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INTRODUCTION TO CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY FOR CHRISTIAN MINISTRY

Grace Theological Seminary, Los Angeles, January 18-22, 2010

Paul HiebertCultural AnthropologyAnthropological Insights for MissionariesAnthropological Reflections on Missiological IssuesUnderstanding Folk ReligionsTransforming Worldviews

1. Definition.............................................................................................................................................22. The Society Concept............................................................................................................................33. The Culture Concept............................................................................................................................44. Material Culture..................................................................................................................................45. Ecology................................................................................................................................................46. Communication...................................................................................................................................57. Life Cycle..............................................................................................................................................58. Social Groups.......................................................................................................................................59. Marriage and Kinship...........................................................................................................................710. Kinship Systems & Groups...................................................................................................................711. Economic Systems...............................................................................................................................812. Legal Systems and Political Organization.............................................................................................913. Religion................................................................................................................................................914. Expressive Culture.............................................................................................................................1115. Socio-cultural Change........................................................................................................................1116. Individual Culture..............................................................................................................................1217. World View........................................................................................................................................1218. Kinship Bonds....................................................................................................................................1819. Scripture and Anthropology..............................................................................................................1820. American, Indian and Christian Worldviews......................................................................................2021. Set Theory in Anthropology...............................................................................................................2222. Spiritual Warfare in Current Christianity...........................................................................................2323. Anthropology of Your Ministry..........................................................................................................23

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1. Definition

Anthropology (anthropos + logia): science of humankind.

Christian workers maintain a trilogue between theology, Scripture and science. We must understand God’s revelation, our own interpretations and others’ perceptions. We must be able to affirm truth while disallowing atheistic and naturalistic hypotheses. Science has its origins in the Holy Bible (Heb. 11:6), so biblicists employ scientific methods.

Origin: Christian missionary discussions on what to do about non-European cultures. With the secularization of universities, anthropologists adopted non-theistic assumptions.

Approaches: Evolutionary (naturalist), Structural-functional (modernist), Marxist (conformist), Christian (theist).

Diachronic – how change occurs over time Synchronic – comparison at a point or period in time.

Main branches of anthropology

1. Physical – primatology (comparing apes & humans); paleontology (evolutionary philosophy about human origins); paleoanthropology (search for ‘missing links’). Purpose – understand and explain variation in humans: adaptation (within bounds of DNA);

acclimatization (due to environment); acculturation (adoption of beliefs and behavior). Commonly recognized variations occur in body build, facial characteristics, skin color, and

resistance to disease. Current fields of study include paleopathology (degenerative and communicable diseases);

trauma (war, homicide, injury), dental (tooth wear); demographics (gender, age and social stratification); forensics (determining identity and time and cause of death).

2. Historical – archeology (chronology & stratigraphy); bio-archeology (ancient diet & health); paleopathology (degenerative & communicable diseases); etc.

3. Social – sociology (organizations & structures); cultural (beliefs and behavioral patterns)4. Linguistical – phonology (phonetics & phonemics); grammar (morphology, syntax); semantics

(forms and meanings). Astonishingly more complex than animal call systems. Common traits: dualistic (forms & meanings; abstract (displaced from referents); symbolic

(unrelated to referents); amendable (can add and change); creative (can generate new sentences).

5. Theological – creation, mandate, fall, redemption, restoration…

Importance – Whilst all humans have common needs, emotions, questions and aspirations, various societies express those in different forms with different beliefs and meanings.

Understand others, surviving culture ‘shock’ and reducing ‘ethnocentrism’. Bible translation – language meaning derives from usage in historico-cultural context.

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Language and culture acquisition – reside and work successfully in another society. Religious and cultural change – avoiding ‘syncretism’ of new forms and old meanings. Contextualization – introducing new meanings in new and old forms.

Method – Make or read ethnographic descriptions, then perform ethnological analysis. (1) Gain insiders’ (emic) understanding their own patterns and behavior, (2) discern patterns across many societies, and (3) adjust Christian ministries and forms to make God’s revelation clear to others (without compromising Truth).

Objective: Not to discover universal laws but to develop models, ways of seeing how cultures operate.

Errors: To make humans = the sum of our models; to explain humans by one cause (reductionism).

2. The Society Concept

Society – individuals, kindred, and groups that communicate and cooperate in structures and institutions, occupy statuses (levels of authority) with roles (duties and privileges).

Structure – sets of statuses and roles that exercise authority within groups.

Kin, kinship – biological and fictive family relations.

Institution – complex endeavors (politics & power; economics & environment; education & knowledge; religion & ideology; war & defense).

Status – Binary relationship of inequality with another person, e.g. husband and wife.

Achieved status – earned through effort, achievement, purchase or election. Ascribed status – received by right of birth, kinship, gender, age, caste, wealth or class.

Rank – position in an hierarchy of power, authority, wealth, prestige.

