheirsurroundingregionssociallyoreconomicallybecausethey
involvethecostlyrelocationofcommunitiesanddontthemselvesprovideenough
employmenttomakeaconsiderablelocalimpactfromadevelopmentperspective;
3. Damprojectsjeopardizeordirectlyloodindigenousreserves,irreversiblyendangering
indigenouspeopleslivelihoods,cultures,andchancesforsurvival;
4. Thecarbondioxideandmethanereleasedfromhydropowerprojectsproducemorepotent
greenhousegaseffectsthanfromburningfossilfuels.
METHODS
Asmentioned,thispaperwillprimarilyusecasestudyindingfromtheTucurDamonthe
TocantinsRiverineasternpartoftheAmazonianstateofPar,BrazilandtheCuru-UnaDamonthe
Curu-UnaRiverinwesternPar,Brazil.TucuruDamopenedin1984andCuru-Unawas
completedin1977,sothedamshavebeenoperatinglongenoughfordatatobecollected.Their
builtcapacitiesandreservoirsizesdifferconsiderably,allowingformorevarietyofresearch
indings:Tucurihasa3,960MWinstalledcapacitywitha2,430km2reservoirsurfaceareaand
Curu-Unahasa64MWinstalledcapacitywitha65km2reservoirreservoirsurfacearea.Other
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damswillbebrielyconsideredforcomparison,includingthePetitSautDaminFrenchGuianaand
BalbinaandSamuelDamsinBrazil.
TheTucurucasestudieswillprovideinformationaboutlocalenvironmentalconcernsas
wellastheeffectthedamprojecthadonindigenousandnon-indigenouscommunities.Studieson
Curu-Unawillallowforamoredetailedexplanationofmethaneandcarbondioxideemissions
fromAmazoniandamswhichcanbeextrapolatedtolargerdamslikeTucuruandfuturedam
projectsthroughoutthetropicalrainforest.
Finally,theseindingswillprovideabasisforassessinghowproposedfutureAmazonian
damprojectsmayaffecttheenvironmentandhumanpopulations.Thispaperwillconcludewith
recommendationsforassessingfutureprojectsandwillattempttosuggestalternativesto
hydropowerintheAmazon.
FINDINGS
Environmentalimpacts(TucuruDam)
AlthoughTucuruDamisnotlocatedinabiologicalhotspotsuchasthatofthetransitional
elevationrainforestregionsofsoutheastPeru,itisstillwithinthehumidAmazonrainforest,
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Fig.2.MapofTucuruandCuru-UnaDams(GoogleMaps).
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allowingtheregiontosupportincredibleamountsofbiodiversity.Priortolooding,theregion
containedparticularlyrichpopulationsofBrazilNuttreesandlianas(Barrow1988:73).
Unfortunately,becauseofinadequateassessmentsoftheloraandfaunapriortotheconstructionof
dam,duetoboththesheervolumetospeciestocatalogandtoinsuficientresourcesallocatedfor
suchassessment,thefulleffectofwildlifelosswillremainunknown.Howmanatees,riverdolphins,
Amazondolphins,turtles,andcaimanshavefaredwithintheriverwillremainundocumented,but
thereislittledoubtthattheirpopulationswillsufferwithalteredbreedinghabitats,stunted
migratoryroutes,andhigherhydrogensulphidecontentinwatercontainingdecomposingorganic
matter(Barrow1988:73).
Asistypicalwithlargetropicalrain
forestdams,theareaupstreamfromTucuru
Damsreservoirwasfarfrombeingfully
deforestedpriortoinundationeasier.Inthecase
ofTucuru,somechemicaldefoliants(350drums
ofPCP)wereusedtoclearvegetation,someof
whichleakedintotheenvironment,leadingto
reportedhumanandlivestockdeaths(Barrow
1998:70).Furthermore,thisisconsiderablerisk
chemicalenvironmentalpollutionfromnearby
aluminumplantsthatTucurudirectlypowers
(buildingdamstohelppowerdestructivemining
activitiesiscommonintheBrazilianAmazon).
Finally,anespeciallypotentformof
environmentaldestructioncomesfromincreased
settlementthatisencouragedaroundthe
Tucurureservoirarea.Figure3illustratesthedeforestationthatoccurredwithinthetenyears
afterstartingconstructionofthedam;theredontheleftimageindicatesintactforest,thegreenand
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Fig.3.Tucuru,beforeandafter(NASA/InternationalRivers).
