Curriculum Design

Curriculum DesignVergel John P. Ercia DDMarrangement of the elements of a curriculum into a substantive entity

COMPONENTS of Design (Giles)SourcesScienceSociety Eternal and Divine SourcesKnowledgeLearner

Science as a SourceScientific method provides meaning for the curriculum designDesigns that stress learning how to learn or thinking curricula emphasize scientific proceduresCoincides with the scientific and rational world of Western culture5Society as a SourceSchool is an agent of society, thus the school should draw its ideas for the curriculum from the analysis of the social situationCurriculum design can only be completely understood if it is contextualized socially, economically, and politically6Eternal and Divine SourcesDraw on the past for guidance as to what is appropriate contentRelated to eternal truth revealed through such sources as the Bible or other religious documents7Realization of the importance of peoples values and personal morality

Spirituality: not reference to divinity but lived reality, experience and the possibility of experiencing

Drawing upon spirituality allows the curriculum to be undergirded by questions about the nature of the world, the purpose of life, and what it means to be human and to be knowledgeable. Knowledge as a SourceDisciplined Knowledgehas a particular method or methods by which scholars extend its boundariesUndisciplined Knowledgedoes not have unique content, but has content that is clustered according to the focus of the investigation8Knowledge as a source does not leave out any particular content.

Hunkins: knowledge is the only source or curriculum and society and what we know about learners serve as filters in the selection of content.

The Learner as a SourceCurriculum should be derived from what we know about the learner---how he learns. Forms attitudes, generates interests, and develops values

9We take the hallmarks of what makes a person a learner and try to emphasize them in the curriculum organization

We accept as the purpose of the curriculum the emancipation of the individual.

Key features: learning by doing; emphasis on the social construction and reconstruction of knowledge and the empowerment of the individuals to be engaged in these processes.

Conceptual FrameworkHorizontal organizationConcerned with the side by side arrangement of curriculum componentsVertical organization (sequence or continuity)Concerned with the longitudinal arrangement of curriculum elements10Design Dimension ConsiderationsScopeSequenceContinuityIntegrationArticulationBalance11Scopebreath and depth of curriculum content12Tylers definition of scope: all the content, topics, learning experiences, and organizing threads comprising the educational plan

Need to limit the scope of the curriculum through limited objectives

Need to consider the cognitive, affective, psychomotor domains of learning, as well as the moral or spiritual domain.Sequencevertical relationship among curricular areasthe occurrence and reoccurrence of content and experiences so that students will have opportunities to connect and enrich their understanding of the curriculum presented or experienced13Should the sequence of content and experiences be based on the logic of the subject matter or on the way in which individuals process knowledge

Smith, Stanley and Shores learning principles to guide sequence:1. Simple to complex learning2. Prerequisite learning3. Whole to part learning4. Chronological learning

Posner and Strike organizers for sequenceConcept relatedInquiry relatedLearning relatedUtilization relatedContinuityvertical manipulation or repetition of curriculum components14Accounts for the reappearance of certain major ideas or skills about which educators believe students should have increased depth and breath of knowledge over the length of the curriculum

Bruners Spiral CurriculumIntegrationlinking of all types of knowledge and experiences contained within the curriculum planenables the individual to comprehend knowledge as unified15Integration occurs in the learner, not in the curriculum plan---Taba, Goodlad, et. al.

Taba: we need to develop common knowledge by dealing with ideas that transcend and connect fields of study. We need to move to broader organization of knowledge.

Eisner: when considering curriculum integration, we arrange curricula phenomena such that the individuals intellects and hearts, and perhaps their souls are addressed.

The increased attention to integration results is part from the ongoing discussion of postmodernism, constructionism, and poststructualism---Knowledge is not separated form its reality, people cannot really disconnect themselves from their inquiry and the curriculum cannot exist as separate bits.ArticulationVertical Articulationdepicts the relationships of certain aspects in the curriculum sequence to lessons, topics, or courses appearing later in the programs sequenceHorizontal Articulationrefers to the association between or among elements occurring simultaneously 16The key reason for addressing vertical articulation is to assure that students receive those learnings that are prerequisite to later learnings in the curriculum.