Role – the expected behavior and duties of each person in a status. Behavior includes ideal, acceptable, marginal or deviant.

Role conflict: when an individual’s statuses require contradictory behavior. Role pairs: Dyad relationships. Role expectation and confusion: cross-cultural surprises. Multiplex and simplex roles: how many roles an individual plays in a same situation. Personal and impersonal roles: how much it matters who plays a role. Vertical roles (rank) and horizontal roles (equality).

3. The Culture Concept

Culture – “The learned behavior, beliefs, attitudes, values, ideals and symbols shared by members of a society.” (Currah, 2010)

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Cultures are learned by one generation from another, mainly through symbols by instruction and observation, consciously and unconsciously.

As humans in one society become aware of differences in other societies, a natural response is ethnocentrism, a strong preference for one’s own social patterns and cultural traits.

Christian ministers must learn about three kinds of culture: ancient cultures in which God revealed his Word; their own cultures in which they apply God’s Word; and cultures into which they seek to bring God’s Word.

Behavior – learned patterns of action, activities and skills deemed appropriate within a society.

Beliefs – learned beliefs held in common with other members of a society.

Attitudes – emotions and sentiments that members of a society feel about actions, objects and ideas.

Values – standards by which members of a society judge each other’s actions and ideas.

Ideals – the ways in which members of a society believe they and others ought to think and to behave.

Symbols – any word, object or action that represents another word, object or action.

Perspectives: Both populations and observers have their biases and values.

‘emic,’ how populations explain their actions ‘etic,’ how observers describe the same.

4. Material Culture

Artifacts: objects, tools, weapons that can be contrasted and classified in taxonomies.

Limits to classification: generalizing of details; objects out of their context lose their meaning; etic concepts applied to emic objects.

Errors: evolutionary schemes (assuming simple to complex); strict functionalism (ignoring history, change and values); absolute meanings (e.g. property ownership).

Values determine function: Clothing – protection, modesty, adornment, habit, sign of status, role, wealth, ethnicity.

5. Ecology

Adaptation: biology to constants (elevation, climate, threats); culture to variables (seasons).

Subsistence: Food gathering, production, synthesizing.

Population growth and resource depletion.

Coping with drought, war, disease.

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6. Communication

Communication: exchange of symbols via encoding, expression, perception and decoding, seeking to share meaning or create understanding.

Sign: anything that has a direct relation to another. Snow cold, and fire, miracle power.

Symbol: anything that relates to a ‘mental concept’ or another thing.

Attributes: arbitrary, conventional, ambiguous, and cultural.

Meaning: ideas, feelings, and values.

Culture and meaning are transmitted through communication of twelve ‘signal’ systems.

1. Speech 2. Writing3. Mathematics4. Gestures 5. Music6. Artifacts 7. Color8. Lighting 9. Texture10. Time11. Space12. Smell and taste

7. Life Cycle

Rites of passage: rituals that mark transition of individuals from one phase of life into another.

Universal passages: birth, marriage, death.

Optional passages: weaning, naming, age progression, initiation, ancestorhood. Others?

8. Social Groups

Statistical (etic) – ways in which observers classify by demography or behavior.

Societal (emic) – Conscious, mental ways in which folk sort and identify themselves.

Social Group Members

are conscious of their association and interact face-to-face.

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know what kind of folk they are, and they know their group’s symbols. participate in sets of roles, recruitment, acceptance ques (such as being told gossip). organize themselves with status, role, rank, prestige and rewards. can move between statuses.

Associations – Every social group has functions (common interests), norms (right conduct), statuses (division of labor), authority (leadership), symbols (names or signs), property (land, artifacts, money) and members (those who meet criteria).

Types of associations – friendship, gender, age, secret (knowledge, activities, security), prestige, interest (trade, cooperatives).

Institutions – associations having similar, organized functions (religious, political, educational, economic…) and highly-patterned behavior. Associations become institutions when:

Friendship roles and etiquette Charismatic leaders official holders Beliefs creeds Ad hoc (informal) decisions rules Tasks self-maintenance Spontaneous action traditions

Crowds – casual (e.g. shoppers) or organized (spectators). Subject to ‘emotional contagion.’

Communities – agricultural (work land); nomadic (return to political camps), urban (institutional), suburban (residential), metroplex (many cities).

Ethnicity – ascribed membership, conscious identity, shared values and traits (language, food, dress, economy, religious beliefs, political views).

Tribes – territory, trade, raiding, boundary wars, kinship system.

Polyethnicity – symbiotic relations (trade, slavery) between tribes, e.g. Tutsi, Hutu and pygmies.

Caste – amount of ‘cleanness,’ prescribed kinds of work, economic interdependence; hereditary, hierarchical bonds between castes (patron-client relationship). No mobility between castes.

Class – any group marked by stratification (social rank), boundaries, and mobility. Boundaries include wealth, occupation, education, residence, power, prestige….

