current state and problems of contents japanese...

1

Current State and Problems of Japanese Higher Education

Jun ObaResearch Institute for Higher Education

Hiroshima University, [email protected]

University of Tokyo

Seminar on higher education at the Ministry of Higher Education (Research Centre), Riyadh, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, 29 January 2005.

2

Contents

I Education system in JapanII Higher education in JapanIII Recent developments in higher education reform

1. Incorporation of national universities2. The University Council and the deregulation in

higher education3. University financing – increasing competition be-

tween public and private sectors4. Internationalisation of higher education

3

1. Development of the modern educa-tion system

● Development of Terakoya in the Edo period● Introduction of a modern education system after

the Meiji Restoration (1868) - Education System Order (Gakusei)

● Generalisation of elementary education at the be-ginning of the 20th century

I Education system in Japan

41875 1880 1885 1890 1895 1900 1905 1910 1915 1920 1925

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

TotalBoysGirls

Percentage of children in full-time elementary education between 1875 and 1925

5

Percentage of students enrolling in upper sec-ondary schools and higher education institu-tions (universities and junior colleges)

1950

1952

1954

1956

1958

1960

1962

1964

1966

1968

1970

1972

1974

1976

1978

1980

1982

1984

1986

1988

1990

1992

1994

1996

1998

2000

2002

2004

0.0

10.0

20.0

30.0

40.0

50.0

60.0

70.0

80.0

90.0

100.0

Upper secondary schoolHigher education (unive-rsity and junior college)

6

2. Organisation of the school system

● A number of amendments and revisions to the system under the Gakusei (School System Order)

● Characteristics of the pre-war school system:–a relatively short period of compulsory education,

common to all;–a multiple track system after that period

7Organisation of the school system in 1944

8

After World War II

● Entire revision under the occupation● Nine-year compulsory education● Unified into a single track system

–universities being open to every graduate of an upper-secondary school

–abolition of distinction among higher education insti-tutions, except the junior colleges as an interim sys-tem

9

Organisation of the present school system

normal ageschool year

Hig

her e

duca

tion26 21 Doctor University

25 20 (graduate school)24 1923 18

Master22 1721 1620 15 University19 14 (faculty)

Junior collegeCollege Advanced

18 13 courses Special17 12 of training16 11 Upper secondary school school15 10 Technology

com

puls

ory

educ

atio

n14 913 8 Lower secondary school12 711 610 59 4 Elementary school8 37 26 154 Kindergarten3

Seco

ndar

y ed

ucat

ion

Secondary education

school

Prim

ary

educ

atio

nPr

e-sc

hool

ed

ucat

ion

10

Number of schools, students and teachers as of 1st May 2004

Number of schools Number of students Number of teachers*

Kindergarten 14,061 1,753,396 109,853

Elementary school 23,420 7,200,929 414,887

Lower secondary school 11,102 3,663,512 249,801

Upper secondary school 5,429 3,719,048 255,629

Secondary education school 18 6,051 470

Special education schools(for handicapped children) 999 98,796 62,255

College of technology 63 58,681 4,474

Junior college 508 233,749 12,740

University 709 2,809,323 158,756

Special training school 3,443 791,540 40,675

Miscellaneous schools 1,878 178,115 11,267

11

A very good performance in primary and sec-ondary education● Ranking in the OECD's PISA 2000

–first group for mathematics and science–second group for reading

● PISA 2003–still in the same groups as the PISA 2000–Japan slightly lowered its ranking by country.

