d2.1.2 repository of methodologies, design tools and use cases

D2.1.2: Repository of methodologies, design tools and use cases

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© 2014 IT Innovation and other members of the EINS Consortium

ICT - Information and Communication Technologies

D2.1.2 Repository of methodologies, design

tools and use cases

Due Date of Deliverable: 30/11/2014

Actual Submission Date: 23/12/2014

Revision: Final

Start date of project: December 1st 2011 Duration: 42 months

Organization name of lead contractor for this deliverable: SOTON

Editor: Clare Hooper (SOTON)

Contributors: Clare Hooper (IT Innovation), Bruna Neves (IT Innovation), Jonathan Cave

(UW), Patrick Wüchner (Passau), Andreas Fischer (Passau), Kavé Salamatian (Savoie),

Thanasis Papaioannou (CERTH), Sofie Verbrugge (iMinds), Panayotis Antoniadis (ETH

Zurich), Mike Surridge (IT Innovation)

The authors thank Parag Deshpande for his valuable inputs to this work.

FP7-288021

Network of Excellence in Internet Science


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Project Information

PROJECT

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Network of Excellence in Internet Science

EINS 01/12/2011 42 months

288021 Leandros Tassiulas – CERTH

NoE THEME ICT-2011.1.1: Future Networks

DOCUMENT

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Repository of methodologies, design tools & use cases

Report

D2.1.2

30/11/2014

23/12/2014

Clare Hooper (SOTON)

SOTON, UW, PASSAU, SAVOIE, CERTH, iMinds, ETH

WP2

JRA2: Emergence Theories and Design

SOTON

PU

01/11/2014

-

1

45

FINAL


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TABLE OF CONTENTS

1 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY .................................................................................................................... 4

2 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................ 5

3 IMPROVEMENTS TO THE REPOSITORY .................................................................................... 6

3.1 ADDITION OF NEW APPLICATION CONTEXTS VIA ANALYSIS OF EINS OUTPUTS ................................. 6

3.2 DISTRIBUTION OF METHODS BY APPLICATION CONTEXT ........................................................................ 7

3.3 ADDITION OF WIKI PAGES FOR DISCIPLINES AND APPLICATION CONTEXTS ......................................... 9

3.4 ADDITION OF PUBLICATIONS DATABASE ................................................................................................... 9

4 ADDING METHODS TO THE REPOSITORY ............................................................................ 12

4.1 ADDITION OF NEW METHODS BASED ON WIKIPEDIA SAMPLING ....................................................... 12

4.2 TAXONOMY OF DISCIPLINES AND GAP ANALYSIS OF REPOSITORY ...................................................... 13

4.3 ADDITION OF NEW METHODS BASED ON GAP ANALYSIS ..................................................................... 16

5 METHODOLOGIES AND USE CASES .......................................................................................... 18

5.1 CREATING METHODOLOGIES .................................................................................................................... 18

5.2 CLASSIFYING METHODS ............................................................................................................................ 20

5.3 SAMPLE USE CASES ..................................................................................................................................... 23

5.3.1 Relation between regulator, ISP and OTT in the net neutrality discussion ................ 23

5.3.2 NetHood: The Neighbourhood Game ............................................................................................ 24

6 CONCLUSIONS ................................................................................................................................. 27

7 BIBLIOGRAPHY .............................................................................................................................. 28

ANNEX I: LIST OF METHODS BY APPLICATION CONTEXT AND BY DISCIPLINE .............. 29

7.1 METHODS CLASSIFIED BY APPLICATION CONTEXT .............................................................................. 29

7.2 METHODS CLASSIFIED BY DISCIPLINE .................................................................................................... 29

ANNEX II: METHODS ADDED TO THE JRA2 REPOSITORY BASED ON WIKIPEDIA

SAMPLING ........................................................................................................................................................ 32

ANNEX III: METHODS ADDED TO THE JRA2 REPOSITORY BASED ON GAP ANALYSIS . 40

ANNEX IV: METHODOLOGIES ADDED TO THE JRA2 REPOSITORY ...................................... 45


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1 Executive Summary

EINS JRA2 is about the design of complex, large-scale systems such as the Internet. It bridges

design groups working in Internet Science areas, whether concerning technological, socio-economic or

human factors.

One vehicle to structure, share and make sense of the deep knowledge in this community is the

JRA2 repository of methods, methodologies and exemplars, which pools materials of use throughout

EINS and beyond.

This document describes EINS Deliverable 2.1.2, a description of work done and improvements

made to the JRA2 repository of Internet Science design methods since its first release in EINS D2.1.1.

The design methods are drawn from diverse disciplines including Architecture, Economics, AI, HCI,

Software Engineering, Ethnography, Anthropology, Systems Engineering, Social Science, Health

Sciences, Law, Contemporary History, New Media, Media Studies, Transport, Logistics and Urban

Planning. At the time of writing, the repository contains 47 design methods, 4 design methodologies,

and 2 sample use cases.

The updates since D2.1.1 in this document cover:

an analysis of Internet Science application contexts that led to improved classification of

the methods, introducing additional application contexts based on analysis of the

Internet Science Bibliography;

an analysis of method distribution by application context, revealing which application

contexts are well-represented in the repository;

usability improvements, via production of centralised resources about disciplines,

application contexts and publications;

two complementary processes by which the repository was expanded with fresh design

methods, the first based on Wikipedia Sampling and the second based on a Gap Analysis

to identify which disciplines are less represented in the repository;

an analysis of method distribution by discipline, which fed into the above Gap Analysis;

the addition of design methodologies (which combine several design methods for use in

sequence or some other interconnected way to rigorously address complicated, or

‘wicked’, design problems); and

the addition of sample use cases, demonstrating the application of design methods and

methodologies.

Several annexes detail the methods, methodologies and use cases added to the repository.


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2 Introduction

The EINS JRA2 repository of methodologies, design tools and use cases was established at the

end of 2013 (Hooper, Trossen and Surridge 2014). It contains methods sourced from a diversity of

disciplines such as computer science, economics, psychology and design: all methods are relevant to

problem-solving in the context of large-scale, diverse and complex systems. The methods have been

analysed to facilitate presenting them in a structured, coherent way that facilitates a) navigation and b)

analysis. The repository is an open resource that can be used by the wider design community1

This document describes work done and improvements made to the repository since its release in

EINS D2.1.1. This includes:

an improvement of the previously established classification of methods into application

contexts; an analysis of the distribution of methods according to application context;

usability improvements via creation of resources specific to disciplines, application

contexts and publications (all in Section 3);

the addition of methods to the repository via two complementary approaches (Section 4);

the addition of methodologies (which combine several design methods for use in

sequence or some other interconnected way to rigorously address complicated, or

‘wicked’, design problems) and sample use cases (Section 5).

Conclusions can be found in Section 6, while various annexes describe in detail the new methods

and methodologies.

1 See: http://wiki.internet-science.eu/index.php/Repository_of_design_methods

http://wiki.internet-science.eu/index.php/Repository_of_design_methods


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3 Improvements to the repository

This section describes improvements made to the JRA2 repository of methods since January

2014, when the final update of D2.1.1 was delivered. Section 3.1 describes the analytical work by which

new application contexts were identified and added to the repository, while Section 3.2 describes the

subsequent work to review the mapping between methods and the newly-expanded application

domains. Section 3.3 describes the addition of wiki pages for each discipline and application context,

allowing access to methods sorted by these factors. Finally, Section 3.4 describes the addition of a

publications database, providing a single point of access to all publications contained within the wiki.

3.1 Addition of new application contexts via analysis of EINS outputs

Section 3.1 of the previous deliverable D2.1.1 (Hooper, Trossen and Surridge 2014) describes an

empirical analysis of publications from the field of Web Science. During that process, natural language

processing technologies were used to extract keywords from the assembled publications, and then

graphing and visualisation tools were used to understand the meaning of the resulting network of

keywords, e.g. by using community detection algorithms to identify relevant application contexts. This

work was also published at the 2013 Web Science conference (Hooper, Bordea and Buitelaar 2013).

The decision to base that work on an analysis of Web Science outputs was made for two reasons.

Firstly, the precise delineation between Internet Science and Web Science is not always clear (see

D2.1.1 for more discussion on this point). Secondly, at the time of the previous work, a vast Web

Science data corpus was available, while fewer Internet Science publications existed.

By summer 2014, however, this situation had changed. At this time, a total of 208 publications

were available on the EINS Bibliography2. All but one of these was available in the PDF format

required by the natural language processing tool, either directly within EINS or after some searching

through Google Scholar. For this reason, we chose to conduct an additional analysis of these materials

to generate additional application contexts to complement the original results.