Etic views: economic strata (Marx); any set of opportunities, attitudes, values and conscience (social scientists).

Emic views: those who share a common rank in a society, whether economic or social.

Minorities – groups that have limited interaction with other groups.

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9. Marriage and Kinship

Every society provides for marriage and has a kinship system. Marriageless societies disintegrate.

Basic dyads – marriage (sex, children, roles, division of labor, distribution of goods); mother & child (enculturation).

Marriage maintains social order and forms alliances between families.

Exogamy – whom one must not marry (e.g., outside of clan, class, language, ethnicity).

Endogamy whom one is permitted to marry: prescribed (required if possible), preferred (e.g. cross-cousins), permitted.

How to find a wife – levirate (inherit a wife; provide her with security); captive (if not first wife); bride payment (compensation to bride’s family; advance alimony); suitor service (approach bride’s family); dowry (assist in marriage costs amongst high classes).

How many wives – conjugal-natal family (‘nuclear,’parents and children); polygamy (more than one wife); polyandry (Tibet, Eskamo); group (several brothers marry several sisters, Tibet); concubinage (woman’s children excluded from inheritance).

Most societies allow dissolution of marriage.

Divorce under some circumstances (barrenness, incompatibility, adultry). Death or anticipated death. Levirate (brothers share a wife); sororate (sisters share a husband).

Fictive marriage – A barren wife may ‘adopt’ an unmarried woman who has children or will bear children for her. The children will call the wife ‘father’.

Kinship – Extended family (kin): patrilineal, matrilineal or bilinear. Unilineal kinship provides for stronger relationships and clearer inheritance rights, but engenders more feuds and splits.

Household – Kin who reside together.

10. Kinship Systems & Groups

Structure – Social patterns in how individuals relate to their kin.

Descent – Actual or supposed biological generations within recognized families, clans and tribes.

Linage – Biological descent.

Kin terms – What kin call each other. Each individual has several kin labels.

Clan – fictive descent from a common ancestor. Clans have names and are often exogamous.

Marriage – A formal status that determines new kin relations for mates and their children.

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Residence – where a newly married couple come to dwell (neolocal, patrilocal, matrilocal, avunculocal and natalocal).

Importance of kinship

Kinship can determine individuals’ permitted partners, inheritance rights, children’s clan identity, place of residence, ascribed status, caste affiliation, ancestral identity, communication patterns, rights and privileges.

Kinship was of major importance in Hebrew society and in the identity of the Messiah. The gospel within a society normally flows within kinship systems. Churches are normally made up of one or more families, each of which has kinship relations

that determine proper order within the church. The original promise to Abraham extends to families, clans and tribes, as well as to nations.

11. Economic Systems

Economy – creation, use, and exchange of property (goods) and service (labor: effort, skill, knowledge).

Distribution – gifts, trade, tribute, taxes, tithes, theft, sacrifices, offerings.

Money – symbolic property.

All societies have property (material and intellectual) and technology (tools, weapons).

Subsistence economy -- interpersonal transactions based upon community survival needs. This economy deals only with available goods within a community.

Affective economy – interpersonal transactions based upon trade and barter. This economy functions within and between villages, allowing all to produce different goods.

Market economy – impersonal transactions between sellers and buyers based upon supply and demand. This economy functions within and between cities, allowing for investment and profit with risk.

Command (Marxist) economy – impersonal transactions between state and citizens based upon strict controls. This economy ensures a certain equality of access to goods with a potential for waste.

12. Legal Systems and Political Organization

Avoidance of feuds and war through laws and sanctions (enforcement).

Laws – prescribe rights and duties and proscribe torts and crimes; assign power to enforce and sanctions to apply; resolve differences and restore certainty; define relations between individual and groups.

Sanctions are of two kinds:

Social (psychological pressure): rewards, gifts, gossip, ridicule, exclusion.

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Legal (physical pressure): fines, confiscation of property, imprisonment, torture, death.

Politics – individuals or groups exercising direct social control over others through raw power (threat, coercion) or through acquired authority (appointment, election, inheritance).

Political functions – Provide leadership and governance through administrative decision-taking and enforcement of law.

Political leaders – set goals, mobilize persons, allocate resources, distribute resources, exercise social control.

Political process – Choice of leaders; agreed norms and rules; policing of behavior; settling of disputes; diplomacy and warfare.

13. Religion

Note: the distinction between natural and supernatural is a Western, dualistic worldview. All cultures recognize the visible and the invisible beings.

Spirits: invisible personal beings. Ghost: spirit of a deceased human. ‘Mana’: contagious forces. gods: visible or invisible beings that operate in a ‘power realm’. God: unique, invisible, all-powerful Spirit.

Religion – Cultural beliefs, rituals and symbols relating the visible to the invisible.

Conversion (acculturation). Prayer and worship. Ordering of relationships. Dealing with tragedy, pain and death. Revitalize or reform society (prophetism, life-style change, expectation of a new order).

