culture and gender part 1. definitions before we get into how culture influences gender dynamics,...
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Culture and GenderCulture and Gender
Part 1
DefinitionsDefinitions Before we get into how culture influences gender
dynamics, it’s important that we attempt to clarify some misconceptions. Let’s start with basic definitions of key terms.
Sex Sex roles Sexual Identity Gender Gender role Gender Identity Gender Stereotypes
Definitions (cont.)Definitions (cont.) Sex - the biological and physiological differences
between men and women. Sex Roles - the behaviors and patterns of activities men
and women may engage in that are directly related to their biological differences.
Sexual Identity - the degree of awareness and recognition of sex and sex roles.
Gender - behaviors or patterns of activities that a society or culture deems appropriate for men and women.
Definitions (cont.)Definitions (cont.) Gender Role - the degree to which a person
adopts the gender-specific behaviors ascribed by his or her culture.
Gender Identity - the degree to which a person has awareness or recognition that he or she adopts a particular gender role.
Gender Stereotypes - the psychological or behavioral characteristics typically associated with men and women.
IIntroductory Commentsntroductory Comments
Who does what? It is clear that men and women perform different
tasks in most cultures. Hence, division of labor between the man and
women, among other things, is said to be culturally determined.
IIntro Comments (cont.)ntro Comments (cont.) A prevalent view regarding gender-linked behavior is that
the qualities cultures associate with masculinity or femininity are not innately male or female.
These are socially construed roles. Sandra Bem is a leading expert on the social
construction of gender roles. Her work on androgyny is particularly noteworthy.
Gender SchemaGender Schema
According to Sandra Bem, our attitudes and behaviors are based on our “gender schema” which she defines as a cognitive network of assumptions about the personalities and moral qualities of men and women.
Gender IdeologiesGender Ideologies
David Gilmore, the author of “Manhood in the Making” (1991), has proposed that we use “gender ideologies” to better understand gender differences.
He sees internalized gender ideologies as the collective representations that pressure men and women into acting in certain ways.
THE IMPACT OF GENDER AND THE IMPACT OF GENDER AND CULTURE TO PSYCHOLOGYCULTURE TO PSYCHOLOGY
Parallels between impact of gender and culture on psychology
Psychological research 30-40 years ago conducted on men which raised questions about whether it was applicable to women
Women were included as participants Research on gender differences
Similar for research on cultural differences
SEX AND GENDER ACROSS SEX AND GENDER ACROSS CULTURESCULTURES
The Relationship between Sex and The Relationship between Sex and Gender across CulturesGender across Cultures
Differences in sex roles exist universally Georgas et al. (2006) study on 27 countries found
that women did most of housework Fathers concerned with finances, expressive
issues, childcare in all countries Mothers concerned with childcare only in less-
affluent countries
Cultures differ in type and differentiation encouraged between sexes; gender, gender roles, gender-role ideologies and gender stereotypes
CULTURE, GENDER ROLES, and CULTURE, GENDER ROLES, and STEREOTYPESSTEREOTYPES
Culture and Gender StereotypesCulture and Gender Stereotypes
Williams and Best (1982) study of 30 countries found high pancultural agreement on adjectives used to describe males and females
In all countries, adjectives associated with men were rated as being stronger and more active
Japan and South African rated male characteristics as more favorable; Italy and Peru rated female characteristics more favorable
Culture and Gender StereotypesCulture and Gender Stereotypes
Follow up studies by Williams and colleagues
These studies show gender stereotypes around the world are stable Men viewed as active, strong, critical,
conscientious, extraverted, and open
Women viewed passive, weak, nurturing, adaptive, agreeable, and neurotic
Culture and Gender StereotypesCulture and Gender Stereotypes
Other studies support William and Best studies examination of how gender stereotypes develop
Many unanswered questions remain
How congruent are behaviors with stereotypes and does this congruence differ across cultures?
Are stereotypes related to important psychological constructs or behaviors?
Culture, Gender-Role Ideology, Culture, Gender-Role Ideology, and Self-Conceptand Self-Concept
Gender-role ideology: judgments about what males and females ought to be like or ought to do
Williams and Best (1990) study on 14 countries
Highly egalitarian: Netherlands, Germany and Finland
Highly traditional: Nigeria, Pakistan and India
Culture, Gender-Role Ideology, Culture, Gender-Role Ideology, and Self-Conceptand Self-Concept
Gibbons and colleagues (1990) study on adolescents
Adolescents from wealthier and more individualistic countries were less traditional
Gender ideologies may be changing as societies change
Religion may play a role in keeping with traditional gender roles
GENDER DIFFERENCES GENDER DIFFERENCES ACROSS CULTURESACROSS CULTURES
Cross-Cultural Research on GenderCross-Cultural Research on Gender
Culture and Gender Stereotypes Williams and Best (1982)-used the Adjective
Check List where subjects characterized adjectives as male or female characteristics Men are generally viewed as active,
strong, critical, and adult like with needs such as dominance, autonomy, aggression, exhibition, achievement and endurance.
Cross-Cultural Research (cont.)Cross-Cultural Research (cont.)
Women are viewed as passive, weak, nurturing, and adaptive with needs such as abasement, deference, nurturance, affiliation, and heterosexuality.
These researchers are suggesting that their findings support a “psychological universal” when it comes to gender stereotypes.
Cross-Cultural Research (cont.)Cross-Cultural Research (cont.)
Later studies, however, found considerable gender-related cultural differences.
These findings suggest that gender stereotype differentiation tended to be higher in countries that were conservative and hierarchical with low levels of socioeconomic development, Christian affiliation, and proportion of women attending a university.
Hofstede’s StudyHofstede’s Study
Masculinity versus Femininity: degree to which culture will foster, encourage, or maintain differences between males and females Highly masculine: Japan, Austria, Venezuela,
Italy Low masculine: Denmark, Netherlands, Norway,
Sweden
Masculine and feminine cultures differ in sexuality and attitudes toward religion
Perceptual/Spatial/Cognitive Perceptual/Spatial/Cognitive DifferencesDifferences
Common American folklore is that males better at mathematical and spatial reasoning tasks and females better at verbal comprehension tasks
This is not necessarily true for other cultures No gender difference in spatial abilities in Inuit
culture in Canada and Ecuador (women engage in tasks that require spatial abilities)
Males did better in tight, sedentary, and agriculturally based cultures
Females did better in loose, nomadic, and hunting and gathering based cultures
Conformity and ObedienceConformity and Obedience
Common gender-role stereotypes is that females more conforming and obedient than males
This is not necessarily true for other cultures In tighter cultures, females more conformists than
males In looser cultures, less gender difference in
conformity or males more conformists