This corpus of 207 Internet Science documents was put through the same process as the previous

corpus of Web Science data: term extraction using Saffron3, followed by visualisation of extracted

terms with Gephi4. Finally, the Louvain community detection algorithm (Blondel, et al. 2008) was run,

finding a total of 60 communities. These discovered ‘communities’ (application contexts) had a very

sparse distribution, exhibiting a long tail where most of the communities were poorly connected and

covered only a very small portion of the graph. For this reason, only application contexts representing

1% of the graph or more were considered, a total of 11/60 detected application contexts.

The 11 resulting application contexts were:

1. Architecture / design (7% of the graph)

2 http://www.internet-science.eu/biblio

3 Saffron is a tool for analysing academic texts. See: http://saffron.deri.ie/

4 A graphing and visualisation tool. See: http://gephi.org/

http://www.internet-science.eu/biblio

http://saffron.deri.ie/

http://gephi.org/


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2. Energy (13% of the graph)

3. Internet governance (11% of the graph)

4. ISPs and network traffic (5% of the graph)

5. Measurement technologies (13% of the graph)

6. Network Science (10% of the graph)

7. Network Science (2) (7% of the graph)

8. Open hardware and infrastructures (5% of the graph)

9. Parking (8% of the graph)

10. Research mobility (3% of the graph)

11. Social Networking (12% of the graph)

Among these 11 application contexts, ‘network science’ appeared twice and ‘social networking’

represent duplicates of the application contexts found in the first iteration of this work, reported in

D2.1.1. For that reason, these two application contexts were discarded. In addition, the ‘research

mobility’ application contexts was found due to references in the corpus of papers to the Research

Mobility aspect of the EINS project, rather than to a bona fide research topic: this term was also

discarded, leaving a total of 8 new application contexts.

The original 6 application contexts were: Information retrieval; Personalised/eLearning;

Semantic web; Social networking; Open data; Machine learning. With the 8 additional contexts found

via the analysis of the Internet Science data corpus, a total of 14 application contexts now exist with

which repository entries can be classified:

1. Architecture / design

2. Energy

3. Information retrieval

4. Internet governance

5. ISPs and network traffic

6. Machine learning

7. Measurement technologies

8. Network Science

9. Open data

10. Open hardware and infrastructures

11. Parking

12. Personalised/eLearning

13. Semantic web

14. Social networking

3.2 Distribution of methods by application context

The previous deliverable D2.1.1 provided an analysis of the distribution of the methods in the

repository (27 methods in total, at that time) according to the six application contexts that had been

identified at that time, with the following results:

1. Information retrieval: 6 methods


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2. Elearning: 0 methods

3. Semantic web: 2 methods

4. Social networking: 12 methods

5. Open data: 1 method

6. Machine learning: 0 methods

After the addition of further methods (described in Section 4.1 and Section 4.3), this analysis was

repeated using the expanded application contexts. The results follow:

1. Architecture / design: 11 methods

2. Energy: 1 method

3. Information retrieval: 6 methods

4. Internet governance: 0 methods

5. ISPs and network traffic: 0 methods

6. Machine learning: 3 methods

7. Measurement technologies: 0 methods

8. Network science: 11 methods

9. Open data: 1 method

10. Open hardware and infrastructures: 0 methods

11. Parking: 1 method

12. Personalised and elearning: 0 methods

13. Semantic web: 1 method

14. Social networking: 13 methods

Gaps are clearly visible in the areas of energy, internet governance, ISPs and network traffic,

measurement technologies, open data, open hardware and infrastructures, parking, personalised and

elearning, and semantic web. Some of these gaps arise from new application contexts that only covered

a small proportion of the graph, notably: energy (7% graph coverage), ISPs and network traffic (5%

graph coverage), open hardware and infrastructures (5% graph coverage), and parking (8% graph

coverage). It is reasonable to expect that a less prominent topic within Internet Science may not have

specific methods or tools associated with it. For this reason, the significant gaps in mapping methods

to application contexts are those observed for the contexts of internet governance, measurement

technologies, open data, elearning and the semantic web.

The next logical step for the work is to get a review of the methods by experts in the relevant

areas: it is likely that there is a lack of methods associated specifically with the internet governance

domain, for instance, because the people heavily involved in updating and maintaining the repository

are not actively doing research in this area. It is therefore difficult to be sure that an accurate mapping

has been made.

Once domain experts have reviewed the mappings between methods and application contexts, the

next step is to find additional methods to plug any significant gaps which remain.

The next iteration of this work, D2.1.3, will report on these steps.


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3.3 Addition of wiki pages for disciplines and application contexts

At the time of the first release of the repository of methods (January 2014), webpages existed for

each of the 27 design methods that existed. Each design method was associated with one or more

disciplines and application contexts, but there was no way for a reader to view all methods associated

with one specific discipline or application context.

During the summer of 2014, additional wiki pages were created for each discipline and

application context used to categorise the methods in the repository. Links to these new wiki pages

were added to the front page of the repository website, with Figure 1 showing the first part of the list of

methods as sorted by application context; a similar list exists on the front page of the website showing

methods sorted by discipline.

Figure 1. Information about methods sorted according to application contexts

These additional wiki pages and the links to them from the front page make it possible for

repository users to access methods based on their application context and discipline. The full list of

methods by application context and by discipline can be found in Annex I: List of Methods by

Application Context and by Discipline.

3.4 Addition of publications database

The methods repository contains many relevant publications, but these are split across the

webpages of each individual method. This section describes the process by which we added a

publications database to allow easy access to this previously distributed bibliography.

Requirements

The JRA2 repository, currently located on the EINS wiki, contains a number of references that are

spread over several pages. A common database should include the existing references and allow

researchers to easily add new references as the repository is extended. The requirements for such a

database were therefore:

Easy-to-use interface for entering new publications

Write access for all EINS members

Read access for the general public

One single database, to ensure consistency

Keeping technical hurdles for users low

Results


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Several options for collaborative reference collections were evaluated. Since the repository of

design methods is currently located in the EINS wiki, a wiki plugin would be the first choice. However,

no fitting plugin could be found: available plugins concentrate on managing references per wiki page.

A pure BibTeX approach, on the other hand, had the disadvantage of requiring additional versioning

software (e.g., SVN or GIT) to enable collaborative editing without conflicts. A decision was therefore

made to use the Mendeley reference manager to create a collaborative group for publications related to

this task. Mendeley offers free access to any researcher, and has been running since summer 2008: as

such, it can be viewed as a stable service provider. Additionally, Mendeley’s ‘group’ approach allows

the collaborative collection of publications.

The Mendeley group has been created at http://www.mendeley.com/groups/5142451/eins-jra2-

repository-of-design-methods/ and can be seen in Figure 2. The group contains all conference and

journal publications in the wiki to date (83 papers as of 23 December 2014). It is open to the general

public, allowing every interested researcher to view the papers, while a group of EINS JRA2 members

can add relevant papers when appropriate. The group is linked from the front page of the repository of

design methods, so it can be found quickly.

Figure 2. The publications database


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As an intermediate side product, a BibTeX file containing all references as of 24 November 2014

was prepared. This is available on request.


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4 Adding methods to the repository

This section describes two complementary processes by which the repository of methods was

expanded. Section 4.1 describes a ‘snowball’ approach to sampling Wikipedia pages to add further

methods to the repository based on finding methods related to those that are already present. In

Section 4.2, an approach for analysing the repository disciplines and methods is presented, along with

the results of applying this analysis to the repository. This feeds into Section 4.3, which describes the

use of the findings reported in Section 4.2 to add methods of particular benefit to the repository based

on gaps that were found.

The Wikipedia approach led to the addition of 14 methods, and the gap analysis approach led to

the addition of a further 6 methods, taking the repository from 27 methods (as of January 2014) to a

total of 47 methods.

4.1 Addition of new methods based on Wikipedia Sampling

In order to expand the set of methods in the repository, the following procedure was applied:

1. Use Wikipedia to look up each method already in the repository 2. For each Wikipedia page showing a method, check the “See also” section for any related

methods 3. If pages linked to from the “See also” section look relevant, also check those pages for

related methods

As can be seen in the results below, it was quite common to find no relevant links in the “See also”

section. At other times, topics found were so closely related to the original method that they were

considered to be just an example or an application of the method. Nonetheless, this approach led to

the addition of 14 new methods. The following list of the 27 methods that were in the repository at the

time of the work (July 2014) shows what related methods were found for each method.