Fig.4.Deforestationobservedfromabove(D.Schwartz).
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parallellinesontherightsignifydeforestationpatterns.Deforestationcausedbyincreasedhuman
pressureunsurprisinglycauseslossofhabitatandincreasederosion(seeigure4fordeforestation
observedclose-up)(LaRovere2000:50).
Indigenousandnon-indigenouscommunities(TucuruDam)
TheParakanaretheprimaryindigenousgrouptofocusonwhenassessinghowTucuru
hasaffectedindigenouspopulations.TheTucurureservoirlooded38,700hectaresofParakan
land,soBrazilsIndianagency,FUNAI,wascontractedtoaidintheresettlementprocess.Thestrain
ofpersistentandinadequateresettlementeventuallycausedpartsofthegrouptosplitup,causinga
breakdownoflong-standingsocialrelationships.Afteryearsofpoorlyorchestratedresettlement,
theParakanprotestedformoreservicesandeventuallyreceivedfrommoreaidfromFUNAIfor
communitydevelopment,whichincludedschoolingandhealthcenters(LaRovere2000:xvi).
AlthoughFUNAIsaidprogramfailedtoinvolvetheParakanthemselvesinthedecision-making
processandusedanaidmodelbasedmoreonassimilationthanculturalpreservation,FUNAIsaid
helpedincreasethesizeandhealthoftheParakan.
Still,communitydevelopmentaidcameonlytotheParakanaftertheythreatenedtoblock
theTrans-AmazonianHighwayandblowbridges.Protestbyindigenousgroupsisamongtheirst
reactionstodamproposals;itwas,afterall,toprotestAmazoniandamsthatanthropologistDarrell
PoseyfamouslybroughtPayakanoftheKayaptoFlorida.AfteragatheringinAltamirain1989,
buildingofAmazoniandamsbecameanissueofbothenvironmentalconcernandinternational
humanrights(Forline2010:29).
Outsideofindigenousland,theTucuri
Damcaused170kmoffederalhighway,ten
schools,andthirteenvillagestobesubmerged
(LaRovene2000:79).Anestimated35,000
peoplewereestimatedtohavebeendisplaced,
whoseproblemswereexacerbatedbytherural
settlementtotheregion,whichincreasedby
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Fig.5.Road-building;oftenaccompaniesdams(J.Calles).
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threemethodsreleasingthevastmajorityofthemethane(Farrr2007:6-8).Becausethe
reservoirsconstantlyloodandre-lood,themethaneproductioncouldcontinueindeinitely.
Methaneisanespeciallyundesirableemissionbecauseitis21timesmorepotentthan
carbondioxide,givingit7.6timesmoreimpactonglobalwarmingthancarbondioxide(Fearnside
2005:681).Whenthemethaneemissionsmeasured13yearsaftertheillingoftheCuru-Una
reservoirareconvertedtoequivalentcarbondioxideemissions,itbecomesclearthatthenetcarbon
emissionsfromCuru-Unaactuallyexceedwhatwouldhavebeenreleasedifthesameamountof
energyproducedatCuru-Unaduringthattimewasproducedwiththeburningoffossilfuels.
Table1liststhesecarbon-equivalentemissions,addscarbonemissionsfromaerobicdecayofforest
biomass(suchasfromtreeslefttodecayabovethereservoirswaterline),andtakesintoaccount
ecosystemluxes.Whereasburningfossilfuelswouldhaveemittedabout40,000tonnesCO2-
equivalentcarbon,thedamproducedabout140,000tonnes.Fearnsidesanalysisconcludesthat3.6
timesmorecarbonwasreleasedfromCuru-Unathanwouldhavebeenreleasedfromfossilfuels;
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Table1.CO2-equivalentmethaneemissionsfromCuru-UnaDamin1990(Fearnside2005:686).
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heestimatesthatinthesameyearTucuruemitted1.82.6times,Balbinaemitted11.6times,and
Samuelemitted22.6timeswhatwouldhavebeenemittedfromfossilfuels(Fearnside2005:687).