Horizontal articulation is also called correlationBalancegiving appropriate weight to each aspect of the design so that distortions do not occur17Note Olivas set of nine points to consider in attaining balance in the curriculum (p243)Categories of Curriculum DesignSubject-Centered DesignsLearner-Centered DesignsProblem-Centered Designs18Subject-centered DesignGrows from absolutist philosophical assumptionsLearning is conceived of as a mechanistic processThe basis for both horizontal and vertical integration is CONTENT19Based on the belief that what makes humans unique and distinctive is their intellect and the searching for and attainment of knowledge are the natural fulfillment of that intellectCurriculum is organized according to how essential knowledge has been developed in the various subject areas

Subject-Centered DesignsSubject DesignDiscipline DesignBroad Fields DesignCorrelation DesignProcess Design20Subject centered designs are the most popular and widely usedSchools have a strong history of academic rationalism; furthermore, the materials available for school use also reflect content organization.Subject DesignOldest and most widely employed designOrganizes curriculum into a variable number of subjects, each representing a specialized and homogenous body of contentEssence is the inherent nature of its organization. Contents represent knowledge in its most logical, economical, useful, real and easily digestible formSubject DesignLeans heavily on verbal activitiesEmphasis on memorization and information acquisitionAssumes a hierarchy of value inherent in the subjects, resulting in the variable availability of subjects to students (constants, special education, electives)Advantages of the Subject DesignSystematic and effective organization of informationAcquaint students with cultural heritageBased on 2 assumptions:Logic of the subject corresponds to process of learningOrganization facilitates storage and retrieval for use in life situations

Introduces students to the essential knowledge of society

23Advantages of the Subject DesignPractical AdvantagesTeachers are familiar with designTextbooks and other materials are organized by subjectsOrganization is tight and content is rigidly sequencedEfficientSupported by traditionEasy to administer

Weaknesses of the Subject DesignCompartmentalizes learningNeglects students needs, interests, experiencesDetachment from the concerns and events of the real worldFosters passivity

Inefficient arrangement of the curriculum for learning and useKnowledge ends up fragmentedtendency tp proliferate subjectsPrevents individualizationDisempowers studentsFails to foster social, psychological, and physical developmentGoals are limited and learning is passive25Discipline DesignBased on the inherent organization of contentDiscipline: an autonomous community of discourses marked by the following isomorphic features:Community of personsExpression of human imaginationDomainTraditionMode of inquiryConceptual structureSpecialized language or system of symbolsHeritage of literature and system of communicationValuative and affective stanceInstructive community26Note King and Brownells definition of a discipline (p 245)Discipline DesignPlanning is controlled by content disciplinariansStress is on understanding of disciplinary elements. Students are encouraged to see the basic structure of the discipline.Replaces expository procedures and passive memorization with the discovery approach27The manner in which content is learned is suggested by the methods scholars employ to study the content of their fieldsAdvantage of the Discipline DesignSystematic and effective organizationPresents information as concepts, relationships and intellectual processes28Students attain mastery of content and independent learningSubjects to be taught to any child at any stage of development

Weaknesses of the Discipline DesignKnowledge is fragmentedDoes not address the relationship between school and lifeInterests and experiences of students are inadequately consideredInefficient organization for learning and useLimited in scope to goals which are narrowly academic and intellectual29Ignores information that cannot be classified as disciplined knowledgeAddresses only the interests of the college boundStudents must adapt to the curriculum

Broad Fields Design (Interdisciplinary)Attempts to overcome fragmentation and compartmentalization by combining two or more related subjects into a broad field of studyRationale: provide students a comprehensive view for the purpose of general education30Attempts to integrate content that appears to fit together logicallyAllows students to discern relationships among the various aspects of the curriculum content, as well as wholeness of meaningStudents are invited to participate through the construction of meaning in grasping the meaning or meanings of the whole