1. Affective analysis in microblogs: no related methods.

2. Community detection in social media: no related methods.

3. Contextmapping: no related methods.

4. Creative emergence: no related methods.

5. Creative Problem Solving:

Reinforcement learning - linked from Creativity but too unrelated to design to add to

the repository.

Creativity techniques – added to the repository.

Six Thinking Hats – linked from Creativity techniques, added to the repository.

Brainstorming – linked from Creativity techniques, added to the repository.

Business war games – linked from Creativity techniques, added to the repository.

SWOT analysis – linked from Creativity techniques, added to the repository.

USIT – linked from Creative techniques, added to the repository.

Thought experiment – linked from Creative techniques, but too unrelated to design to

add to the repository.

TRIZ – added to the repository.

Lateral thinking – added to the repository.

6. Cultural Probes: no related methods.

7. Design of networks starting from (social) mobility patterns of users: no related methods.

8. Diary methods: no related methods.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinforcement_learning

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creativity

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creativity_techniques

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Six_Thinking_Hats

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brainstorming

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_war_games

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SWOT_analysis

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USIT

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thought_experiment

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TRIZ

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lateral_thinking


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9. Digital Methods: no related methods.

10. Empathic design:

Contextual design – added to the repository.

11. Evaluating architectural choices in large-scale networked system: no related methods.

12. Event sampling emotion recorder: no related methods.

13. Game theory:

Confrontation analysis – added to the repository.

Mechanism design – already in the repository.

14. Influence Online: no related methods.

15. Mechanism design:

Assignment problem – added to the repository.

16. Media design: no related methods.

17. Methods for the evaluation of self-organizing properties of complex systems: no related

methods.

18. Participatory design:

User-centred design – added to the repository.

19. Pattern Language:

Mind map – added to the repository.

Concept map – added to the repository.

Design pattern – already represented in the repository by ‘Pattern Language’

Software design patterns – viewed as an example of a design pattern rather than a

separate method

20. Properties of mobile opportunistic network content for design: no related methods.

21. Qualitative research methods drawing on a variety of theoretical frameworks in social

sciences: no related methods.

22. Real option valuation:

Fuzzy pay-off method for real option valuation – too unrelated to design to add to the

repository.

Mathews method for real option valuation – too unrelated to design to add to the

repository

23. Sentiment analysis in smart environments: no related methods.

24. Simulation of Urban Mobility (SUMO): no related methods.

25. Synthetic-analytic method: no related methods.

26. Teasing apart, piecing together: no related methods.

27. Tussle analysis: no related methods.

The full details of the 14 new methods can be found in Annex II: Methods added to the JRA2

Repository based on Wikipedia Sampling.

This work took the total number of methods in the repository from 27 (as in D2.1.1) to 41.

4.2 Taxonomy of disciplines and gap analysis of repository

This section presents a general approach to classifying a design method according to discipline, as

well as an initial taxonomy of the methods in the D2.1.2 repository.

In order to conduct a disciplinary analysis of design, a common framework is first needed. We can

consider design to be about having a means of acting on a system such that it behaves, acts or changes

in a desired way. For example, building architecture design consists of defining elements of a building

in order to achieve some goals while conforming to constraints (such as cost).

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contextual_design

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confrontation_analysis

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanism_design

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assignment_problem

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User-centered_design

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mind_map

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concept_map

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Design_pattern

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_design_pattern

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuzzy_pay-off_method_for_real_option_valuation

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datar%E2%80%93Mathews_method_for_real_option_valuation


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When going about the design process, four questions must be answered:

1. What do we want to act on?

2. What are the means to act?

3. What is the goal of acting?

4. How can the design be implemented and what are the constraints?

These four questions let us understand the disciplines involved in design and the methods

involved. Consider the following examples:

Building architecture

1. We want to act on spaces, volumes, materials and shapes.

2. The means are the building process, plumbing, painting and decorating.

3. The goal is to make the building beautiful, efficient, low cost, functional and majestic.

4. The constraints are physical (material resistance, weight, equilibrium), economic (cost),

legal (urbanisms), and cultural (aesthetics)

Social design of healthcare

1. We want to influence people’s behaviour to become healthier.

2. The means are social interaction, advertisement and media.

3. The goal is to reduce a medical measure (e.g. the number of people suffering from

smoking-related diseases).

4. The design can be implemented by educating people via publishing documents and

holding classes. The constraints are economic (cost), cultural (how people respond to

advice from others) and political.

Design of a low pass digital filter

1. We want to attenuate some bands on the energy spectrum.

2. The means are acting on each sub-band through a computer program.

3. The goal is to reduce the amount of energy in the bandwidth larger than the low pass filter

bandwidth.

4. The design can be implemented using a DSP board. The constraints relate to sampling

rate, processor speed and filter stability.

Internet Architecture 1. We want to act on bits crossing a transmission link, to transfer them from one point to

another.

2. The means are encapsulating a packet into headers in each layer.

3. The goal is to make the bit transmission scalable, efficient, and independent between

layers.

4. To separate the layers we must ensure that no layer needs information that is not passed

to it be a lower layer. This leads to constraints: We must ensure layers send all necessary

information to higher layers. We must introduce a security constraint not to pass

information to a layer than is not authenticated.


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The answer to any of the above question indicates the discipline involved in the design method.

For example, if an answer to one of the above questions involves a human or a group of humans, the

design methodology is related to the humanities. If the means of action or goal of acting can be

quantified, the design method is related to mathematics. If the process will involve using a computer

for design development, the design method will be relative to computer science.

This approach can be used to produce an initial taxonomy of methods. Table 1 shows the resulting

taxonomy based on methods and disciplines in the repository, including the number of methods

represented for each discipline and disciplinary area. This count was done after the addition of

methods described in Section 4.1 (based on Wikipedia Sampling) but before the addition of methods

described in Section 4.3 (based on Gap Analysis).

Note that one method can be associated with many disciplines, and as such the total count of

methods adds up to more than the 41 methods that were in the repository at the time of this analysis.

Disciplinary area

Number of methods

Discipline Number of methods

Humanities 19 Anthropology 2

Collective Behaviour 2

Contemporary History 1

Education 2

Ethnography 2

Law 1

Social Science 3

Sociology 1

Psychology 8

User Experience 4

HCI 6

Co-design 3

Economics

7 Economics 7

Computer Science

21 Artificial Intelligence 1

Network Engineering 1

Computer Science 15

Data Science 0


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Disciplinary area

Number of methods

Discipline Number of methods

Software Engineering 3

Logistics 1

HCI 5

Mathematics

7 Mathematics 0

Network Science 6

Systems Engineering 1

Art

22 Design 18

Architecture 2

Communication 5

Media

3 Interaction design 1

Journalism 1

Media Studies 2

New Media 2

Engineering

2 Engineering 1

Industrial design 1

Table 1. Taxonomy of disciplines with method count

As can be seen from Table 1, there is clearly a lack of methods from the contexts of Economics,

Mathematics, Media and Engineering.

4.3 Addition of new methods based on Gap Analysis

The analysis in Section 4.2 identified a lack of methods from economics, mathematics, media and

engineering. Given the relatively close relationship between economics and mathematics, a decision

was taken to target these areas initially.

CERTH is a JRA2 partner with expertise in economics and mathematics, and as such was asked to

provide relevant methods from these areas. A total of six methods were added to the repository. These

are: Dynamic Programming; Linear Programming; Lyapunov Optimization; Markov Decision Process;

Prospect Theory; Swarm Intelligence. The full details of the new methods can be found in Annex III:

Methods added to the JRA2 Repository based on Gap Analysis. Table 2 summarises the disciplines and

disciplinary areas associated with each of the new methods.

Method Disciplines Disciplinary areas


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Dynamic Programming Computer Science, Economics,

Mathematics

Computer Science, Economics, Mathematics

Linear Programming

Computer Science, Mathematics Computer Science, Mathematics

Lyapunov Optimization Computer Science, Network Science

Computer Science, Mathematics

Markov Decision Process

Computer Science, Economics Computer Science, Economics

Prospect Theory – economics

Economics Economics

Swarm Intelligence AI, Data Science, Network

Science

Computer Science, Mathematics

Table 2. Disciplines and disciplinary areas of newly added methods

As can be seen, the addition of these six methods increases the representation of methods from

economics and mathematics. A step for the next iteration of work on the repository is to add methods

from engineering and media. Meanwhile, the addition of six methods based on gap analysis raises the

total number of methods in the repository from 41 (as described in Section 4.1) to 47.