Similareffectshavebeenobservedatothertropicalreservoirsfromseparateresearch,
thoughthereisvariationinhowmuchmethaneisreleasedduetotheuncertainnatureof
measuringmethanerelease(Gurin2006:5-6).Onethingremainscertain,however:atAmazonian
damsofvaryingsize,age,andlocation,methaneemissionisapotentyetoverlookedconstantfactor.
CONCLUSIONS
Thesecasestudiesmakeitclearthat
hydroelectricdamsintheAmazonrainforestare
destructivetotheforest,thehumansocietiesliving
aroundthedamandreservoir,andtotheglobalclimate
situationfromthedamsdevastatinggreenhousegas
emissions.Fromaconservationperspective,thelossof
loraandfaunafromlargedamprojectsthreaten
biodiversityandthegreenhousegasemissionsare
inexcusable(seeigure7).Fromadevelopment
perspective,indigenouscommunitieshavetoightto
receiveadequateaid,andeventhataidisaimedat
assimilationratherthanculturalpreservation.Perhaps
theincreasedpressuretheinternationalcommunityhas
placedonBrazilinthepasttwodecadesforprotectingindigenouslandshasputindigenousgroups
inslightlybetterpositiontosurviveafteradamproject.Theymaynotfareaspoorlyas
hypothesized,butincreasedassimilativeforceswillfundamentallyalterindigenouscommunities.
Greatersocialandeconomicdevastationseemstoaflictnon-indigenouspeasantcommunitieswho
donotgetthedegreeoffederalprotectionandaidasindigenousgroupsdo.Largedamprojects
displacetensofthousandsofpeopleandattractruralsettlement,exacerbatingdeforestationaswell
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Fig.7.Forestssurroundingthisoneareunder
threatbyPeruviandamproposals(J.Calles).
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associalunrest.Finally,thesheercostofthedamscomparedtotherelativelyfewjobstheyproduce
renderthempoordevelopmentprojects.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Whatthedevelopedworldmustfirstdoisferventlyresistthegreenwashingofhydropowerin
tropicalareas.PriorevidencemakesitpainfullyclearthathydroelectricdamsintheAmazonhelp
neitherconservationeffortsnoreffortsfordevelopment,sustainableorotherwise.Abadpublicimage
ofAmazonianhydropowercoulddiscourageinvestmentand,ifstrongenough,affectgovernmental
policiesinBrazil,Peru,andotherAmazoniannations.ItistoolatetostoptheconstructionofBeloMonte
Dam,butenoughforcesagainstfuturedamsmayhaltplansforconstructingtheRioMadieracomplex
andtheInambariDaminPeru,locatednearoneoftheworldsgreatesthotspotsofbiodiversity.Andfor
existingdamsandthoseslatedforconstruction,communitydevelopmenteffortsforindigenous
communitiesmustnotbeoverlooked.Inorderforthemtosucceed,theymustinvolvetheindigenous
communitiesdirectlyinthedecision-makingprocessandmustnotassumethatassimilativepractices
arethebestoptionforthegroups.Governmentswillhavetoputconsiderableresourcesintomaking
relocationassmoothaspossiblefornon-indigenouscommunitiesaswell,sincepoorrelocationefforts
onlyleadtoslash-and-burndeforestation.
Butthequestionremains,howwillBrazilsatisfyitsconstantlygrowingdemandforelectricity?
AstudybyWWF-Brazilclaimsthatby2020Brazilcouldcutitsexpecteddemandforelectricityby40%
byinvestmentsinenergyefficiencyequivalentto14BeloMonteDams(Yan2010:11).Whilesuch
investmentsshoulddefinitelybeencouraged,implementationtothatdegreecouldhardlyberealistically
expected.Brazilmustturntootherformsofenergyaswell,includingwind,forwhichBrazils7,400-km
windycoastlinehasgreatpotential.Mostrealistically,perhaps,andwithanodtoGaia-theoristJames
Lovelock,wouldbethedevelopmentofnuclearpower.Technologyexiststoproducelargeamountsof
electricityfromnuclearwithrelativelylowsafetyandenvironmentalrisks.Althoughnuclearhasstalled
inBrazilinthepastduetoshakyeconomicfactors,fundsdivertedfromhydropowerprojectscouldease
nuclearssafeandeffectiveexpansion(WorldNuclearAssn.2010).Therisksinherentwithnuclear
powercannotmatchthedestructivecapabilitiesofexpansionoflarge-scalehydropower.
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