Beliefs – Cosmic myths, categories of visible and invisible beings, ideal spiritual experiences.

Rituals – Prescribed personal or communal activities that express beliefs, speak to the invisible, and seek spiritual experience or reward.

Forms: prescribed activities and symbols. Meanings: thoughts, emotions and values that participants experience. Functions: information, initiation, participation, affirmation, confirmation.

Calendar rites (recall cultural memory), crisis rites (provide psychological support), transition rites (express cultural ideals).

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Symbols – Use of any of 12 signal systems in ways that elicit deep beliefs, strong emotions, moral judgments or unusual behavior. Symbols endure within a society over time and generations.

Magic – employ symbols in a way that manipulates the invisible forces that the symbols recall. Magic serves to procure benefits, curse enemies, divine spiritual messages, protect persons, cure disease, predict the future. Folk employ magic where their own abilities fail.

Mystery – employ symbols in a way that participants experience invisible forces that the symbol recalls.

Forms – animism (everything has a soul); animation (spirits may inhabit anything); polytheism (having a pantheon of gods or expressions of a God); monotheism (recognizing but one True God).

Theories of religion – cognitive (mentally construct and maintain nature and society); psychological (express or alleviate emotional ‘drives’ and frustrations); social (represent and strengthen socials groups and statuses); ecological (maintain harmony with the human, animal and natural world); revelational (responding to revealed messages from the invisible).

Statuses and roles – prophets (speak to the community about social issues or needs); shamans (‘seer’, speak to persons about their questions or needs); priests (perform rituals in behalf of the community); sorcerers (perform rituals in behalf of individuals).

Table 1. Various Religious Practices

Ancestor worshipApotheosisApotropaic magicAmuletAnimismAstrologyAuthorityCharmContagious magicCultDemonDivinationEsotericaExorcismEvilFertility WorshipFetishFoodGeniusGod

Goddess WorshipGhostHeresyIconIntercessionImmortalityKachinaMagic and religionManaMannaMasksMiracleMedicineMonotheismMythMysteryNecromancyNeopaganismNew AgeOccultism

OmenPainPolytheismPrayerProphecyRebirthReligious ecstasyRitualSacrificeShamanismSign SupernaturalSpell (paranormal)SupplicationSympathetic magicTalismanTarot readingTheismTotemVision questWestern mystery tradition

High (official) religion – Cosmic beings (gods and angels) and cosmic forces (fate and karma).

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Low (folk) religion – Local beings (ancestors and saints) and local forces (magic and mana).

High Christianity – Worship God and obey Jesus Christ; worship ordered around prophesy and communion; authority of the Scriptures; reduce suffering and injustice; perform spiritual disciplines; make disciples of all nations.

Low Christianity – Seek help from God and saints; worship as self-expression and visible phenomena; authority of priests and preachers; pay for blessings; employ symbols; recruit members.

14. Expressive Culture

Arts – express cultural values; a kind of ‘map’ of a culture.

Entertainment – express cultural themes and myths through contests and pastimes.

15. Socio-cultural Change

Every society and culture changes continually through:

Diffusion of innovations (practices, materials or techniques) from other cultures. Adding, combining or substituting existing practices, materials or techniques. Forced acculturation by stronger societies.

Every culture resists change through boundary maintenance or integration mechanisms.

Most cultural change occurs through a communication process:

1. Awareness: learning about innovations from outside, through persons or media.2. Interest: perceiving potential benefits or prestige.3. Analysis: social group members comparing potential costs and rewards. 4. Choice: group decision to try an innovation while protecting the first adopters.5. Action: implementation of the innovation, provided that skills and materials are available.6. Adjustment: finding ways to cope with unexpected consequence.

16. Individual Culture

Every individual is pulled to cultural conformity by enculturation of prescribed behavior, and is pressed by the threat or application of social or legal sanctions.

One can only become what is mentally conceivable, biologically possible, culturally acceptable and personally possible (biology and society). This results in:

Ideal personality types National character Cross-cultural variation

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Widely-recognize cross-cultural variables:

Communal – individualist (choices) Task orientation – nurturing orientation (social goals) High or low tolerance for ambiguity (desire for certainty) Distant or proximate leadership style (use of power ) Near or far time perspective (planning)

17. World View

Assumptions about reality – West: there is a real world made of lifeless matter; East: the world is an illusion of the mind; tribes: the world is a living organism.

Assumptions – beliefs, unexamined and unquestioned that determine what we ‘see’.

Existential assumptions: Cognitive structures that explain reality. West: atoms, bacteria, gravity. India: various spirit beings; Africa: deceased ancestors who still live amongst them. Beliefs concern time (linear, cyclical, uniform or not), space, logic (linear or contextual).