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5 Methodologies and Use Cases

At this stage, the repository contains 47 methods, classified according to discipline and

application context, as well as a publications database. When tackling ‘wicked’ design questions that

cross disciplines, as is often the case in the Internet Science domain, it can be necessary to combine

multiple methods. JRA2 distinguishes between ‘methods’, specific approaches to achieve a certain

goal, and ‘methodologies’, in which multiple methods are brought together for use in sequence or in

some other interconnected way.

This chapter describes progress made towards generation of methodologies and demonstrations

of both methods and methodologies via use case studies. Section 5.1 describes the format of a

methodology in the repository, discussing the four methodologies added at this time. Section 5.2

describes an analysis of repository methods towards more efficient generation of methodologies based

on method properties. Finally, Section 5.3 demonstrates the vision for exemplar use case scenarios,

illustrating the vision with two use cases.

5.1 Creating Methodologies

In this iteration of work, a first wave of methodologies has been created. An example

methodology can be seen in Figure 3, below. As can be seen, for each methodology we specify:

1. Its name

2. Which methods are involved

3. How the methods are combined

4. The advantage of the methodology over using the individual methods only

Figure 3. A methodology in the repository

As a first step, four methodologies were identified. Two of these (personas with TAPT; mixed

methods impact evaluation of interactions between business actors) were based on design experiences


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within JRA2, while another two (game theory with lateral thinking; cultural probes with contextual

design) were theoretical in nature. Details of the methodologies can be seen in


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Annex IV: Methodologies added to the JRA2 Repository.

5.2 Classifying Methods

Although it is possible to generate methodologies by drawing on design experiences and

contemplating which methods are likely to work well together, a more procedural approach is

desirable. To facilitate such an approach, work was conducted to classify methods in the repository.

It is much simpler to see how two methods relate to one another once they are classified

according to the type of activity they relate to: pre-design analysis; design; or post-design evaluation.

For that reason, the 47 methods in the repository were classified according to the activity type that

they relate to. Table 3 shows the results of this classification: the number of methods sums to greater

than 47 because some methods are suitable for use in multiple types of activity.

Activity type

Methods relevant for area of usefulness Number of methods

Analysis

Affective analysis in microblogs; Assignment problem; Community detection in social media; Confrontation analysis; Cultural probes; Design of networks starting from (social) mobility patterns of users; digital methods; Dynamic Programming; Event sampling emotion recorder; game theory; influence online; Lyapunov optimization; Markov Decision Process; mechanism design; Methods for the evaluation of self-organizing properties of complex systems; pattern languages; Properties of mobile opportunistic network content for design; Qualitative research methods drawing on a variety of theoretical frameworks in social sciences; Real options valuation; requirements analysis; Sentiment analysis in smart environments; Simulation of Urban Mobility (SUMO); SWOT analysis; Teasing Apart, Piecing Together; Tussle analysis

28

Design

Brainstorming; Business war games; concept map; context mapping; contextual design; Creative Emergence; creative problem solving; creativity techniques; Cultural probes; Design of networks starting from (social) mobility patterns of users; diary methods; digital methods; empathic design; Evaluating architectural choices in large-scale networked system; lateral thinking; Linear Programming; media design; mind map; pattern languages; participatory design; Prospect Theory; six thinking hats; Swarm Intelligence; Synthetic-analytic method; Teasing Apart, Piecing Together; TRIZ; user centred design; USIT

25

Evaluation

Affective analysis in microblogs; Community detection in social media; Markov Decision Process; Dynamic Programming; Evaluating architectural choices in large-scale networked system; Linear Programming; Methods for the evaluation of self-organizing properties of complex systems; Properties of mobile opportunistic network content for design; Qualitative research methods drawing on a variety of theoretical frameworks in social sciences; Sentiment analysis in smart environments; Swarm Intelligence; Teasing Apart, Piecing Together

12

Table 3. Classification of design methods according to activity type

As can be seen, methods in the repository offer good coverage of these different phases of design.

It is notable that a number of methods appear in multiple categories, being suitable for (for example)


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both analysis and evaluation, or analysis and design. Table 4 shows the methods that are useful at

several stages of the design process.

Activity type Methods relevant for area of usefulness

Number of methods

Analysis and Design

Cultural probes; Design of networks starting from (social) mobility patterns of users; digital methods; pattern languages

4

Analysis and Evaluation

Affective analysis in microblogs; Community detection in social media; Markov Decision Process; Dynamic Programming; Methods for the evaluation of self-organizing properties of complex systems; Properties of mobile opportunistic network content for design; Qualitative research methods drawing on a variety of theoretical frameworks in social sciences; Sentiment analysis in smart environments

8

Design and Evaluation

Evaluating architectural choices in large-scale networked system; Linear Programming; Swarm Intelligence

3

Analysis, Design and Evaluation

Teasing Apart, Piecing Together 1

Table 4. Classification of design methods according to multiple activity types

The large number of methods that are useful for analysis and either design or evaluation

demonstrates the close connection between insights arising from analysis and the subsequent design

and evaluation activities.

Considering methodology generation, it is helpful to see how the existing four methodologies fit

within the categorisation. Table 5 provides this analysis.

Some methodologies draw on methods that are associated with multiple activity types. In these

instances, the activity type for which the specific method is used is shown in bold. For example, TAPT

is used in Personas with TAPT, and is a method relevant for Analysis, Design and Evaluation. In

Personas with TAPT, it is used for analysis of user experiences, and for that reason ‘analysis’ is shown

in bold in the activity type column.

Methodology Method Activity type (bold shows activity

that is used)

Personas with TAPT User centred design Design

Teasing Apart, Piecing Together Analysis, Design and Evaluation

Mixed methods impact evaluation of interactions between business actors

SWOT Analysis

Game theory Evaluation

Game theory with lateral thinking

Game theory Analysis

Lateral thinking Design

Cultural probes with Cultural probes Analysis and Design


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contextual design Contextual design Design

Table 5. Analysis of activity types associated with initial methodologies

It can be seen that typically, the methods brought together in a methodology have different

activity types: three of the four methodologies shown above combine analysis with design activities.

The exception is Mixed methods impact evaluation of interactions between business actors, which

involves two analysis activities. As can be seen by examining the methodology description in


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Annex IV: Methodologies added to the JRA2 Repository, this methodology does indeed involve

combining two different analyses (with the first SWOT analysis informing the second game theoretic

analysis).

From this, we can see that we may expect methodologies to typically combine analysis with design

activities, but exceptions will exist. It seems that the intersection of analytical methods with design

methods will prove a fruitful ground for generation of more methodologies in future.

5.3 Sample use cases

Use cases are an ideal way to demonstrate the application of design methods and methodologies.

This section provides two exemplar use cases to demonstrate the vision, both of which can be found in

the repository of methods. Each case study specifies the problem addressed, disciplines involved, and

methods and methodologies involved, as well as providing a description of the case study itself. The

first concerns the relation between regulator, ISP and OTT in the net neutrality discussion. The second

concerns NetHood.

More use cases will be included in D2.1.3, due for release in May 2015.

5.3.1 Relation between regulator, ISP and OTT in the net neutrality discussion

Problem addressed

More insights into how different strategies support or do not support net neutrality principles

may impact the competitive structure of the market and the business case of both Internet Service

Providers and Over-The-Top players.

Disciplines involved: Communication, Economics

Methods used: SWOT; Game theory

Methodologies used: Mixed methods impact evaluation of interactions between business

actors

Use case description

Net neutrality (NN) is defined as the concept in which Internet Service Providers (ISPs) are

obliged to treat all data streams equally, independent of which application, service, device, sender or

receiver is involved. They are as such not allowed to block, throttle or alter data traffic over their

networks. The current debate about net neutrality raises important questions about if and how it

should be implemented by law. Both proponents and opponents of NN have valid arguments. In

general the ISPs are opponents of the NN laws. They argue that the increasing bandwidth demands of

Over-The-Top (OTT) applications are growing beyond their ability to invest in new networks. As a

result they have to throttle certain applications to keep their network free of congestion. The

proponents of NN are the providers of OTT applications, who believe that ISPs have no right to

throttle and block their applications and that the ISPs can easily pay for their network expansions


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using only the revenues from their internet subscriptions. Furthermore, this shall lead to a broader

range of services offered at lower price and/or higher quality.

This use case identifies different strategies an ISP can take when finding itself in conflict with an

OTT:

Basic NN: this is the current network with a NN obligation. The ISP will not upgrade his

network, which will result in congestion problems as applications require more bandwidth

over time.

Network upgrade: the ISP invests in an upgrade to get rid of congestion.