Advantages of the Broad Fields DesignProvides an orderly and systematic exposure to cultural heritageIntegrates separate subjects thereby enabling learners to see relationships among various elementsTeachers remain comfortable in their useMaterials are readily availableAcceptable to traditionalistsEasy to administer31Weaknesses of the Broad Fields DesignIssue of breadth vs depthRemains fragmented with little integration between fields of studyInadequately handles the experiences and interest of studentsDoes not account for the psychological organization of learning Stresses goals of content coverage and acquisition of information32Remains divorced from the rest of the world

Correlation DesignAllows for some linkage of separate subjects in order to reduce fragmentation of the curricular content33Correlation DesignSTRENGTHAllows linkage of some subjects to reduce fragmentationWEAKNESSESRequires alternative forms of schedulingRequires teachers to plan differently (cooperatively)Process DesignGives attention to the procedures and processes by which individuals advance knowledge, either in specific disciplines or in generalProcess Learning - INQUIRY35Emphasizes those procedures and dispositions to act that enable students to analyze their realities and create frameworks by which the knowledge derived can be arranged

Process DesignSTRENGTHTeaches how to learn and think criticallyWEAKNESSESLacks emphasis on contentLearner-Centered DesignsMan-centered philosophy, society viewed as democratic, individual is naturally goodEmphasizes individual development with organization growing out of the needs, purposes and interest of the studentsMore common in literature than practiceDemands on teacher competenceConventional rejection of philosophical foundation

37Students are the center or focus of the programLearner-Centered DesignsDifferences with subject-centered designs:Organizational cues come from individual students and not contentNot pre-plannedLimitless number of variations38Students are the center or focus of the programLearner-Centered DesignsChild Centered DesignsActivity/Experience-Centered DesignsRomantic (Radical) DesignsHumanistic Designs39Students are the center or focus of the programChild Centered DesignsStudents must be active in their environments if we are to optimize learningCurriculum should be based on students lives, needs, and interests40Child-Centered DesignSTRENGTHEmpowers students through ownership of knowledgeAllows for constructivist learning

WEAKNESSESContent not specificActivity/Experience Centered DesignsDesign based on learners interestsImportant task of the teacher:Discover interest of the studentsHelp students select the most significant of these for studyResulted in research into child and adolescent growth and development

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Activity/Experience Centered Designs People learn only what they experience. Only that learning that is related to active purposes and rooted in experience translates itself into behavioral changes. Children learn best those things that are attached to solving actual problems, that help them in meeting real needs or that connect with some active interest. Learning in its true sense is an active transaction

Taba, 196244Activity/Experience Centered DesignsStructure is not pre-plannedStructure takes shape only with the cooperation of teacher and students- teacher-pupil planningAbsence of advance planning does not imply absence of preparation45Everything has to be done on the spot---we cannot anticipate the interests and needs of children

Activity/Experience Centered DesignsRationaleCurriculum structure is based on learners needs and interestsNot pre-planned like a subject-centered curriculumFocuses on problem-solving for learning46Activity/Experience Centered DesignsFocus on problem-solvingProvides relevance to student learningKnowledge is a means rather than ends in itselfLearning activities take precedence over subject organizationEmphasis is on process objectives rather than content objectives47Strengths of the Activity/Experience Centered DesignsMotivation is intrinsicProvides for individual student differencesProblem solving process equip students with skills needed to cope effectively with life outside school48Based on natural experiences of children

Weaknesses of the Activity/Experience Centered DesignsLearning is based on students needs and interests may result in omission of vital knowledge and informationNeglects the social gal of educationLack of definite horizontal structureLack of continuity (sequence)Design demands an extraordinarily competent teacherTextbooks are not geared to its requirementsContradicts the entire academic structure49Not specific