Affective assumptions: beauty, quality, attitudes (life = suffering, life = pursuit of happiness). Evaluative assumptions: standard by which to judge; criteria for determining truth. West: tell the

truth even if it hurts others; elsewhere: say what will encourage others, even if not true. Standards of morality and sin. America: immorality is bad; India: losing temper is worse.

Functions of world view. It provides:

Cognitive foundations. These beliefs make our explanations seem reasonable. Emotional security. There are many tragedies and dangers in life, and all everywhere fear death.

World view assumptions are most evident at rites of passage (birth, initiation, marriage, harvest and renewal rituals).

Validation of cultural norms. A ‘map’ to guide behavior, standards to judge others’ behavior. Predict and prescribe behavior.

Integration of culture. Unify thoughts, feelings and values. Monitoring of culture change. Reasons to resist change or accept it. Germ theory or spirit

causes? Folk change of world view to better meet their needs.

Implications for Christian ministry:

Well integrated, stable cultures resist change. Cultures in trouble will adopt change easily. ‘Preach the gospel to the poor.’

Introducing change in one part of culture may have consequences in other parts. E.g., loss of fear of spirits may lead to careless living.

Wrong behavior produces strong emotional reactions:

Shame: from violation of social expectations. Shame can be reduced by conformity or by suicide.

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Guilt: from violation of absolute standards. Guilt can be reduced by punishment, by restitution or by confession and forgiveness.

Bible: Sin = violation of God’s covenant or of his righteous standards. Solution = repentance, forgiveness and receiving the Holy Spirit.

Biblical Theistic Worldview Modern Neoplatonic Worldview

God the CreatorSupernatural realm

Religion, spirits, miracles, prayerUltimate questions

Creates and sustains (Little of no connection)

CreationSpirits

HumansAnimalsPlantsMatter

Natural worldMatter

HumansAnimalsPlants

Natural laws under human controlMajor Ways in Which Cultural Values Differ

Gjeert Hofstede, Culture’s Consequences (1997)

Individualism – communalism. Does one take decisions to advance his own interests? Or the interests of his family, team or colleagues? (Personal motivation)

Task driven – nuture driven. Do folk feel they must accomplish work, plans or projects? Or do folk feel they must provide for the needs of others? (Group motivation)

Far – near power distance. Do leaders and followers agree that leaders should remain aloof of followers and take independent decisions? Or should leader consult with followers before taking decisions?

High – low tolerance for uncertainty. Do folk feel they must plan carefully and follow rules? Or are they willing to let life happen and respond to new situations?

Interest in the past or in the future. Do folk look to the past for guidance in the present? Or do they act in the present to make a secure or better future?

Anglo-American World View AssumptionsPaul Hiebert, Anthropological Insights (1985)

1. A real and rational world. Matter obeys laws of physics, and living things laws of biology. Distinguish events and myths, facts and fiction, reality and dreams.

2. Cartsian dualism. Opposition between science and religion, evangelism and compassion ministry, natural and supernatural, body and soul, public and private property, human needs and an unruly world to conquer.

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3. Materialism and prosperity. Value profits over workers’ needs. Judge cultures by their technology. Exercise one’s right to comfort and health. Avoid hardship and danger.

4. Private ownership. Purchase and acquire by payment of a price. Protect property from trespass, goods from theft.

5. Possibility of progress. There is enough for all to have an high standard of living. ‘Unlimited good’. 6. Analytical categories. Apply the scientific method to solve all problems. Fix blame on someone for

all accidents. Refuse fatalism.7. Two-fold judgments. Either this or that. Guilt or innocence. Serious work or enjoyable play. Public or

private. Mine or yours. 8. Power of choice. Take control of your life. Plan ahead. Set goals and achieve them. Apply

management skills to church and mission. Ask how to get things done (not whether they be worthwhile).

9. Mechanical world. Apply engineering skills to nature. Set up a bureaucracy to standardize roles and procedures.

10. Production and profit. Seek task achievement over human relationships. Find efficient ways of producing goods. Ensure maximal profits in the short term.

11. Quantification and statistics. Everything can be measured. Admire the biggest, the fastest and the farthest.

12. Individualism. Maintain your inalienable rights. Make choices that advance your career. Find identity in your achievements. Take care of yourself through self-reliance. Join groups that help you and leave those that do not. (Contractual groups.) Volunteer to help with a worthy cause.

13. Need to be liked. Read acceptance or rejection in every situation. Seek social success through popularity. Feel deeply hurt when rejected.

14. Humanitarianism. Provide relief in disasters. Donate generously to worthy causes. Feel pity for the poor, the destitute, the sick and the injured.

15. Sense of equality. Equal opportunity, not equal achievement or acceptance. Equal justice for all.16. Informality. Disdain for hierarchy except where required for production. Prefer comfortable, casual

dress. Treat foreigners like one’s old friends. 17. Competition and free enterprise. Get top grades in school. Fight to win in sports, romance and war.