Dominant ISP: by installing Deep Packet Inspection (DPI) equipment, the ISP can prioritize

his customers and leave only the remainder to the OTT customers, resulting in massive

congestion for the latter.

Service access fee: the ISP installs DPI equipment to identify OTT customers and charge

them an extra fee.

Preferential distribution: the ISP uses half of his bandwidth capacity to create a fast lane

on his network. Customers who are willing to pay the preferential distribution fee, receive

access to this fast lane. Normal customers will suffer more congestion.

The different strategies are evaluated both qualitatively and quantitatively. For the qualitative

evaluation SWOT analysis is used to identify helpful (strengths and opportunities) and harmful

(weaknesses and threats) elements from the described scenarios. Both immediate effects or effects

from internal origin (strengths versus weaknesses) and anticipated future effects or effects from

external origin (opportunities versus threats) are identified. This indicates stronger and weaker

positions of ISP versus OTT in the scenario identified.

Quantitative analysis is done via a game theoretic implementation. By simulating these scenarios

in a fictitious market with two players (one ISP and one OTT operator), one can investigate the impact

of the identified strategies on both the market (shares for each player), as well as the business case

prospects for each player. If the ISP is left the choice of scenario, he will opt to dominate the market by

giving preferential treatment to its own services. The dominance of the ISP will result in the OTT

leaving the market. This is by far the worst scenario in the eyes of the regulator, who wants to preserve

competition. If DPI equipment is prohibited, the ISP will not upgrade his network if he wants to

maximize its profits instead of its number of customers.

Note that the use of both methods is complementary. They are used sequentially. Starting by a

SWOT analysis gives a preliminary view in the interrelations between different actors for the NN

scenarios considered. Those are later made explicit using the quantitative game theoretic analysis.

5.3.2 NetHood: The Neighbourhood Game

Problem addressed


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This use case addresses the hybrid design, including social software and physical interventions, of

local social applications over hyperlocal community wireless networks that give the option for hybrid

interactions to take place outside the public Internet.

Disciplines involved: Computer science; interaction design; network science; human computer

interaction; urban interaction design; urban studies, urban and community informatics

Methods used: participatory design, urban interaction design, pattern languages, living labs

Methodologies included: participatory design combined with a living lab, using as the object

of enquiry urban interaction design interventions, and as language a hybrid (physical and virtual)

pattern language

Use case description

DIY wireless networks can play a decisive role facilitating information sharing between strangers.

They ensure the de facto physical proximity of their users, they allow for purely anonymous

communications, they are tangible objects, and they create a feeling of independence. Being owned by

the users, they provide the option to the scientific community to build an open repository of data and

gain a deeper understanding of the underlying causal relationships between design choices and human

behaviour in different settings.

The novelty of NetHood lies in the development of an ICT framework that allows the hybrid

design of applications over hyperlocal community wireless networks, which give the option for hybrid

interactions to take place outside the public Internet. This ability for Do It Yourself networking is

important for various reasons including practical (e.g., resiliency), social (e.g., local identity), political

(e.g., privacy and self-determination), and scientific (e.g., user-owned behavioural data) benefits. The

challenge is to make it easy for persons who are not technologically savvy to organise spontaneous

interactions and create a social learning process that will generate open knowledge and facilitate

interdisciplinary collaborations.

Despite the arguably significant benefits of DIY networking, there are many forces that hinder the

widespread deployment of such networks, including commercial interests, politics, habits and

addictions, technical complexity, the benefits of anonymity in the city, and the limited free time. In this

use case we develop a concrete strategy for bringing together key actors, including institutions,

citizens, researchers, and activists, and help them to join forces beyond political orientations around

the design of the NetHood toolkit.

As a global experimental framework and innovation platform, the NetHood toolkit provides a

shared language to researchers and practitioners, a 'lingua franca' for recording and sharing the bits of

information required to capture the knowledge gained from different real life experiments:

1. the characterization of their environment according to an agreed typology,

2. the specific design choices made at different levels

3. the target objectives, and


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4. the final outcome

The organisation of interdisciplinary events, focusing both on research and action, at all stages of

the development process will facilitate the involvement of different actors and the creation of an

interdisciplinary community around the participatory design of hybrid urban space.

The size and complexity of the design space calls for a bottom-up design process consistent with

the ideas developed in participatory design (Schuler and Namioka, Participatory design: Principles and

practices 1993); and action research (Hearn, et al. 2008) methodologies. At the same time, the

development of a “hybrid” pattern language, which could combine the original ideas of Christopher

Alexander (Alexander 1979) with more recent approaches, ranging from high-level meta concepts

(Schuler, Liberating Voices: A Pattern Language for Communication Revolution 2008) to micro design

details in software (Crumlish and Malone 2009), might enhance the building of a new common

language that will not only facilitate communications between researchers from different disciplines

and practitioners, but also empower citizen-activists.

During this process, the NetHood toolkit (http://nethood.org) can play the role of a “border

object” in bringing together researchers and practitioners from different fields and build an

interdisciplinary language which will help us understand the complex hybrid design space from an

engineering, social, political, and scientific perspective.

http://nethood.org/


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6 Conclusions

This document has described the process of improving and expanding the repository of design

methods for Internet Science, containing methods that come from multiple disciplines and are

relevant for supporting design work with large-scale, complex systems. The repository is available at:


Originally populated with 27 design methods classified by application context and discipline, the

repository now contains 47 design methods, four design methodologies and two sample uses cases. (A

design methodology combines several design methods for use in sequence or some other

interconnected way to rigorously address complicated, or ‘wicked’, design problems.) A fresh analysis

of Internet Science outputs has produced an improved set of application contexts by which the

methods are classified, and an initial analysis of activity types associated with methods has paved the

way for the generation of rules for combining methods.

The next update to the repository will be D2.1.3, in May 2015. This update will include the

addition of a small number of methods, particularly targeting the domains of engineering and media,

as well as more methodologies and use cases. The update will also an update to the mapping between

methods and application domains, as well as reporting insights about generating rules for combining

methods.

Meanwhile, the repository described within this document is a live, open website that supports

the community of Internet Science researchers and practitioners, providing a coherent base of design

methods with a clear set of metadata regarding their provenance and properties.



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7 Bibliography

Alexander, C. The timeless way of building. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press , 1979.

Blondel, Vincent D., Jean-Loup Guillaume, Renaud Lambiotte, and Etienne Lefebvre. “Fast

unfolding of communities in large networks.” Journal of Statistical Mechanics: Theory and

Experiment 10 (2008): P10008.

Crumlish, C., and E. Malone. Designing Social Interfaces. O'Reilley Media, Inc., 2009.

Hearn, G., J. Tacchi, M. Foth, and J. Lennie. Action Research and New Media: Concepts,

Methods and Cases. New York: Hampton Press, 2008.

Hooper, C., G. Bordea, and P. Buitelaar. “Web Science and the Two (Hundred) Cultures:

Representation of Disciplines Publishing in Web Science.” ACM Web Science 2013. Paris, France,

2013.

Hooper, Clare, Dirk Trossen, and Mike Surridge. D2.1.1 Repository of methodologies, design

tools and use cases . Project Deliverable, Brussels: EINS FP7-288021, 2014.

Schuler, D. Liberating Voices: A Pattern Language for Communication Revolution. MA: MIT

Press, 2008.

Schuler, D., and A. Namioka. Participatory design: Principles and practices. Hillsdale, NJ:

Erlbaum, 1993.


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Annex I: List of Methods by Application Context and by Discipline

The methods in the repository are categorised both by Application Context and by Discipline, as

follows.