Romantic/Radical DesignsEmancipation is the goal of educationIndividuals should gain those awarenesses, competencies, and attitudes to enable them to take control of their livesLearning results from the interaction among people; by challenging content and permitting different views about the content, as well as from critiquing the purposes of the information presented50Romantic/Radical DesignsSTRENGTHEmancipates the learnerWEAKNESSThreatens status quoHumanistic DesignsThe focus of attention should be on the subject nature of human existence; there is a relationship between learning and feelingEmpowering individualsStress the development of positive self-concept and interpersonal skills 52Humanistic DesignsSTRENGTHPromotes self esteemEmpowers individualsWEAKNESSESInadequate consideration of methods in light of consequences for learnersInconsistent emphasis on uniqueness of individuals and activities that all students experienceToo much emphasis on the needs of the individual over the overall societyDoes not integrate what is known about human learning and developmentProblem-Centered DesignsDesigns are focused on the problems of livingChief criterion for comparison of variation of different designs is the relative degree of emphasis placed on individual as opposed to social needs.54Focus on the problems of living-- on the perceived realities of institutional and group life-- for the individual and the society in generalAre organized to reinforce cultural traditions and also to address those community and societal needs that are currently unmet.Problem-Centered DesignsEssentially pre-planned activitiesHorizontal organization is dependent on scope and classification of problem areas to be studiedSequence is based on needs ad concern of studentsStress both content and development of learners55Problem-Centered DesignsLife-Situations/Areas of living Design Core CurriculumSocial problems and Reconstructionist Designs56areas of living designCore curriculumPersonal/social concerns of youth designInvolve preparation of students in the major categories of life:CivicResponsibility and competenceEconomic understandingFamily relationshipsIntelligent consumer actionAppreciation of beautyLanguage proficiency

Life Situation/Areas of Living Design57Persistent life situations are crucial to a societys successful functioning; it makes sense to organize a curriculum around themStudents will see direct relevance to what they are studying if the content is organized around aspects of community life

Life Situation/Areas of Living DesignFocuses on problem-solving for learningUtilizes the experiences and immediate situation of learners as gateways to learning58Strengths:Focus on problem solving procedures for learningUses the past and current experiences of learners as a means of getting them to analyze the basic areas of livingPresents subject matter in an integrated from by cutting across the separate subjects and centering on related categories of social lifeWeaknessesDetermining the scope and sequence of essential areas of living is difficultDoes not adequately expose students to their cultural heritageTeachers lack adequate preparation By having students study social or life situations, they not only study ways to improve society but become directly involved in that improvement

Advantages of Life Situation/Areas of Living DesignSubject matter is integratedEncourages problem-solving procedures for learningSubject matter is presented in a relevant formContent is presented in a functional formMotivation is intrinsic

59Presents subject matter in an integrated mannerEncourages students to learn and apply problem solving proceduresRelevant

Problems with the Life Situation/Areas of Living DesignProblems in determining the scope and sequence of essential areas of livingArbitrary specification of a schema for organization of lifes activities suggests an artificiality that may lead to lack of integration and continuityDoes not provide an adequate exposure to cultural heritage60How to determine scope and sequence of essential areas of learningDoes not expose student adequately to their cultural heritageNontraditional

Problems with the Life Situation/Areas of Living DesignTendency to indoctrinate youth to existing conditions and perpetuate the status quoProblem with the need for specialization issuePractical issuesTeachers are not prepared to function within the designTextbooks and other materials are not readily availableNot readily acceptable to traditionalists61Life Situations Strengths & WeaknessesPresents subject matter in an integrated mannerEncourages students to learn and apply problem solving proceduresRelevantHow to determine scope and sequence of essential areas of learningDoes not expose student adequately to their cultural heritageNontraditionalCore intended to provide common learnings or general education for all students important characteristic of the core curriculum is its body its administrative framework, the block time classCore Design63Variationssubject matter core designsareas of living core designsSee recommended characteristics of problem solving (p 260-261)