Compete for status, power, fame and fortune.18. Direct and confrontational. Face the facts. Meet the problem head on. Negotiate hard. Tell others

how they bother you. Tell what you really think. 19. Cooperation. Cooperate for success against your competitors. Work together with others as a way

of achieving personal goals. You must see how your cooperation brings personal gain.20. Saving time. Pay wages for workers’ time. Continually seek more efficient methods. Start big

projects for quick success. Time can be ‘lost.’ Show anger at delay.21. Emphasis on sight. Prefer visual arts to spoken words, films to discussion, video to radio, literacy to

orality, diagrams to text.22. Abstract knowledge. Teach through ideas, rather than stories. Make disciples by learning doctrines

rather than by obeying Jesus’ commandments. Values scientific theories over good character.23. Systematic thought. Seek coherent knowledge. Think rationally without regard for feelings. Plan

work and organize personnel. Preach sound theology rather than about urgent social needs.

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24. Order before relationships. Maintain a nice home but ignore your neighbors. Shoot criminals if they resist arrest. Allow only theologians to lead churches.

Russian Cultural ThemesYale Richmond, From Nyet to Da (1992)

1. Alcohol2. Authoritarianism3. Big is beautiful4. Careful negotiation5. Cautious conservatism6. Community7. Corruption 8. Crowds & bodily contact9. Egalitarianism10. Extremes & contradictions11. Fascination with USA12. Fibbing13. Home, hospitality & conversation14. Messianism15. Nationalities16. Order & disorder17. Orthodoxy18. Pessimism19. Proper culture20. Russian language21. Scarcity22. Secret police23. Statism24. Telephones25. The long winter26. Time & patience27. Toasting28. Women's dependence

Senegambian (African Muslim) Ontological AbsolutesDavid Maranz, Peace Is Everything (1993)

1. God is transcendent, remote and little involved in the daily affairs of his creation. To Sufi Muslims, however, the divine reality can be experienced through proper action.

2. The universe is composed of both visible and invisible reality, and the invisible is more important ontological and powerful than the visible.

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3. Peace is the ideal state, and harmony is the ideal relationship of the universe. Peaceful states and relationships provide the best possible well-being in human life.

4. At all levels of the universe, the ideal condition is integration. That is, all parts need to be brought together through interdependence, so that each will be able to play its intended function.

5. Every being and part of the universe has an assigned role that has to be filled for the satisfactory functioning of the whole. Submitting to the divine assures of approval on the Day of Judgment.

6. The universe is organized on the basis of hierarchies of position and power at every level and within every domain. Each position bears assigned responsibilities.

7. The universe is administered through the exercise of both inherent and derived power.8. Reality has two aspects: exterior and interior. This forces man both to accept and overcome his

ambiguous position in a dichotomized (split) cosmic structure.9. Humans are the ceremonial center of the universe; therefore humans have responsibility to perform

proper rituals.10. All spiritual good or evil, as well as abstract qualities, are transferred by means of proper intent.

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The Cultural OnionDonald K. Smith (1987)

Transforming World ViewsGalen Currah (2010)

Deep world view change may take years of time, even several generations.

1. Bring folk to faith in Jesus Christ, form churches with them, let them begin worshiping God in their forms, and teach them to obey Jesus’ commandments.

2. Identify cultural beliefs and practices that disagree with the Holy Bible.3. Understand those beliefs and practices as the society’s way of meeting human needs.4. Examine what the Bible teaches on the matter, and conform your theology to Scripture.5. Seek the mind of the Holy Spirit on the matter, while loving God and others.6. Submit your new thoughts on the matter to your community, and let others discern.7. If the community agrees, then introduce new teaching to the leaders of the churches.8. Let the leaders guide churches to adopt new beliefs and to modify their cultural practices.9. Patiently let the Holy Spirit guide the churches into understanding Scripture and obeying it.

10. Believers will live out their faith in their social groups and institutions.11. Eventually, biblical values and Christian practices diffuse throughout society.12. Keep on repeating this process, in every generation.

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18. Kinship Bonds

19. Scripture and Anthropology

Case study of Exodus 18

Verses 1-7 Kinship system

Verses 8-12 Religious system

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Truth about Yahweh with ‘proof’ of his work. Confession of faith (belief): Yahweh is greater than all gods. Offerings (ritual). Aaron brought bread (priest). Elders (community).

Verses 13-22 Political system

Recognized authority. Settle disputes. Statutes (prescribed behavior) Laws (proscribed behavior) Administration (chiefs of 1000, 100, 50, 10 households).

Discussion groups

1. Form a small group and read together a Scripture text.2. Identify anthropology categories that you see in the text.3. Discuss how those categories help you understand the text.4. Make an application of the text to your church and to your culture.

Bible texts

A. Acts 8:9-19. Magic and religion. Clash of world views.B. Acts 14:8-12. Are miracles a sign of the gods?C. Acts 15:5-11. Must Gentiles become cultural Jews in order to be saved?D. 1 Corinthians 10:14-22. God, demons and humans.E. 1 Corinthians 11:2-10. God, Christ, husband and wife.F. Revelation 7:9-14. Every ethnic group, language group, religious group and tribal group.