7.1 Methods Classified by Application Context

Architecture / design: Pattern languages, Evaluating architectural choices in large-scale networked system, Game theory, Teasing Apart, Piecing Together, Contextmapping, Cultural probes, Participatory design, Empathic design, Requirements analysis, Tussle analysis, user centered design

Energy: Markov Decision Process

Information retrieval: Affective analysis in microblogs, Community detection in social media, Digital methods, Sentiment analysis in smart environments, Teasing Apart, Piecing Together, Tussle analysis

Internet governance:

ISPs and network traffic:

Machine learning: Creative emergence, Methods for the evaluation of self-organizing properties of complex systems, Markov Decision Process

Measurement technologies:

Network science: Pattern languages, Evaluating architectural choices in large-scale networked system, Community detection in social media, Methods for the evaluation of self-organizing properties of complex systems, Game theory, Design of networks starting from (social) mobility patterns of users, Properties of mobile opportunistic network content for design, Influence online, Lyapunov Optimization, Mechanism Design, Simulation of Urban Mobility (SUMO)

Open data: Tussle analysis

Open hardware and infrastructures:

Parking: Methods for the evaluation of self-organizing properties of complex systems, Simulation of Urban Mobility (SUMO)

Personalised and elearning:

Semantic web: Community detection in social media

Social networking: Affective analysis in microblogs, Pattern languages, Creative emergence, Community detection in social media, Design of networks starting from (social) mobility patterns of users, Digital methods, Empathic design, Influence online, Markov Decision Process, Properties of mobile opportunistic network content for design, Sentiment analysis in smart environments, Teasing Apart, Piecing Together, Tussle analysis

None of those suggested: Real options valuation, Event sampling emotion recorder, Qualitative research methods drawing on a variety of theoretical frameworks in social sciences, Creative Problem Solving, Assignment problem, Business war games, Confrontation analysis, Contextual design, Six thinking hats, TRIZ, USIT

Various: Brainstorming, Concept map, Creativity techniques, Lateral thinking, Mind map, SWOT analysis

7.2 Methods Classified by Discipline

Anthropology: Empathic design, Qualitative research methods drawing on a variety of theoretical frameworks in social sciences

Architecture: Pattern languages, Evaluating architectural choices in large-scale networked system

Artificial Intelligence: Creative emergence, Swarm Intelligence

Bioinformatics: Dynamic Programming


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Co-design: Contextmapping, Contextual design, User centred design

Collective Behaviour: Creative emergence, Brainstorming

Communication: Media Design, Pattern languages, evaluating architectural choices in large-scale networked system, Methods for the evaluation of self-organizing properties of complex systems, Creativity techniques

Computer Science: Affective analysis in microblogs, Community detection in social media, Diary methods, Pattern languages, Creative emergence, Evaluating architectural choices in large-scale networked system, Design of networks starting from (social) mobility patterns of users, Digital methods, Influence online, Linear Programming, Markov Decision Process, Mechanism Design, Participatory design, Requirements analysis, Sentiment analysis in smart environments, Simulation of Urban Mobility (SUMO), Teasing Apart, Piecing Together

Contemporary History: Qualitative research methods drawing on a variety of theoretical frameworks in social sciences

Data Science: Swarm Intelligence

Design: Contextmapping, Creative Problem Solving, Cultural probes, Diary methods, Evaluating architectural choices in large-scale networked system, Empathic design, Participatory design, Teasing Apart, Piecing Together, Tussle analysis, Concept map, Creativity techniques, Lateral thinking, Mind map, Six thinking hats, SWOT analysis, TRIZ, User centred design, USIT

Economics: Evaluating architectural choices in large-scale networked system, Game theory, Markov Decision Process, Mechanism Design, Real options valuation, Assignment problem, Business war games, Confrontation analysis, Prospect Theory

Education: Qualitative research methods drawing on a variety of theoretical frameworks in social sciences, Confrontation analysis

Engineering: Empathic design

Ethnography: Empathic design, Contextual design

HCI: Cultural probes, Diary methods, Participatory design, Teasing Apart, Piecing Together, User centred design

Health Science: Qualitative research methods drawing on a variety of theoretical frameworks in social sciences

Industrial design: Contextmapping

Information and Learning Theory: Creative emergence, Concept map

Interaction design: Media Design

Journalism: Media Design

Law: Qualitative research methods drawing on a variety of theoretical frameworks in social sciences

Logistics: Simulation of Urban Mobility (SUMO)

Mathematics: Dynamic Programming Linear Programming

Media Studies: Media Design, Synthetic-analytic method

Network Engineering: Tussle analysis

Network Science: Design of networks starting from (social) mobility patterns of users, Influence online, Methods for the evaluation of self-organizing properties of complex systems, Properties of mobile opportunistic network content for design, Concept map, Mind map, Swarm Intelligence, Lyapunov Optimization

New Media: Digital methods, Synthetic-analytic method

Psychology: Affective analysis in microblogs, Event sampling emotion recorder, Qualitative research methods drawing on a variety of theoretical frameworks in social sciences, Requirements


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analysis, Sentiment analysis in smart environments, Contextual design, Creativity techniques, Six thinking hats

Social Science: Event sampling emotion recorder, Mechanism Design, Qualitative research methods drawing on a variety of theoretical frameworks in social sciences

Sociology: Qualitative research methods drawing on a variety of theoretical frameworks in social sciences

Software Engineering: Participatory design, Requirements analysis, Tussle analysis

Systems Engineering: Requirements analysis

Transport: Simulation of Urban Mobility (SUMO)

Urban Planning: Simulation of Urban Mobility (SUMO)

User Experience: Diary methods, Teasing Apart, Piecing Together, Contextual design


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Annex II: Methods added to the JRA2 Repository based on Wikipedia

Sampling

Assignment Problem

Assignment problems, like many other complex optimisation problems (e.g. routing (travelling

salesman) problem) can be used to find optimal configurations in highly interactive systems. For

instance, one could use an assignment problem to divide up roles and responsibilities not only within

an organisation, but between organisations (e.g. designing multistakeholder governance

arrangements).

Such an analysis assumes that the goals could be unambiguously agreed and the proposed

assignment predicted and enforced. A method such as Business war games is appropriate for

situations where goals cannot be unambiguously agreed, or proposed assignment predicted an

enforced.

Links

Link Description http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assignment_problem Wikipedia entry on Assignment problem

Publications

Publication Description Burkard, Rainer; M. Dell'Amico; S. Martello (2012). Assignment Problems (Revised reprint). SIAM

Book on assignment problems

Disciplines: Economics

Application contexts: None of those suggested

Tags:

Contributed by: Bruna Neves, Jonathan Cave

Brainstorming

Brainstorming is a group or individual creativity technique by which efforts are made to find a

conclusion for a specific problem by gathering a list of ideas spontaneously contributed by its

member(s). The concepts of deferred judgement and reaching for quality are key, with principles such

as ‘withhold criticism’ and ‘welcome unusual ideas’.

Links

Link Description http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brainstorming Wikipedia entry on Brainstorming

Publications

None at this time.

Disciplines: Collective behaviour

Application contexts: Various

Tags:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assignment_problem

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brainstorming


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Contributed by: Bruna Neves

Business war games

Business war games are appropriate to explore what might happen in situations where goals

cannot be unambiguously agreed, or proposed assignment predicted and enforced. (In situations

where goals can be agreed and proposed assignment predicted and enforced, methods such as

Assignment problem are appropriate.)

In war-gaming, real entities (or agents representing them) are allowed to interact in a structured

atmosphere. It is closely connected to scenario gaming, in which teams of players are briefed on a

counterfactual situation and then given specific choices to make. In doing so, they can communicate

with each other and make their own projections. After each round, off-line (model based) analysis is

used to update the scenario and they are given further choices to make, In addition, random shocks are

sometimes injected by the game team to study crisis responses and resilience. At the end, there is a

'hot wash' to draw lessons. Such games can be used to test designs (especially when the players do

analogous things in 'real life') and to give these real agents an appreciation of how their opposite

numbers will think and respond (especially if the game assignment swaps roles). They are thus both a

scientific method for studying real decisions and a way of implementing specific designs. A relevant

special case involves 'tussles' (interactions in the middle zone between conflict and cooperation, which

accurately characterises 'architectural' or design collaborations among parties with different

perspectives and interests -- for more, please see Tussle analysis).

Links

Link Description http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_war_games Wikipedia entry on Business war games

Publications

None at this time.

Disciplines: Economics,


Tags:


Concept map

Concept maps, also known as mind maps, show the relationships between ideas, images, or words

just as a road map represents the locations of highways and towns. Each word or phrase connects to

another, and links back to the original idea, word, or phrase.

Links

Link Description http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concept_map Wikipedia entry on Concept maps

Publications

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_war_games

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concept_map


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None at this time.

Disciplines: Network science, Design, Information and Learning theory


Tags:


Confrontation analysis

Confrontation analysis is an extension of Tussle analysis and looks precisely at the way the

players will rewrite the rules of the game as they go along. This means that we can study the dynamics

of a process in which at each stage players make specific rules and protocols, in response to the crises

of the moment and their memories of the past, but also in hopes or fears of the way the future will

unfold.

In the process of design and rule-setting, they will learn from each other that some of this was

wrong, but will in any case set that period's rules. They may carry forward feelings of injury or

obligation, which can change the next round. The next round will also be influenced by the real-life

experiences of trying to live within (or respond to) the rules from the last period.

Confrontation analysis can be seen as a type of Tussle analysis on an explicitly dynamic footing. It

also can be used empirically, in which case it can serve to help distinguish the design and evolutionary

parts of the processes leading to official and effective Internet architectures; and the influences of

roles, organisational structures and personalities on the direction of travel of the Internet.