12

PISA 2000: Top 10

Reading Mathematics Science1 Finland Japan South Korea2 Canada South Korea Japan3 New Zealand New Zealand Finland4 Australia Finland UK5 Ireland Australia Canada6 South Korea Canada New Zealand7 UK Switzerland Australia8 Japan UK Austria9 Sweden Belgium Ireland

10 Austria France Sweden

13

PISA 2003 : Top 10 and JapanReading Mathematics Problem-solving

1 Finland Finland South Korea2 South Korea Japan Hong Kong3 Canada Hong Kong Finland4 Australia South Korea Japan5 Lichtenstein Lichtenstein New Zealand6 New Zealand Australia Macao7 Ireland Macao Australia8 Sweden Holland Lichtenstein9 Holland Czech Republic Canada

10 Hong Kong New Zealand Belgium--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

14 Japan14

1. Foundation of modern higher edu-cation institutions

● Establishment of the University of Tokyo (later Imperial University, then Tokyo Imperial Univer-sity) by the Government in 1887

● Other imperial universities in major cities

II Higher education in Japan

15

● Characteristics of these institutions–Governmental institutions–Organised on the continental European model (esp-

ecially Germanic)–Bureaucratic system with quasi-autonomous academic

units (faculties)

16

● Other institutions–Governmental institutions other than imperial univer-

sities–Local public institutions–Private institutions

● Specialised School Order in 1903● University Order in 1918

–acknowledgement of the university status to non-gov-ernmental institutions

17

Number of higher education institu-tions as of 1943

Universities[imperial univer-

sities]

SpecialisedSchools Total

Governmental(national) 19 [7] 58 77

Local public 2 24 26

Private 28 134 162

Total 49 [7] 216 275

18

Characteristics of pre-war higher edu-cation● Well-organised bureaucratic administration sys-

tem in governmental institutions● Coexistence of three sectors of higher education

institutions – governmental (national), local pub-lic and private

● Absolute priority to the national institutions, es-pecially the imperial universities

19

After the war (as of 1949)

● 70 national universities without difference in le-gal status among them

● 17 local public universities● 81 private universities● Junior colleges (regarded as provisional)

20

2. The expansion of higher education and its decline

● Rapid growth of higher education in the 1960s and early 1970s

● Number of institutions–1960 : 245 universities and 280 junior colleges–1975 : 420 universities and 513 junior colleges

● Multiplication of students from 1960 to 1975–Universities : 2.77 times–Junior colleges : 4.28 times

21

● Enrolment ratio (of the age cohort)–10.3% in 1960–38.4% in 1975

22

Number of universities by sector

1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

500

550

600

650

700

750

PrivatePublicNational

23

Number of junior colleges by sector

1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

500

550

600


24

Students enrolment in universities

1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2001 2002 2003 20040

250,000

500,000

750,000

1,000,000

1,250,000

1,500,000

1,750,000

2,000,000

2,250,000

2,500,000

2,750,000

3,000,000


25

Second expansion in the 1980s and early 1990s● Number of universities

–1980 : 446 universities (93 national, 34 public and 319 private)



26

Trends in 18-year-old population and access to higher education

1955

1956

1957

1958

1959

1960

1961

1962

1963

1964

1965

1966

1967

1968

1969

1970

1971

1972

1973

1974

1975

1976

1977

1978

1979

1980

1981

1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

0

25

50

75

100

125

150

175

200

225

250

0%

5%

10%

15%

20%

25%

30%

35%

40%

45%

50%

18-year-olds Entrants (universities & junior colleges)

Ratio of the age group advancing to universities and junior colleges

tens

of t

hous

ands

27

1. Incorporation of national universi-ties

● Change in the status of the governmental institu-tions

● Legal personality and more autonomy

III Recent developments in higher education reform

28

a. Progress towards incorporation

● Proposals for incorporation–Teikokudaigaku dokuritsuan shiko [Private study on

independence of the Imperial University] in 1899–Michio Nagai's Daigakukosya [university corpora-

tion] in 1962.–The Central Council for Education's proposal on in-

corporation of national universities

29

● Discussion at the National Council on Educa-tional Reform in the late 1980s

● Some governmental consultative organs' recom-mendations in the framework of administrative reform of the government

● Unanimous rejection on the part of national uni-versities and the Monbusho (Ministry of Educa-tion)

30

● A new administrative system "Independent Ad-ministrative Institution (IAI)" in 1999

● 57 new autonomous governmental corporations in April 2001

● Study on the incorporation of national universi-ties in this framework

31

● A ministerial study on the incorporation of na-tional universities from 1999

● Laws on the incorporation of national universities in 2003

● Incorporation on 1st April 2004

32

b. The national university corporation system(1) Goals/plan and evaluation

● A legal personality to each national university● Block funds● Definition of

–goals by the Minister of Education–a plan by each university (then approved by the Min-

ister of Education)