Other bible texts

5. Mention to each other some other bible texts that are hard to understand.6. Follow the same steps to understand those texts.

Discussion groups

1. Form a small group.2. Identify a current Christian practice that is hard to accept.3. Discuss how anthropology categories help you understand that practice.4. Distinguish which part of the practice is Scriptural and which part may be cultural.

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20. American, Indian and Christian Worldviews

Anglo American Traditional Indian Christian (?)Empiricism. We live in a real world that is orderly and measureable. We can experience it through our senses.

‘Maya.’ We live in a world of personal experiences where meaning must be found within ourselves.

Revelation. We live in a created world that we know through both experience and revelation from the Creator

Absolutes. The real world has its own existence, history and facts. Human dreams are only illusions.

Relativism. There is no sharp distinction between fact and fantasy, truth and error. Having visions is normal.

Truth & error. The world is real but temporary. God reveals truth while humans invent illusions.

Naturalism. We can experience the world through our senses. There is no way to know if the supernatural exists.

Spirituality. Gods and spirits inhabit the world along with us and they often appear to us.

Discernment. We experience the world through our senses and know God through his indwelling Holy Spirit.

Linear time. Time moves from the past to the future without repeating itself. This life is the only life we will have.

Cyclical time. History repeats itself and all living things will be reborn many times in other forms.

Eternity and time. God surrounds human time and is leading history towards a goal. We will exist forever more.

Order and immutability. The world operates by unchanging, natural laws. One kind of thing does not become another kind.

Mutability & unpredictability. Things are seldom what they appear to be and may change into other things suddenly.

Providence & dependability. God rules over his creation according to truth, rewarding those who seek him. He created kinds and amazing variety.

Knowledge. The human mind can discover knowledge with which they can control the world. Knowledge is valuable.

Wisdom. ‘Njana’ comes by intuition through meditation. The wise may gain release from this world.

Knowledge & wisdom. Humans can discover knowledge but they require godly wisdom to use rule the world as stewards.

Particularistic & categorized world. The world can be described by scientific categories. There are sharp distinctions between types and kinds of living things.

Unity of all things. All things are manifestations of one spirit. All living things share the same life force. There are continuums but no clear categories.

Kinds of life in one world. The One God gives life to all living things. Some things remain lifeless. The world can be described in many ways.

Equality. Everything in the same category is more or less equal. All humans have the same legal rights. Everyone should be made to believe the same things.

Hierarchy. All living things, all experiences, all activities have higher or lower rank. Wisdom ranks above devotion which ranks above idolatry.

Responsibility. God gives authority to his creatures along with responsibility to love Him, to love others, and to make disciples of those who repent and believe.

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Individualism. Every person has the right to seek happiness through personal freedom. Democracy allows humans to choose their own leaders.

Interdependence. Each caste has skills and specialized work that are essential to the whole society. Diversity and cooperation are the ideal.

Unity in diversity. Each person receives unique gifts and abilities to be employed for the common good. Some are gifted to lead, other to serve with joy.

Competition. All forms of live compete for resources. Ability and effort are rewarded. Medicine must conquer disease.

Patron-client relations. Social hierarchy and inter-dependence are combined in the patron-client bond.

Stewardship. Humans are to conserve the earth and benefit from its resources. Government is to reward good and suppress evil.

Management. Through knowledge of natural and moral laws, humans control their own destiny.

‘Karma.’ All actions have natural and moral conse-quences.

Justice. God both grants knowledge and metes out justice according to human faithfulness or greed.

Science & technology. Systematic discovery can provide a more secure way of life for everyone.

‘Samsara’ & pilgrimage. Deeds done in past lives determine one’s present. Responses in this life can prepare a better future life.

Prayer and obedience. Human knowledge and advance prove temporary. Responses in this life prepare a better eternity.

Uniform morality & justice. All deserve the same compassion and justice. The purpose of law is to mete out justice, rewarding good and punishing evil.

Relative morality. Humans are to live in conformity with their social rank. Karma alone determines the outcome of behavior. The purpose of law is to maintain harmony.

Absolute morality and undeserved grace. Humans are guided by divine and human laws on one hand and by redemption on the other.

Missionary. Those who have knowledge are obligated to share it with the rest of the world, improving their lives.

Inclusivism and tolerance. Accept a diversity of thoughts and actions, beliefs and rituals. Respect cultural differences.

Missionary and tolerant. Those who know God’s truth are commissioned to share it while accepting persecution from those who reject it.

Self-reliance. The greatest fear is to run out of money and become dependent on others.

‘Dharma’ or duty. Each cast and individual should fulfill their prescribed role.