Links

Link Description http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confrontation_analysis Wikipedia entry on Confrontation analysis

Publications

None at this time.

Disciplines: Economics

Application contexts: None of the suggested

Tags:


Contextual Design

Contextual design comes from User-Centred Design. This Human-Computer Interaction method

incorporates tools from ethnography, and is an alternative approach for system design to engineering and feature

driven models.

Links

Link Description http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contextual_design Wikipedia entry on Contextual design

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confrontation_analysis

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contextual_design


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Publications

None at this time.

Disciplines: Psychology, User experience, Co-design, Ethnography


Tags:


Creativity Techniques

Creativity Techniques are, as the name implies, focused on encouraging creative thought,

regardless of the specific domain. They include techniques for divergent thinking, idea generation, and

reframing of problems. An example of such a technique is word association, whereby words associated

with an idea or concept are generated as a stimulus for creativity and provocation for discussion.

Links

Link Description http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creativity_techniques Wikipedia entry on creativity techniques

Publications

None at this time.

Disciplines: Psychology, Communication, Design


Tags:


Lateral Thinking

Lateral Thinking involves approaching problem-solving in an indirect, creative way, involving

ideas that may not be obvious by following a traditional step-by-step approach. Edward de Bono

coined the term, emphasising that this approach does not involve ‘vertical’ logic (working out a

problem step-by-step from the given data) or ‘horizontal’ imagination (generating ideas without

delving into implementation details).

Links

Link Description http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lateral_thinking Wikipedia entry on Lateral thinking

Publications

None at this time.

Disciplines: Design


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creativity_techniques

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lateral_thinking


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Tags:


Mind Map

Similar to a concept map, a mind map is a diagram used to visually organise information. Mind

maps typically begin with one central concept, with associated ideas linked off this concent. Mind

maps can be used to generate ideas, but also to structure and classify them.

Links

Link Description http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mind_map Wikipedia entry on Mind map

Publications

None at this time.

Disciplines: Network science, Design


Tags:


Six Thinking Hats

This method involves the conscious switching between six different modes of thinking,

represented by the ‘hats’. The idea is to move between the different hats in order to approach a

particular problem from a diverse set of perspectives. The six hats, each of which is associated with a

colour, are:

1. Managing (Blue) - what is the subject? what are we thinking about? what is the goal?

2. Information (White) - considering purely what information is available, what are the

facts?

3. Emotions (Red) - intuitive or instinctive gut reactions or statements of emotional feeling

(but not any justification)

4. Discernment (Black) - logic applied to identifying reasons to be cautious and conservative

5. Optimistic response (Yellow) - logic applied to identifying benefits, seeking harmony

6. Creativity (Green) - statements of provocation and investigation, seeing where a thought

goes

Links

Link Description http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Six_Thinking_Hats Wikipedia entry on Six Thinking Hats

Publications

None at this time.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mind_map

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Six_Thinking_Hats


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Disciplines: Psychology, Design


Tags:


SWOT Analysis

This technique involves evaluation of the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats

involved in a particular proposal, whether for a business, technology or project. The first step is to

specify the objectives of the proposal, before identifying the internal and external factors that are

favorable and unfavorable for achieving that objective.

During a SWOT analysis, the user should consider meaningful information for each of the four

categories (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats).

Links

Link Description http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SWOT_analysis Wikipedia entry on SWOT analysis

Publications

None at this time.

Disciplines: Design


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TRIZ

TRIZ is a systematic approach for analysing challenging problems that require an inventiven

approach. It provides a range of approaches and tools for finding inventive solutions. A finding on

which TRIZ is based is that the majority of problems that require inventive solutions typically reflect a

need to overcome a dilemma or a trade-off between two contradictory elements. TRIZ-based analysis

therefore aims to systematically apply strategies and tools to find superior solutions that overcome the

need for a compromise or trade-off between the two elements.

Links

Link Description http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TRIZ Wikipedia entry on TRIZ

Publications

None at this time.

Disciplines: Design


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SWOT_analysis

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TRIZ


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User-Centered Design

User-centered design involves paying heed to to the needs, wants, and limitations of the users of

the product or service in question. It is a multi-stage problem solving process that requires analysis of

how users are likely to use a product or service, and the testing of the validity of any assumptions

about user behaviour. Involvement of real users is key.

Links

Link Description http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User-centered_design Wikipedia entry on User-centered design

Publications

None at this time.

Disciplines: Co-design, design, HCI

Application contexts: Architecture/design

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Unified Structured Inventive Thinking (USIT)

Unified Structured Inventive Thinking (USIT) is a structured, problem-solving methodology for

finding innovative solution concepts to engineering-design problems. USIT is related to TRIZ,

primarily in that it is a simpler method.

USIT aims to enable the invention of multiple solution concepts in a short time. The method

works by establishing unusual perspectives of the problem situation, and innovative results are

achieved using tools to elicit complementary contributions from both cerebral hemispheres

(generating logical and creative concepts).

The methodology consists of three phases: problem definition; problem analysis; application of

solution concepts.

Links

Link Description http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USIT Wikipedia entry on USIT

Publications

None at this time.

Disciplines: Design


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User-centered_design

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USIT


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Annex III: Methods added to the JRA2 Repository based on Gap Analysis

The Gap Analysis process described in Section 4.3 led to the addition of six methods to the

repository. This Annex describes those methods.

Lyapunov optimization

Lyapunov optimization refers to the use of a Lyapunov function to optimally control a dynamical

system. Lyapunov functions are used extensively in control theory to ensure different forms of system

stability. The state of a system at a particular time is often described by a multi-dimensional vector. A

Lyapunov function is a nonnegative scalar measure of this multi-dimensional state. Typically, the

function is defined to grow large when the system moves towards undesirable states. System stability

is achieved by taking control actions that make the Lyapunov function drift in the negative direction

towards zero.

Lyapunov drift is central to the study of optimal control in queuing networks. A typical goal is to

stabilize all network queues while optimizing some performance objective, such as minimizing average

energy or maximizing average throughput. Minimizing the drift of a quadratic Lyapunov function

leads to the backpressure routing algorithm for network stability, also called the max-weight

algorithm. Adding a weighted penalty term to the Lyapunov drift and minimizing the sum leads to the

drift-plus-penalty algorithm for joint network stability and penalty minimization. The drift-plus-

penalty procedure can also be used to compute solutions to convex programs and linear programs.

Links

Link Description

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyapunov_optimization Wikipedia entry on Lyapunov optimization

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backpressure_routing Wikipedia entry on backpressure routing

Publications

Publication Description

L. Tassiulas and A. Ephremides, "Stability Properties of Constrained

Queueing Systems and Scheduling Policies for Maximum Throughput in

Multihop Radio Networks, IEEE Transactions on Automatic Control,

vol. 37, no. 12, pp. 1936-1948, Dec. 1992.

Seminal paper on backpressure

routing.

L. Tassiulas and A. Ephremides, "Dynamic Server Allocation to Parallel

Queues with Randomly Varying Connectivity," IEEE Transactions on

Information Theory, vol. 39, no. 2, pp. 466-478, March 1993.

Journal paper on optimal dynamic

server allocation.

M. J. Neely, E. Modiano, and C. Li, "Fairness and Optimal Stochastic

Control for Heterogeneous Networks," Proc. IEEE INFOCOM, March

2005.

Paper on optimal stochastic control

for heterogeneous networks.

L. Georgiadis, M. J. Neely, and L. Tassiulas, "Resource Allocation and

Cross-Layer Control in Wireless Networks," Foundations and Trends in

Networking, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 1-149, 2006.

Paper on resource allocation and

control in wireless networks.

Disciplines: Network science, computer science

Application contexts: network scheduling, stochastic optimization

Tags: None at this time

Contributed by: Thanasis Papaioannou (CERTH)


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Markov Decision Process Markov decision processes (MDPs), named after Andrey Markov, provide a mathematical

framework for modelling decision making in situations where outcomes are partly random and partly

under the control of a decision maker. MDPs are useful for studying a wide range of optimization

problems solved via dynamic programming and reinforcement learning. A Markov Decision Process is

a discrete time stochastic control process. At each time step, the process is in some state s, and the

decision maker may choose any action that is available in state s. The process responds at the next

time step by randomly moving into a new state s', and giving the decision maker a corresponding

reward R_a(s,s'). The probability that the process moves into its new state s' is influenced by the

chosen action. Specifically, it is given by the state transition function P_a(s,s'). Thus, the next state s'

depends on the current state s and the decision maker's action a. But given s and a, it is conditionally

independent of all previous states and actions; in other words, the state transitions of an MDP possess

satisfies the Markov property.