33

● An evaluation committee in the Ministry of Edu-cation–academic and non-academic members–president : Ryoji Noyori (2001 Nobel laureate in

chemistry)● Report from the NIAD-UE with respect to mat-

ters essentially related to education and research

34

MEXT

Evaluation Committeefor National University

Corporations

National university corporations

Draft (opinions) of MTG

Preparation of MTP

Preparation of annual plan

Presentation of MTG

Approval of MTP

Opinions on MTG/MTP, etc.

Independent Administrative Institution National Institution forAcademic Degrees andUniversity Evaluation

(NIAD-UE)

Report on the results of evaluation on education and research

Peer review

Evaluation

Commission on Policy Evaluation and Evaluation of Independent Administrative Institutions(Ministry of Public Management and Home Affairs)

Report on the results of evaluation

Opinions, if necessary

MTG: medium-term goals MTP: medium-term plan

Recommendations, if necessary

Consultations on MTG/MTP, etc.

Report on the results of evaluation

35

(2) Governance and management

● President of the university● Deliberative bodies

–board of directors–administrative council–education and research council

● Structure of the secretariat at the discretion of each university

National University Corporation

President

Executives

Board of directors

Internal representativesdesignated by the president

Administrativecouncil

Internal representativesconcerning education

and research

Education andresearch council

President selection committeeAuditors

Externalexperts

External experts only

37

● Participation of external persons in university management–one executive (member of the board of directors) at

least–not less than half of the members of the administra-

tive council

38

(3) Personnel

● Non-public servant status–increased flexibility in personnel affairs–without staff quota management by the Government–salary of the staff (academic and non-academic) in the

block grant (operational grant)

39

Public servant type Non-public servant typeGuarantee of status Stipulated by law Stipulated by rules of employment

of each corporation

Rights of labour Disputes are prohibited. Disputes are not prohibited.

Recruitment of administrativestaff

Selection among successful can-didates in the national public serv-ice examination

According to the criteria definedby each corporation

Dual employment, side business,and political activities

Restricted by the National PublicService Law

Stipulated in the employment rulesof each corporation

Foreigners Impossible to appoint them tomanagement positions

Possible to appoint them to man-agement positions

Salaries and working hours Determined by each corporation (idem)

Medical insurance and pensions Similar to the national public ser-vants

(idem)

Provisions of the penal code suchas bribes

Similar to the national public ser-vants

(idem)

40

(4) Students' payment

● A scope to decide tuition fees and entrance fees, based on the standards determined by the MEXT

● Fees in 2004–tuition fees : 5208000 yen (around 5,200 US dollars)–entrance fees : 282,000 yen (around 2,800 US dollars)

41

c. After incorporation - what has hap-pened and problems

● Finance● Governance● External people● Evaluation● Distinction between the public and private sectors

42

(1) Financial stability of national uni-versities

● Operational grant to be diminished from FY2005● Rise of the standards of fees set by the MEXT● Difficulty in finding other sources

43

● Cost of the increased autonomy–Confrontation with student and staff unions, particu-

larly with respect to revisions of fees –Pressure from the community

● Different fees among national universities?● Very precarious situation of national universities

44

(2) Improvement of the university governance

● Efforts for dissolution of the "dual structure" – academic and administrative

● Construction of an administrative structure cen-tring on the president –ex. Hiroshima University (next page)

45

President

President’s bureau

Board of DirectorsAdministrative

CouncilEducation and

Research Council

Vice-president(attachedschools)

AttachedSchoolsOffice

Vice-presidentExecutive

(education andstudents)

EducationOffice


(research andinternational

relations

ResearchOffice


(collaboration)

CollaborationOffice


(ICT)

ICT PolicyOffice

Vice-presidentExecutive(finances)

Officeof Finance


(personnel andgeneral affairs)

Personnel andGeneral Affairs

Office

Vice-presidentExecutive(hospital)

Office ofthe Hospital

Centres for common useFaculties

Graduate schools

University hospital

Co-ordination Committee of directors of Faculties, Graduate Schools

and Research InstitutesAuditors

Research institutes

Control Bureau

Eval. Committee

46

● Leadership of the president● Wide (and positive) participation of constituent

members● Development of non-academic staff

47

● Danger of an excessive concentration of powers● Shared governance (R. Birnbaum)

48

(3) Participation of external people in university administration

● Effective participation of external experts in or-der to be responsive to society - How?