Dependence and kindness. God is kind and generous with us and wants us to be the same with each other

Expanding good. All who seek new opportunities can find them. There is always more to learn, more to conquer.

Limited good. One can gain more only at the expense of others. Attempts to improve your life pose a threat to the community.

Sufficient good. In God’s creation, he provides good for all. However, human injustice denies many their rightful share.

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‘Third Culture,’ Bridges

Missionary model – Members of one cultre adopt the language and customs of a second culture and introduce new beliefs and practices or technology.

Bridge model -- Members of two culture groups form together a new groups that shares aspects of each culture and creates new customs. They discuss together new ideas and practices, and each takes some new ideas and practices back to their own culture group.

Bridge groups:

Unique. There are no two bridge groups that have an identical culture. Blended. The group borrows some practices from both cultures. Independent. The group members choose a common language and agenda. Temporary. The third culture will die when the group disbands. Safe. They can discuss and test ideas before introducing them into a society. Peaceable. They allow for congenial relationships. Enjoyable. Bridge group members often enjoy each other with little stress.

Missionaries who can form a bridge group with a third culture can introduce helpful changes more rapidly that in traditional missionary methods.

21. Set Theory in Anthropology

In all cultures, humans categorize objects or ideas. A category includes some things and excludes others. Two variables provide four ways to form categories:

Variable 1 – the basis on which elements are assigned to a category, whether (a) their nature or attributes, or (b) their relationship to other things or to a reference point.

Variable 2 – the boundary around those elements, whether (c) sharp or clear, or (d) fuzzy or missing.

DiscreetClear boundaries

VariableFuzzy (unclear) boundaries

IntrinsicElements share certain attributes.

These form a static set.For example, apples. For example, mountains and

valleys.

ExtrinsicElements are related to something.

These form a dynamic set.

For example, siblings related to the same parent.

For example, Sport fanswhose interest waxes and

wanes.

Who are Christians?

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Intrinsic, discreet set.

Intrinsic, variable set.

Extrinsic, discreet set.

Extrinsic, variable set.

Who are church members?

Intrinsic, discreet set.

Intrinsic, variable set.

Extrinsic, discreet set.

Extrinsic, variable set.

Who must be evangelized?

Intrinsic, discreet set.

Intrinsic, variable set.

Extrinsic, discreet set.

Extrinsic, variable set.

22. Spiritual Warfare in Current Christianity

Pre-modern cultural themes (world view)

Eternal existence of good and evil engaged in cosmic battle, and humans are the victims. Gods control the world and humans manipulate gods through magic. The objective is to get good to win over evil until the battle starts again.

Modern cultural trends

A dualistic worldview that excluded spiritual activity. Faith in science and secular materialism. Abstract theology or denial the truth of the gospel in churches.

Post-modern cultural trends

Loss of faith both in secular materialism and in religious myths. Emphasis on types of spirituality. Popular acceptance of Hindu and Buddhist philosophies.

Spiritual warfare in low Christianity

A battle between God and Satan for control of human beings.

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Believers seek to bin Satan and his demons, to free up his human captives. Demonic manifestations and prolonged exorcisms.

Scriptural evaluation

God remains eternally supreme and Satan is a temporary usurper. Humans are not victims but rebellious sinners. Jesus Christ has despoiled Satan and his demons by the cross. 1 Cor. 1:18-25 The believers’ struggle with evil is won by their faith and faithfulness.

Scriptural guidelines

The cosmic battle has been won; Satan was defeated at the Cross. Our struggle is for the hearts and souls of humans by the power of the Holy Spirit. God may permit Satan power to demonize people, in order to test their faith. The demonized are more to be pitied than feared. Our efforts go into love, reconciliation, peace and justice. Neither deny Satan’s reality nor fear his power.

23. Anthropology of Your Ministry

A. Material Culture What are the buildings, artifacts and objects that your church employs in its ministry? What are the kinds of costumes that church members and ministers wear to church?

B. Ecology How does your ministry change its activities between seasons? How does your ministry finance its activities?

C. Communication What are the major symbols that your ministry employs, and what does each one signify? What are some ways in which your ministry uses the twelve signals systems?

D. Life Cycle What are the stages that members of your ministry pass through? (Seeker, convert, elder?) What kind of ‘rites of passage’ marks a transition from one stage to the next?

E. Social Groups What are the major statuses in your ministry? List the statuses in rank order. What is the main role of each status?

F. Marriage and Kinship How do your ministry members arrange for marriage and weddings? Which are the major kinship systems (extended families) in you ministry?

G. Economic System What kinds of property and equipment does your ministry own? In what ways does your ministry finance itself?

H. Legal Systems and Political Organization

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Who are the power holders in your ministry? How does your ministry enforce its rules?

I. Religion What are your ministries main beliefs? What are your ministries regular and occasional rituals?

J. Expressive Culture How does your ministry express itself in art, music, drama or dance? What forms of entertainment does your ministry provide for its members?

galen@currah.us