Links

Link Description

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Markov_decision_process Wikipedia entry on Markov Decision

Process

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinforcement_learning Wikipedia entry on Reinforcement Learning

Publications


R. Bellman. A Markovian Decision Process. Journal of

Mathematics and Mechanics 6, 1957.

Seminal paper on Markov Decision Processes.

Burnetas, A.N. and M. N. Katehakis. "Optimal

Adaptive Policies for Markov Decision Processes,

Mathematics of Operations Research, 22,(1), 1995.

Paper on optimal adaptive policies for Markov

Decision Processes.

E.A. Feinberg and A. Shwartz (eds.) Handbook of

Markov Decision Processes, Kluwer, Boston, MA,

2002.

Handbook on Markov Decision Processes.

M. L. Puterman. Markov Decision Processes. Wiley,

1994.

Book on Markov Decision Processes.

Disciplines: Robotics, machine learning, automated control, economics, and manufacturing.

Application contexts: energy storage, complex networks, privacy



Dynamic Programming The idea behind dynamic programming is quite simple. In general, to solve a given problem, we

need to solve different parts of the problem (subproblems), then combine the solutions of the

subproblems to reach an overall solution. Often when using a more naive method, many of the

subproblems are generated and solved many times. The dynamic programming approach seeks to

solve each subproblem only once, thus reducing the number of computations: once the solution to a

given subproblem has been computed, it is stored or "memo-ized": the next time the same solution is

needed, it is simply looked up. This approach is especially useful when the number of repeating

subproblems grows exponentially as a function of the size of the input.

Links


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Link Description

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamic_programming Wikipedia entry on Dynamic Programming

Publications


Eddy, S. R., What is dynamic programming?, Nature Biotechnology, 22, 909–910 (2004).

Paper on dynamic programming.

S. Dasgupta, C.H. Papadimitriou, and U.V. Vazirani, 'Algorithms', p 173, available at http://www.cs.berkeley.edu/~vazirani/algorithms.html

Book on algorithms.

Disciplines: Mathematics, computer science, economics, and bioinformatics.

Application contexts: network optimization



Linear Programming Linear programming (LP; also called linear optimization) is a method to achieve the best outcome

(such as maximum profit or lowest cost) in a mathematical model whose requirements are represented

by linear relationships. Linear programming is a special case of mathematical programming

(mathematical optimization).

More formally, linear programming is a technique for the optimization of a linear objective

function, subject to linear equality and linear inequality constraints. Its feasible region is a convex

polytope, which is a set defined as the intersection of finitely many half spaces, each of which is

defined by a linear inequality. Its objective function is a real-valued affine function defined on this

polyhedron. A linear programming algorithm finds a point in the polyhedron where this function has

the smallest (or largest) value if such a point exists.

Links

Link Description

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_programming Wikipedia entry on Linear Programming

Publications


L.V. Kantorovich: A new method of solving some

classes of extremal problems, Doklady Akad Sci

USSR, 28, 1940, 211-214.

Seminal paper on Linear Programming.

G.B Dantzig: Maximization of a linear function of

variables subject to linear inequalities, 1947. Published

pp. 339–347 in T.C. Koopmans (ed.):Activity Analysis

of Production and Allocation, New York-London 1951

(Wiley & Chapman-Hall)

Paper on linear programming.

J. E. Beasley, editor. Advances in Linear and Integer

Programming. Oxford Science, 1996. (Collection of

surveys)

Survey on integer and linear programming.

Disciplines: Operation research, economics, network science.

Application contexts: resource allocation, network optimization




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Swarm Intelligence Swarm intelligence (SI) is the collective behaviour of decentralized, self-organized systems,

natural or artificial. SI systems consist typically of a population of simple agents interacting locally

with one another and with their environment. The inspiration often comes from nature, especially

biological systems. The agents follow very simple rules, and although there is no centralized control

structure dictating how individual agents should behave, local, and to a certain degree random,

interactions between such agents lead to the emergence of "intelligent" global behaviour, unknown to

the individual agents. Examples in natural systems of SI include ant colonies, bird flocking, animal

herding, bacterial growth, and fish schooling. In principle, swarm intelligence should refer to a multi-

agent system that has self-organized behaviour and that shows some intelligent behaviour. Swarm

intelligence refers to a quite general set of algorithms, including particle swarm optimization, ant

colony optimization, differential evolution and more.

Links

Link Description

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swarm_intelligence Wikipedia entry on Swarm Intelligence

Publications


Parsopoulos, K. E.; Vrahatis, M. N. (2002). "Recent

Approaches to Global Optimization Problems Through

Particle Swarm Optimization". Natural Computing 1

(2-3): 235–306.

Paper on particle swarm optimization.

Particle Swarm Optimization by Maurice Clerc, ISTE,

ISBN 1-905209-04-5, 2006.

Book on particle swarm optimization.

Ant Colony Optimization by Marco Dorigo and

Thomas Stützle, MIT Press, 2004.

Book on ant colony optimization.

Disciplines: artificial intelligence, data science, network science

Application contexts: ant-based routing, adhoc networking, p2p cooperative policies



Prospect Theory Prospect theory is a behavioral economic theory that describes the way people choose between

probabilistic alternatives that involve risk, where the probabilities of outcomes are known. The theory

states that people make decisions based on the potential value of losses and gains rather than the final

outcome, and that people evaluate these losses and gains using certain heuristics. The model is

descriptive: it tries to model real-life choices, rather than optimal decisions. The theory describes the

decision processes in two stages: editing and evaluation. During editing, outcomes of a decision are

ordered according to a certain heuristic. In particular, people decide which outcomes they consider

equivalent, set a reference point and then consider lesser outcomes as losses and greater ones as gains.

The editing phase aims to alleviate any framing effects. It also aims to resolve isolation effects

stemming from individuals' propensity to often isolate consecutive probabilities instead of treating

them together. In the subsequent evaluation phase, people behave as if they would compute a value

(utility), based on the potential outcomes and their respective probabilities, and then choose the

alternative having a higher utility.


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Links

Link Description

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prospect_theory Wikipedia entry on Prospect Theory

Publications


Kahneman, Daniel; Tversky, Amos (1979). "Prospect

Theory: An Analysis of Decision under Risk".

Econometrica 47 (2): 263

Seminal paper on prospect theory

Disciplines: behavioral economics

Application contexts: energy




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Annex IV: Methodologies added to the JRA2 Repository

This annex details the methodologies added to the JRA2 repository.

1. Personas with TAPT

Methods involved: User centred design; Teasing Apart, Piecing Together

How the methods are combined: Within user centred design, personas provide a powerful

way to identify the different types of user who might use the system or technology being designed.

Identified personas guide the subsequent use of a Teasing Apart TAPT analysis, by showing how many

such analyses are appropriate and from which perspectives.

Advantage of methodology: Initial identification of personas ensures good coverage of user

groups when later applying the Teasing Apart analysis to understand and design their experiences.

2. Mixed methods impact evaluation of interactions between business actors

Methods involved: SWOT; game theory

How the methods are combined: the two methods are used sequentially. An initial SWOT

analysis gives a preliminary view of the interrelations between different actors in the scenario being

considered. That preliminary view informs the quantitative analysis and evaluation that is then done

with game theory.

Advantage of methodology: Early SWOT analysis indicates the rationale behind the later

game theoretic result that is otherwise more difficult to interpret. This is because SWOT analysis

shows the strong and weak points of the different scenarios under study. These scenarios are strategies

for the business actors: For example, in the case of an ISP, a strategy might concern whether or not to

do a network upgrade. The first round of SWOT analysis will show insights such as an ISP’s strategy

for market dominance. This may then be later shown as an equilibrium from the game theoretic

analysis.

3. Lateral games

Methods involved: Game theory; Lateral thinking

How the methods are combined: in an integrated manner

Advantage of methodology: Game theory discusses decision making but from only one

perspective. Lateral thinking advocates change in perspective (e.g. Six Thinking Hats). By merging

these two methods, decision making could carried out from different perspectives benefiting design.

4. Contextual probes

Methods involved: Contextual design; Cultural probes

How the methods are combined: Simultaneously / in parallel

Advantage of methodology: Using this methodology, one can get both emic and etic

perspectives on a given design context: the cultural probes elicits emit perspective while the contextual

enquiry elicits an emic perspective.

d2.1.2 repository of methodologies, design tools and use cases

Documents