49

External members of the Administra-tive Council of Hiroshima University

Name Occupation (former)W. Imanaka President, Chugoku Newspaper

K. Inai President, Japan Audio Visual Educational Association (Former Secretary to theMinister of Education)

B. Johnstone Professor of Higher and Comparative Education, State University of New Yorkat Buffalo (Former President of State University of New York)

M. Ogasawara President, Board of Education of Hiroshima Prefecture

M. Onami Special Advisor, Kyoto Tachibana Women’s University (Former President ofRitsumeikan University)

T. Shiiki Lawyer

S. Takasu Chairman, Chugoku Economic Federation / Chairman of the Board of Directors,Chugoku Electric Power Co. Ltd.

K. TanabeSecretary-General, Tokyo Conference for the Collaboration in Chugoku (FormerDirector-General, Chugoku Bureau of Economy, Trade and Industry (METIChugoku))

50

(4) The evaluation

● Underdeveloped evaluation methods● Time consuming

51

(5) Blurred distinction between public and private sectors

● Competition between the public and private sec-tors for the same resources (competitive research funds, students, etc.)

● Incorporation of national universities has made them closer to the private sector.

52

2. The University Council and the de-regulation in higher education

● Discussion at the National Council on Educa-tional Reform (Rinjikyoikushingikai)

● Establishment of the University Council in 1987

a. The University Council and its recommen-dations

53

● Background –Progress in scientific research and changes in human

resources;–Rise in the percentage of students continuing to

higher education and diversification of students; –Growing need for lifelong learning and rising social

expectations of universities.

54

● Abolition of subject areas – one of the most im-portant recommendations– structure curricula reflecting their own educational

ideals and objectives–no definition of subject areas, such as general educa-

tion and specialised education–no requirement on obtaining a certain number of cred-

its in each subject area (acquisition of a minimum to-tal number of credits only)

55

1998 Report A Vision for the University of the 21st Century and Future Reform Measures : Distinctive Universities in a Competitive Environment● Improve the quality of education and research with

the purpose of nurturing the ability to investigate issues;

● Secure university autonomy by making the educa-tional and research system structure more flexible;

● Establish university administration and manage-ment with responsible decision-making and im-plementation; and

● Individualise universities and continuously im-prove their education and research by establishing multiple evaluation systems. 56

2002 revision of the School Education Law● More flexibility for a reorganisation of faculties

and departments● Introduction of a continual third-party evaluation

system for all universities

57

b. Diversification of higher education institutions and their programmes

● Universal phase (M. Trow)–Enrolment ratio : 49.1% in 1999–Over 50% in 1987, if the non-university sector is in-

cluded

58

● Definite abandonment of the planned higher edu-cation policy

● Acceleration of diversification of higher educa-tion institutions

59

Implementation of curriculum reform in universities (2001)

Review of the number of cred-its required for graduation

Introduction of course system

Review of credits calculation

Review of compulsory and elective subjects system

Wedge-formed curriculum

Review of subject classifica-tion

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500

475

329

365

321

204

353

60

c. Development of human resources in knowledge-based society

● Knowledge : key to the development● Lifelong learning● Adult students

61

Japan's foreign production ratio by industry

62

Number of employees by occupa-tional classification

63

Number of cases of co-operative research imple-mented between national universities and the indus-try / Number of the TLO recognised by the Gov-ernment

1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 20030

1,000

2,000

3,000

4,000

5,000

6,000

7,000

8,000

9,000

10,000

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

Number of casesTLO (plotted on the right axis)