Strengths:presents relevant subject matter and encourages active processing of informationfosters intrinsic motivation in studentsfosters democratic practices in the classroom through cooperative learning

WeaknessesDeparts significantly from a traditional curriculumIgnores fundamentalsMaterials hard to find

Originated from a reaction to piecemeal learning accumulated from separate subjectsUnifying core of studies was proposed around which other subjects would be related and subordinatedCore Design64Centers on general education and is based on problems arising out of common human activities

Types of Core DesignSeparate subjects coreCorrelated coreFused coreActivity/experience coreAreas-of-living coreSocial problems coreCore CurriculumSeparate Subjects CoreMost commonly encounteredConsists of a series of required individual subjects separately taught by subject matter specialistNo provisions for integration of subjectsRepresents a variant of the subject-centered curriculumCore CurriculumCorrelated CoreFirmly planted in subject-centered traditionAttempts to provide common learnings by showing relationships between two or more subjects contained within the coreTwo forms have emerged:Related subjects taught by subject matter specialists were brought together and taught concurrentlyOverarching scheme basic contents of subjects are retained but selected and organized into broad themes, problems or unitsCore CurriculumCorrelated CoreScope and content remains dependent on content of subject matterRepresents a variation of the broad fields curriculumCore CurriculumFused CoreRooted in subject-centered traditionRepresents a fusion or total integration of two or more separate subjectsRarely represents the entirety of common learning due to difficulty in fusing subjects that are tenuously relatedRepresents a variant of the broad fields designCore CurriculumActivity/Experience CoreProduct of the learner-centered traditionunstructured core defines general education in terms of immediate felt needs and interest of learnersEschew preplanning and formal structure. Utilizes teacher-pupil planningCore CurriculumActivity/Experience CoreLess frequently encounteredRegarded merely an activity/experience curriculum scheduled in a block time class- primarily learner-centered rather than problem centeredCore CurriculumAreas-of-living CoreRooted in the progressive traditionsocial functions core preplanned, required program of general education based on problems arising out of common activities of man in societyConsidered an authentic core design because:Problem centered Essentially preplannedComprised of integrated, required common learningsTaught in block time classCore CurriculumAreas-of-living CoreBasic orientation is the common needs, problems and concerns of learners as participants in their own and societys developmentMakes allowances for student-teacher planningIntegrates and unifies content, encourages problem-solving, presents subject matter in relevant form, fosters intrinsic motivationCore CurriculumSocial Problems CoreBreaks down social barrier of subject-centerd curriculum, adresses the needs and problems of the youth, fosters democratic practices in classroom, encourages use of community as a laboratory for learningProblems:Radical departure from traditionResource materials are hard to findTeachers are not trainedNegative views on general educationCore CurriculumSocial Problems CoreVery similar to the areas-of-living coreDerived from crucial issues that beset man at every level of contemporary lifeMay not be universal in scopeStimulates the critical examination of conflicting personal and social value systemsCore CurriculumSocial Problems CoreFour phases of constructionWhat is the existing situation?What is the consequence of the continuation of this state of affairs?What is the ideal situation, given certain accepted values?If # 3 is different from # 2 , what individual and group action is needed to alter the present course of events?Core CurriculumSocial Problems CoreSocial problems categories are not stable. Curriculum needs constant revisions over timeProblem is with criteria utilized to identify crucial social problemsNot popular because of its controversial natureCore DesignSTRENGTHUnifies contentProvides relevant subject matterEncourages active processing of informationFosters democratic processes in the classroomWEAKNESSESNontraditionalIgnores the fundamentalsMaterials are hard to findRequires an exceptional teacher

Social Problems and Reconstructionist DesignCurriculum should address contemporary social problems and social action projects aimed at reconstructing societyEducators will effect social change and create a more just society79CountsRuggBrameldShaneThe social Reconstructionist curriculum has the primary purpose of engaging the learner in analyzing the many severe problems confronting humankind