64

3. University financing – increasing competition between public and private sectors

a. The spiral of tuition fees● Governmental funds to HE institutions in the

FY2003–97 national institutions and others : 1,525,606 million

yen–989 private universities and junior colleges : 321,750

million yen

65

1975

1976

1977

1978

1979

1980

1981

1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

050,000

100,000150,000200,000250,000300,000350,000400,000450,000500,000550,000600,000650,000700,000750,000800,000850,000900,000950,000

1,000,0001,050,0001,100,000

0.00

0.25

0.50

0.75

1.00

1.25

1.50

1.75

2.00

2.25

2.50

2.75

3.00

3.25National UniversitiesLocal public universitiesPrivate universitiesPrivate/National

Yen

The first year tuition fees (entrance fees included) by sector and the ratio of tuition fees of private universities to those of national universities

66

b. Poor public expenditure on higher education

● Pressure towards the reduction of public expendi-ture on HE–decrease in subsidies to private universities–increase in tuition fees of national universities

67

Public expenditure on higher educa-tion (2000) in OECD countries

Aus

tralia

Aus

tria

Belg

ium

Cana

daCz

eck

Rep.

Den

mar

kFi

nlan

d

Fran

ceG

erm

any

Gre

ece

Hun

gary

Icel

and

Irela

nd

Italy

Japa

n

Kor

ea

Mex

ico

NL

Nor

way

Pola

ndPo

rtuga

lSp

ain

Swed

enSw

itzer

land UK

USA

OEC

D T

otal

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

4.0

4.5

5.0

3.2

2.7 2.6

4.7

1.8

4.6

4.2

2.0

2.42.1

3.0

2.6

4.1

1.81.6

2.7

4.3

2.9

4.1

1.8

2.3 2.4

3.63.4

2.5

3.5

2.9

1.21.4 1.3

2.0

0.8

2.5

2.0

1.0 1.10.9 1.0 1.1

1.3

0.80.5

0.70.9

1.3

1.7

0.81.0 1.0

2.0

1.21.0 1.1 1.2

as a percentage of total public expenditureas a percentage of GDP

68

c. Increase in competitive funds open to public and private institutions

● Competitive funds open indifferently to public and private institutions

69

Number of COE projects adopted by the MEXT, by sector

2002 2003 20040

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

84

97

23

4 51

25

31

4

National universitiesPublic universitiesPrivate universities

70

Top 15 universities ranked by the amount of competitive research funds awarded by the Government (million yen)

Toky

o

Kyot

o

Osa

ka

Toho

ku

Nag

oya

Kyus

hu

Hok

kaid

o

TITe

ch

Keio

(priv

ate)

Tsuk

uba

Hiro

shim

a

Chi

ba

Was

eda

(priv

ate)

TMD

U

Kobe

0

5,000

10,000

15,000

20,000

25,000

30,000

35,000

40,00037,177

18,60115,591

11,9248,784 8,420 7,640

5,924 4,978 4,169 3,138 2,586 2,586 2,554 2,517

71

4. Internationalisation of higher edu-cation

● Nakasone Plan in 1987–More than 100,000 international students in Japan be-

fore 21st century● Japan Student Services Organisation

http://www.jasso.go.jp/index_e.html

72

Number of international students in Japanese higher education institutions

1978

1979

1980

1981

1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

0

10000

20000

30000

40000

50000

60000

70000

80000

90000

100000

110000

120000TotalStudents financed by the Japanese government

73

Breakdown of the international stu-dents by their region of origin (2004)

0.00% 10.00% 20.00% 30.00% 40.00% 50.00% 60.00% 70.00% 80.00% 90.00% 100.00%

ChinaSouth Korea

Taiwan

Other Asian countries

America (North & South)

Europe

Africa & the Middle and Near East

Oceania

74

● Revision of the legislation concerning the foreign universities in Japan–Temple University Japan (USA)

75

● Three major factors for HE reform–diversification in students–changes in the demand for human resources–increased reliance of industry on academic research

activities● Differentiation of HE institutions● Continual university reform by academics

Closing remarks

current state and problems of contents japanese...

Documents